Project of renewal of the olympic bobsleigh track of Cesana Pariol - Sofia Carpinteri by Sofia Carpinteri

JOINT STUDIO2016

SOFIA CARPINTERI

POLITECNICO DI TORINO Dipartimento di Architettura e Design

TSINGHUA UNIVERSITY School of Architecture

JOINT STUDIO 2016 Project of Renewal of the Olympic Bobsleigh Track of Cesana Pariol Master Degree Thesis Academic Year 2016/2017

Thesis Supervisors:

Tsinghua University professors:

Gustavo Ambrosini

Zhang Li

Mauro Berta

Liu Jian

Michele Bonino

Candidate: Sofia Carpinteri

Table of Contents Joint Studio 2016: Workshop Introduction

Part 1 1_Torino 2006 Winter Olympic Games 1.1_The Olympic System 1.2_The Venues

2_Winter Olympic Games: data and facts 2.1_Winter Olympic Games Map 2.2_Winter Olympic Games Timeline 2.3_Winter Olympic Games: Data and facts 2.3.1_Number of Nations, Disciplines and Athletes 2.3.2_Altitude and Current Population 2.3.3_Olympic Costs 2.3.4_Winter Olympic Games Future

16 18 20

28 30 32 34 34 36 38 40

3_From Chamonix 1924 to Sochi 2014: all the Olympic Bosleigh Tracks

3.1_Tracks around the world, International Luge, Bobleigh and Skeleton Federations IBSF & ILF Olympic Tracks: data IBSF & ILF non-Olympic Tracks: data Competitions & Leisure Activities 3.2_ All the Olympic Bobsleigh Tracks Chamonix 1924 St. Moritz 1928

44 46 48 49 52 58

Lake PLacid 1932 Garmish-Partenkirchen 1936 St. Moritz 1948 Oslo 1952 Cortina dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Ampezzo 1956 Squaw valley 1960 Innsbruck 1964 Grenoble 1968 Sapporo 1972 Innsbruck 1976 Lake Placid 1980 Sarajevo 1984 Calgary 1988 Albertville 1992 Lillehammer 1994 Nagano 1998 Salt Lake City 2002 Torino 2006 Vancouver 2010 Sochi 2014 3.3_Final balance: Dismissed Tracks & Working Tracks

68 78 82 86 92 100 102 108 120 128 134 148 156 164 172 180 188 196 206 214 222

Part 2 3.4_Legacies and organizations after the Games: Lillehammer, Salt Lake City, Vancouver, Torino

4_Cesana Pariol 2.0: Project of renewal of the Olympic Bobsleigh Track of Cesana Pariol (A. Allizond, S. Carpinteri, A. Petrigna) 4.1.1_The Valley: Alta Val Susa 4.1.2_The Territory 4.1.3_Existing Infrastructures 4.2_Concept 4.3_Olympic Masterplan 4.4_Masterplan 4.5_Two areas 4.5.1_Arrival Area The Arrival The Kids Start 4.5.2_Start Area The Tourist Start C5-C6-C7 The Practice Start 4.6_Shading system

224

234 236 238 240 242 244 246 248 250 252 260 270 272 282 292 302

4.6.1_Shading System Section 4.7_Section of the Kids Start Building 4.7.1_The concept behind the facade

304 306 308

Final Considerations

309

Appendix A

310

Bibliography/List of web sites

Preface The bobsled track in Cesana is undoubtedly a very complex and unusual structure, it is not a structure with which we often have to do with or which it is easy to be familiar. This venue was one of the most critical legacies of Torino 2006, also because by nature, it is very sensitive in terms of economic and ecological feasibility. The aim of this research thesis was to offer a response to the problem of the post-Olympic use of the bobsleigh track which has been shut down after the World Luge Championships in 2011. The site where the track has been built is now compromised from the environmental point of view, and a total removal of the track would have a very large impact if one considers the amount of material to be removed and the energy to carry out the disposal. The track is an object with a very extended length although it is not particularly impressive in terms of size. It occupies an area which is about one kilometer long and 300 meters wide. As a first step, we have studied all the Olympic tracks made before and after Torino 2006, in order to better understand the functioning of a bobsleigh track and to understand all the elements that should be considered when dealing with a sports facility of this type. This study proved to be very interesting because the elements to be considered when building a bobsleigh run, from the first runs of the twenties to the present day are not so different. Just to name a few, it is essential to study thoroughly the topography, the shading and exposure of the site in order to carry out few excavation works and be able to keep the ice in good condition. As a matter of fact, the use in the post-Olympic stage is not secondary, in fact, since the first editions it has been paid attention also to this aspect. The first chapter analyzes all sports facilities of Turin 2006 and the Olympic system which includes the cluster of the venues in the city and the cluster of venues in the mountains. The second chapter goes through all the stages of the 22 editions of the Winter Olympic Games. The data and facts highlight the trends that characterize the editions of recent years and forecast what may affect the future editions such as the predictions regarding the global warming that could jeopardize the sporting event. The third chapter deals with all the bobsleigh runs made in occasion of the Winter Games, both the Olympic and the post-Olympic stage, when the track continued to function, have been analized. The fourth chapter deals with the renewal project of the run, in a scenario where the track continues to operate as an international sports infrastructure. Some solutions are proposed to solve the most critical problems that result from a lack of attention to the most important aspects to consider when building a bobsleigh track such as shading and tourist attractiveness.

Joint Studio 2016: Workshop Introduction The Joint Studio 2016 is the sixth edition of an academic relationship with the Beijing School of Architecture of Tsinghua University which started in 2008. It is an experience of educational exchange, whose overall objective is to let European and Chinese students to face some of the more compelling issues in the today governance of urban transformations and to offer them the opportunity to compare different and potentially complementary cultures with the European one. In previous editions, the Joint Study has dealt with several issues, from the recovery of former industrial buildings to the changes related to major events. The Olympic theme has been the subject of previous editions, and it was the subject of the VI edition of the workshop. The choice took in account two parallel facts: the nomination of China as host country for the Winter Games in 2022 and the tenth anniversary of the Olympic Winter Games in Turin in 2006. The workshop had a double meaning: first it was an opportunity to question some of the projects and transformations that were made in occasion of the Turin Games, which - after a decade - seem not to be entirely fulfilled, or in need of a radical rethinking; secondly it led to a joint reflection with the Chinese reality, which is now facing similar issues to those who some years ago had animated the debate around the 2006 Games. The case studios were in two different sites: an urban one and a second one in a mountainous area. The urban area involved the whole complex of MOI and the Olympic Village while in the mountains the focus was the Bobsleigh Track, located in Cesana Pariol. This thesis is about the latter case study. It deals with the Olympic venue where the disciplines of bobsleigh, skeleton and luge took place. The Joint Study, as mentioned above, has involved students from Politecnico di Torino and students from Tsinghua University in Beijing. The groups, after the visit to the project sites, have been working independently on the case studies, but the relationship has never been interrupted. In fact, numerous calls were arranged, during which ideas and thoughts were exchanged about the two project sites. This exchange phase has highlighted the different approaches used to develop the project idea. Briefly, the approach of the Italian students could be described more analytical, while that of Chinese students, more descriptive. No doubt, both research groups have made a significant contribution to the final outcome. In the end, the final proposals were presented at Tsinghua University, where both Italian and Chinese professors have given a further contribution through comments and suggestions in view of drafting the final paper.

JOINT STUDIO 2016

Above: Group picture at the first visit at Cesana Pariol Olympic Bobsleigh Track, january 2016. On the left: Group picture after the presentation at Tsinghua University Beijing, june 2016. On the right page: Third inspection at Cesana Pariol Olympic Bobsleigh Track, may 2016.

Introduction

After the very first inspection on site at the olympic venue of Cesana, â&#x20AC;&#x153;we became familiarâ&#x20AC;? with such a singular object. The shape of the track is never equal to itself, the section, indeed, changes as it descends down the slope. The project for the olympic venue was developed by the Deyle Studio in Stuttgart and the Gurgel studio in Leipzig. Engeneer Gurgel is a world specialist in the design of this type of facility - he studied the form, the curves, the curve radii, the rises and falls and the dynamic trajectory of the track. The shell of the run is a ribbon of cast cement 14 cm thick, whose bends and curves vary in heigth from 1 to 4 m. The lenght of the run, including the deceleration straight, is approximately 1.750 m and six starting points are available at different heights for the competitions. The lenght used for the competitions reaches 1.435 m and includes 19 curves, with a vertical drop of 125 m. The two most representative conformations are those along the straights and those along the curves, where the vertical wall can exceed 4 meters in height. The appearance of the track from a distance is characterized by the pre-patinated matte metal surface of the outer cladding of the curves. A refrigeration system was featured for the production and maintenance of the ice and had a cooling power of 3000 kW. The fluid used to refrigerate was ammonia which was transported by the delivery ducts located in the lower part of the run. The U-shaped section was ideal for the installation of the main pipes, valve units and electrical wiring of the run. At the present time, the 48 tons of liquid are not longer on site because they have been drained in 2012. The ice channel is not being used since 2011, but athletes still consider it one of the most intriguing and challenging slope. When walking along the trail, it is easy to understand why the location, completely exposed to the sun, has been one of the most critical factors. The track, unlike many other examples, is not shielded by Joint Studio 2016

Three Scenarios Option 1 Use as a competition venue

Andrea Petrigna

Sofia Carpinteri

Amedeo Allizond

Option 2 Partial use as a sport venue

Alessandro Lorenzo Torchio Ranzani

Introduction

Option 3 Complete change of use

Matteo Chiara Migliaccio Cordopatri

the vegetation and is very impactful visually, in particular because of the lighting system that rises above the ground by several meters. The accessibility to the area and to the track is guaranteed by a double system of roads which run alongside the race track. The two indipendent systems of internal roads were designed to divide the flow of spectators from the maintenance vehicles for the carriage of all the equipment. During the early stages of analysis of the case study, three possible scenarios have been outlined. - The first scenario, seemingly less radical, consisted in a renewal of the track as a competition venue, keeping all the infrastructure on site and implementing those lacking, such as the shading system. In addition, new activities were introduced to revitalize the area. - The second scenario exploited the tourist attractiveness of the track. The track was maintained only for summer use, creating the opportunity to go down the run with bobsled on wheels. This discipline is not official but it is offered in many tracks for tourists leisure time. Furthermore, new activities were added for implementing the tourist offert. - The third scenario envisaged the total change of use of the run, which was incorporated into new volumes. The new buildings, with tourist activities inside, reminded of the pre-existence artefact, reclining along what once was the route of the track. In this thesis we will talk about the first scenario, ie the one that provides for the restoration of the track as a competition venue. The project was carried out during the workshop period along with Andrea Petrigna and Amedeo Allizond. After a brief introduction about the Olympic Games in Turin 2006 and an overview of the trends that characterized the Winter Olympic Games in recent years, we will list and describe all the Olympic bobsleigh runs built on the occasion of the 22 editions of the Olympic Winter Games, and, in the end, the project will be described. Joint Studio 2016

Turin 2006 New perspectives related to the Olympic event made it increasingly coveted winning the organization of the Games: the lists of candidates are getting longer and strategies and policies for the development of the territories involved have become more and more complex. However, the most recent editions of the games have generated a lot of criticism and concerns, highlighting the less virtuous aspects of the organization of the games and especially the post-Olympic vision. The exorbitant cost of the Olympics in Sochi, which made them the most expensive in history ($ 50 billion) and the the unexpected recession in Brazil just before the games are leading to the withdrawal by various cities for the race to win the Olympic event. This has happened in Hamburg, Boston and Rome, possible candidates for the Olympic Games of 2024, but this is not the place to discuss events now quite far away from games that lit Torino a decade ago. Turin and the Olympic valleys applied for the nomination in 1998. The cities running for the games were Sion (Switzerland), Poprad Tatry (Slovakia), Klagenfurt (Austria), Helsinki and Poland with Zakopane. The reasons that played in favor of Turin have been of two types: the characteristics of the locality in terms of geographical location and existing structures and promotional policies made by the bid committee, in addition to the actual ability to attract capital and to support the event at the institutional level to ensure success. The Olympic event was part of a strategy for change, improvement of infrastructures and expansion of the tourist accommodation capacity. The games have undoubtedly been an important element to support the prospects of development of Piedmont. After ten years it can be said that the legacy of which many scholars talk about differs in "hardware" and "software", i.e. tangible and intangible, which includes in particular the know-how and above all the image. It is very complex to assess the balance between material and immaterial heritage because it involves very different fields such as economic costs, environmental impacts, social impacts. For this reason, the opinions of different scholars and analysts may be conflicting. As a matter of fact it must be remembered that in 2016 Turin was the fifth most visited city in Italy and the sixth most recommended destination by Lonely Planet Guide. Since 2006, the num bers related to tourism and major events all seem to be positive.

Chapter 1

Torino 2006 Winter Olympic games

1.1_The Olympic System Claviere Cesana-San Sicario Sestriere

Prali

Torre Pellice

Pinerolo Cesana-San Sicario 1457m

Chapter 1

Bardonecchia

Pragelato

Torino CompetitionSites Sites Olympic Competion Olympic Training Sites Main Roads Motorways Railway Lines Torino 227m

1.2_The Venues Torino

Ceremonies

Ice hockey

Figure Skating

Short Track

Speed Skating

Bobsleigh

Luge

Skeleton

Alpine Skiing

Biathlon

Cross Country

Ski Jumping

Nordic Combined

Snowboard

Olympic Village

Alpine Skiing

Olympic Village

Cesana-San Sicario

Pragelato

Bardonecchia

Sestriere

Sauze dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Oulx

Freestyle

Pinerolo

Curling

Chapter 1

Medal Plaza

Olympic Village

Media Village

The Olympic system consisted in a hub for the ice sports located in Torino, with an appendix in Pinerolo, and an alpine area in Sestriere, for the snow disciplines. The two areas were connected by a motorway, two state highways and two railway lines to make the distances compatible with Olympic standards and with IOC requirements. as its centre. Not far from the former factory that hosted the Main Media Centre were located the Olympic Village, and short track speed skating, the hotels of the Olympic Family and the Olympic Stadium where the Opening and the Closing Ceremonies took place, while the curling competitions were held in Pinerolo. Piazza delle Medaglie (Medals Plaza) was set up in the central portion of Piazza Castello, facing the historic Royal Palace. Here athletes competing in the XX Olympic Winter Games received their medals duperiod of Games-time, the medal award ceremonies were followed by concerts. Moving into the mountains, alpine skiing was divided between Sestriere and San Sicario Fraiteve; snowboard competitions were held in Bardonecchia; cross-country skiing, skijumping and nordic combined competitions were held in Pragelato; bobsleigh, luge and skeleton in Cesana, in the Pariol locality; freestyle in Sauze dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Oulx and biathlon in Cesana San Sicario. The athletes were hosted in the three Olympic Villages (Torino, Sestriere and Bardonecchia), while the Media were accommodated in seven Media Villages in Torino and in temporary mountain hotel structures. As far as concerns the main non-competition venues they included the Medal Plaza, the Olympic Stadium, three Olympic Villages and the Main Media Centre (MMC). There Torino 2006_Winter Olympic Games 21

Chapter 1

were also several ancillary venues for training and management pourposes that will not be listed in detail. As already mentioned, there were three Olympic Villages: Torino, Bardonecchia and Sestriere. This was a new development in Olympic history, resolving some of the transportation and altitude-adjustment needs of the athletes, who, in the mountain villages, lived in the same climatic conditions as their competition venues. The Olympic Stadium, situated in the centre of Torino next door to the Olympic Palasport, hosted the Olympic Gamesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; Opening Ceremony (10 February 2006) and Closing Ceremony (26 February 2006). The stadium was the result of a radical renovation of the old Municipal Stadium, originally built by Torino Football Club and the City of Torino. The Main Press Centre (MPC) was the work centre for newspaper and magazine journalists and photographers, press agencies and the Internet operators accredited to the Games. Following in the footsteps of Salt Lake City, the Torino organisers located the Main Press Centre right next to the International Broadcasting Centre (IBC), so as to form the Main Media Centre (MMC), inside the Lingotto trade fair pole. This building complex turned out to be the ideal site for both Press and TV, which had an overall area of 52,800 m2 at their disposal.

Olympic Stadium, march 2015 Credits: chasingjetlag.com

Torino 2006_Winter Olympic Games

Torino

Speed Skating_Oval Lingotto The Oval is located in the area between Lingotto and the Olympic Village. It was designed by the Hok Sport group of London and Studio Zoppini Associati of Milan to host the various men’s and women’s events of the speed-skating competition. The total surface area is approximately 26,500 m2, while the frozen track for the ice ring, designed to obtain the fastest possible surface, measures 400 m in length and 12.60 m in width, with lanes 4 m wide. The removable stands could seat over 8,000 spectators. The sports hall, consisting of a single functional body was designed to be easily divided into different spaces and sectors depending on the event being hosted. The roof consists of an exposed tubular steel frame work with open spaces of approximately 100 m between the supports. Ice Hockey_ Palasport Olimpico Designed by the architects Arata Isozaki and Pier Paolo Maggiora, the Palasport Olimpico is located in the southern part of Torino, near the prestigious Piazza d’Armi and next to the Olympic Stadium. It hosted some of the preliminaries and all the semi-finals and finals of the men’s and women’s ice hockey tournament of the Torino 2006 Olympic Winter Games. The building is a parallelepiped structure of glass and stainless steel, with a base 183x100 m. In order to reduce the height of the installation as much as possible, the hockey rink, which is 30x60 m in area, was located 7.50 m below ground level. Consequently, the stands, which could seat up to 12,500 spectators, were partly sunken and partly above ground. Next to the main hockey rink, the Venue also included a second rink intended exclusively for training. The Palasport Olimpico was designed very much with its post-Olympic use in mind. The idea is to use it as a sort of highly versatile “event-factory”. It has movable internal walls and stands, making it adaptable to a wide range of uses, from conventions to sporting events. Ice Hockey_Torino Esposizioni Ice hockey matches were held also at Torino Esposizioni. Torino Esposizioni, designed in 1949 by architect Pier Luigi Nervi is situated in a central urban area of Torino and for many years has hosted important trade fairs and exhibitions. This historic building was thoroughly refurbished for the XX Olympic Winter Games to host training sessions and some of the preliminary men’s and women’s ice hockey matches. The facility created covered an area of 56,246 m2 with a ring track of about 60x30 m, plus a training track. The positioning of the lighting system and the ice-making equipment used for the pitch was quite complicated

Chapter 1

Figure Skating, Short Track_Palavela and short track speed skating competitions, can be regarded as one of the key sites of the Torino Olympics. This Venue has a striking sail-shaped structure, supported by three reinforced concrete arches and anchored to the ground at three points. It has an hexagonal base contained in a circle with a diameter of 150 m and a maximum height of 29 m. Designed by Professor Franco Levi Italy Centennial, the Palavela was renovated for the Olympic Games by Architect Gae Aulenti and Engineer Arnaldo De Bernardi. The modernisation work has resulted in the creation of a building within the building, structurally independent of the existing roof.

Cesana-San Sicario Bobsleigh, Skeleton, Luge_Cesana Pariol

The installations at Cesana Pariol, facing Monte Chaberton on the frontier between Italy and France, were the scene of the luge, skeleton and bobsleigh events. The track is 1,435 m long with a drop of 114 m from an altitude of 1,683 m to 1,569 m. There are a total of 19 bends, 11 left-handers and 8 right-handers.

Biathlon_ Cesana San Sicario The other venue located at Cesana San Sicario was the biathlon Venue (1,630 m above sea level), extended over an area of 400,000 m2. The system of runs made it possible to plot a number of circuits of different lengths (20 to 4 km) and varying levels, to meet the technical requishooting at 50 m, all equipped with electronic targets. Alpine Skiing_San Sicario Fraiteve San Sicario Fraiteve, a winter and summer holiday resort, came into being in the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;70s, it has been equipped with some of the most modern skiing facilities in the Piedmont Region. For the Winter Olympics, it hosted three womenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Alpine skiing specialities: downhill, super-G and combined downhill. The facility formed part of the Cesana Olympic Cluster, which also included Cesana Pariol. The overall area of the Venue was 176,000 m2. The ski-run itself was about 3.5 km long, ranging in altitude from 2,702 m on Monte Fraiteve to 1,690 m at San Sicario Alto. The Venue was designed from scratch without creating any permanent structure in the area.

Torino 2006_Winter Olympic Games

Pragelato

Cross Country and Nordic Combined_Pragelato Plan The Municipality of Pragelato was the site of two Venues, Pragelato Plan and Pragelato, where cross-country skiing, ski-jump and Nordic-combined events were held. The stadiums, situated along the Chisone torrent, were about 2.5 km one from each other, while the Venue perimeters were only about 200 m apart at their closest point. The cross-country and Nordic combined course, situated at Pragelato Plan, at an altitude between 1,540 and 1,615 m, extended between the localities of Pattemouche and Granges. The track consisted of two circuits: the “red” circuit was about 6,200 m in length; the “yellow” about 3,800 m. There were also some linking sections so that intermediate length courses could be created to cater for all the competitions included in the programme. Ski-jump and Nordic Combined_Pragelato The Ski-jump structure, located at Pragelato, hosted the ski-jump and Nordic combined competitions. The altitude of the course ranged from 1,650 m at the summit of the ramp to 1,528 m in the landing area. The overall Venue surface area was 156,000 m2. The site included several permanent structures: the two main ramps (with a common room for athlete warm-up), three training hills, judges’tower, a chair-lift with an intermediate station and multi-functional buildings with two permanent stands.

Bardonecchia

Snowboard This small town in the upper Val di Susa, located approximately 90 km from Torino at 1,312 m above sea level, showed great enthusiasm in hosting this relatively “young” disciplines of snowboard. It was here that time in Olympic history snowboard-cross events were held. The competitions were held on the Melezet runs 23 and 24. Run 23, broad and from the zone reserved for spectators, was used for the parallel giant slalom and snowboard-cross events. The half-pipe competitions were held on the newly built run 24, a project involving the construction of a half-pipe with a length of approximately 130 m.

Chapter 1

Sestriere

Alpine Skiing_Sestriere Colle and Sestriere Borgata The Sestriere Venue, a well-known resort, hosted 8 Alpine skiing events: all the men’s heats and all the women’s technical heats (combined slalom, slalom and special slalom). Three competition courses were created, with two different operational areas (Sestriere Colle and Sestriere Borgata), 10 minutes away by car and 5 skiing, plus a Mountain Press Centre, situated in the Sestriere Colle area. The Media Centre Venue acted as Mountain Media Centre and was situated in the centre of Sestriere in the pre-existing “Palazzetto dello Sport”. It operated from 7 am to midnight and hosted on average 400-450 journalists and photographers per day.

Sauze d’Oulx

Freestyle_Sauze d’Oulx-Jouvenceaux Sauze d’Oulx Jouvenceaux was one of the venues that drew the largest crowds of young people during the Games, since it hosted the acrobatic and breath taking discipline of free-style. The Municipality of Sauze d’Oulx Is situated at an altitude of 1,509 m in the upper Val di Susa, about 80 km from Torino. The free-style runs were in the proximity of Oulx railroad station, 2 km from the locality of Jouvenceaux. The total area of the site was 126,879 m2. The aerials track was 163 m long and varied in width from 18 to 28 m. The moguls track was 225 m long and 22 m wide. The on-site structures were all temporary.

Pinerolo

Curling_Pinerolo Palaghiaccio Pinerolo, about 40 km from Torino, was chosen to host the men’s and women’s’ curling competitions. The Palaghiaccio was the result of a programme to extend and refurbish the old Pinerolo ‘Stadio del Ghiaccio’. This facility is part of a large sports complex which also includes a swimming pool, a gym, an athletics track and a soccer pitch. The building hosted four rinks and had a total seating capacity of about 3,000, with 2,000 seats reserved for spectators and Sponsors.

Torino 2006_Winter Olympic Games

Winter Olympic Games The French Baron Pierre de Coubertin (1863-1937) is the founder of the Olympic Games in modern times, fashioned after the games of ancient Greece. Excavations of the old stadium at Olympia, which took place 1875- 81, had aroused his enthusiasm, and he began to consider the idea of great international sports festivals every four years.The idea was first presented publicly at a meeting of French sports officials and promotors in 1892. As a result of the Coubertinâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s initiative, sports enthusiasts from many countries met in Paris in 1894 to discuss problems of physical education and in particular the idea of reviving the Olympic Games. This resulted in the formation of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) on June 23rd 1894. The first Olympic Games of modern times were, quite fittingly, held in Greece, in Athens in April 1896. From this year on started the first Olympic event based on a four year period. Only Summer Games were considered in the beginning. Later some winter sports were included in the programme, beginning with London 1908 when Olympic figure skating competitions were held. In Antwerp 1920 ice hockey matches were also played. In connection with the Summer Games in Paris 1924, following a French initiative, plans to separa te Olympic Winter Games were approved by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and Winter Games were arranged for the first time at Chamonix in February 1924.

Chapter 2

Winter Olympic Games datas and facts

2.1_Winter Olympic Games Map Summer Olympic Games, Baron De Coubertin did not support the idea of creating a Winter edition. swedish director Viktor Gustav Balk prompted the organization of snow and ice games. De Cubertin objected that a winter edition would not have enough “audience” because those disciplines only involved few countries where are practiced. Anyhow, the father of the Games, De Coubertin accepted the suggestion of the Congress and introduced four ice skating events in the VI Summer Games, held in London in 1908. Surprisingly in the VII Olympics, Stockholm 1912, the initiative involving ice skating was not repeated. The Swedish team organizing the games was not adverse to winter sports, on the contrary they were willing to expand the “Nordic Games”, that had been going on for a decade, onto

1988 Calgary

2010 Vancouver

2002 Salt Lake City 1960 Squaw Valley

Winter Olympic Games. Actually there were several tatives of alpine and nordic ski and other snow and ice disciplines. Finally, the London meeting agreed to the institution of a “International Winter Sport Week”, on the 3rd of june 1921. De Coubertin did not risk to name the edition “Winter Olympic” in case the experimental edition wrecked. The city chosen was Chamonix because in that same year Paris was hosting the Summer Games, indeed the committee set also the enduring prerogative that Winter and Summer Olympic Games had to be arranged the same year by the same nation.

Chapter 2

1932, 1980 Lake Placid

1994 Lillehammer 1952 Oslo 1936 Garmish-Partenkirchen

1928, 1948 St. Moritz 1924 Chamonix 1968 Grenoble

1964, 1976 Innsbruck 2014 Sochi 1984 Sarajevo

1992 Albertville

2006 Torino

1972 Sapporo

2022 2018

1998 Nagano

1956 Cortina dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Ampezzo

Winter Olympic Games: data and facts

2.2_Winter Olympic Games Timeline

1924 Chamonix

1972 Sapporo

2018 PyeongChang

1928 St. Morits

1976 Innsbruck

1932 Lake Placid

1936 Garmish-Partenkirchen

1980 Lake Placid

1984 Sarajevo

2022 Beijing Chapter 2

1940 Sapporo

(cancelled because of World War II)

1988 Calgary

1944 Cortina dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Ampezzo

(cancelled because of World War II)

1992 Albertville

1948 St. Morits

1994 Lillehammer

1952 Oslo

1998 Nagano

1956 Cortina dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Ampezzo

2002 Salt Lake City

1960 Squaw valley

2006 Torino

Winter Olympic Games: data and facts

1964 Innsbruck

2010 Vancouver

1968 Grenoble

2014 Sochi

Games Statistics 2.3_Winter Olympic Games: Data and Facts 2.3.1_Number of Nations, Disciplines and Athletes Winter Olympic Games have become more and more important over the years, from being a parenthesis of the Summer Olympic Games to becoming a World Class Event equally important. when the commitee decided to designate retrospectively Chamonix 1924, as the 1st Winter Olympics. After the of78

mish-Partenchirchen (IV games), when the number of com-

80 82

57 49

37 35

16 Nations

36 37

32 28 28 30

17 1924

Disciplines

252 enrolled in Lake Placid to 646, the number of nations increased as well from 17 to 28. Of course world history clearly affected and still affects the organization of the games. In fact, one of the reasons of this turning point could be explained by the fact that Germany was, at that time, a nazist dictatorship willing to prove its authority. The second and more conspicuous turning point happened in Innsbruck 1964 (IX games), when the number of athletes increased from 665 to 1091, as well as the number of disciplines and the nations partecipating. The more interesting fact, though, was the choice of Innsbruck as host city. Innsbruck was not a mountain resort but a city located near the slopes of the mountains at an altitude of 574 m. Actually there had been a previous case of city hosting the Winter games instead of a mountain resort: Oslo 1952, but the trend of moving the games from the mountains to the city after Innsbruck has continued quite consistently.

1924

Chapter 2

1948

1964

1980

1964

1994

1980

2006 2010 Torino

14 15 15

1994

2006 2010 Torino

2873 2566 2508 2399

Women Athletes

787 488

80 77 11 26 21 1924

2176

109 134 144

1948

199 211 205 231

1964

522

301

232 274

1980

1994

1801

1091

1158

821

Athletes

1313 1122 892

1072

665

Mem Athletes

669

464

1737

1123

1006

694

646

1423 1272

566 592 585

438

1924

252 1948

1964

1980

1994

2006 2010 Torino

687

998

892 801

2006 2010 Torino

1714 1548 1513 1389 1522

1215

840

521

247

258

947

886

1159 1044 960

231 1924

1948

Winter Olympic Games: data and facts

1964

1980

1994

2006 2010 Torino

2 2

tt ea

C rre t

p at e re

he t raph the r ht h t ere t tre h h a ea terprete a e e tre the ter p a e e r the ta t the t the a t e a e tart r r ta re rt t ate er t e h te the a e a t the ta e here the a e ha e ee et e the ha e a h er p p at a era e r h a t ha ta t a a er a t t e a t a a era e Ca ar a at a e Ct e a e ept e the are ate a e tt e a t ta erat that the are th ap ta t the r re r tate the per e t the tre h te e a e t the a t that a e t e e re tart r r the e the e e t re er the ear a r ea a ta re rt t ear e e t ea th a rea er pe p e a a rea a t e t e t he e e t ar er r a e ter a h t t te ate rther r the pet t te p ate a the ee e ra tr t re t e ath ete a pe tat r t the p rt e e t ther rea a t r ha e the e a ee ra e e r r a a t tra t repre e t e the a r e r the a e the e t Ca ar ear e ar tha t r a a t he re t ater C rre t p p at ar r r 2 at a e Ct a e e t tra t e re tha the h e re e e

Chapter 2

ter

rt 22

Cha a

ha 2

r War II rld

â&#x20AC;&#x153;From the mountains to the cityâ&#x20AC;? phase

Squaw Valley 1.880 m Cortina 1.210 m Innsbruck 574 m

6.570

Salt Lake City 1.320 m

Calgary 1.048 m

2.290

Grenoble 213 m Sapporo 23 m

Innsbruck L. Placid Sarajevo 568 m 574 m 500 m

113.000 155.000 1.864.352 113.000

2.638

Albertville Nagano 352 m Lillehammer 300 m 180 m

400.000 1.037.100 18.200

27.000

Turin 239 m Vancouver Sotchi 21 m 34 m

361.021 180.000 908.000

Winter Olympic Games: data and facts

578.000 328.000

2.3.3_Olympic costs 1924: Chamonix

To see them one after the other the editions of the Winter Olympics all look the same, however, counting sports construction spending, infrastructure, security, preparation of the areas, promotion, each Olympiad reveals its own peculiarities. The 62 million euro needed to organize Cortina, 1956 (figures that take into account inflation) seem a pittance compared to 40 billion in Sochi. But long before we thought the Russians to establish the record, in 2014, with that immense figure which alone includes all the others, things had already begun to change decisively. The Asian gigantism is noteworthy: the first to increase the Olympic costs are the Japanese, and generally non-European countries. As shown in the time line, Nagano '98, Sapporo '72 and Vancouver 2010 are by far the most expensive Olympics after Sochi. In addition to costs, a key aspect to consider in the income statement of the Olympics are obviously the benefits. Some editions have been at a loss, other active, but generally the Games are measured not by economic benefits in the strict sense, but for the opportunities and the prominence given to the nations that host them. The Olympics are often the stage for young countries between the major economies of the world: so it has been, recently, for the new Asian powers, so it was in the seventies for Japan, or in the fifties for Australia. More or less expensive, in any case, the Winter Olympics have not registered, so far, the sensational holes of their "cousins" Summer Games, come to weigh heavily on the budgets of the states (in the case of Athens).

1928: St. Moritz

Winter O. G. Costs

Summer O. G. Costs

Paris

100 million

Amsterdam

1932: Lake Placid

Los Angeles

1936: Garmish P.

Berlin

1948: St. Moritz

London

1952: Oslo

1 billion

Helsinki

1956: Cortina

Melbourne

1960: Squaw Valley

Rome

1964: Innsbruck

Tokyo

1968: Grenoble

5 billion

Mexico City

1972: Sapporo

Monaco

1976: Innsbruck

Montreal

1980: Sarajevo

Los Angeles Seoul

1988: Calgary 10 billion

Barcelona

1992: Albertville 1994: Lillehammer

Atlanta 1998: Nagano Sidney 2002: Salt Lake City Athens 2006: Turin Beijing 2010: Vancouver 50 billion 2014: Sochi

Chapter 2

London

been in all graphs, graficile sums have they were homogenized considering the inflation rates of the various years and the purchasing power of different nations.

Innsbruck 1976 189 millions

Salt Lake City 2002 1,5 billion Cortina 1956 62 millions

Vancouver 2010 5 billion

Garmich P. 1936 15 millions

Calgary 1988 1,1 billion Sarajevo 1984 325 millions

Torino 2006 2,1 billion

Chamonix 1924 3 millions

Innsbruck 1964 39 millions Lake Placid 1932 24 millions

Sapporo 1972 3,3 billion

Nagano 1998 14,6 billion

Oslo 1952 19 millions

Gernoble 1968 1,9 billion

St. Moritz 1928 3 millions

Albertville 1992 2,8 billion

Lillehammer 1994 1,3 billion

Lake Placid 1980 373 millions

Squaw Valley 1960 145 millions

St. Moritz 1948 4 millions

Sochi 2014 40 billion

2.3.4_Winter Olympic Games future 2.3.3_Winter The graph shows the cities that hosted the Winter What future have the Winter Olympics, in a world Games and that would still be suitable to host the where global warming is a real threat? Games, in reference to temperatures, according to Lately the organization of the Olympics has raised many global warming predictions. questions. The withdrawal of the candidacies of Beijing '22 The criteria that determine whether a location is climaticompetitors question the fate of millennari games. cally suitable or not are: - The possibility that the temperature remains below Krakow had to stop because of the result of a referendum, zero in competition areas with the highest altitude. Oslo for a survey that showed skepticism of the population, - The probability that a thickness of 30 cm of snow can Stockholm has received no political support. Lviv, Ukraine be stored, both with natural or artificial snow, in competiinvolved in the civil war, has been suspended by the IOC, tion areas with the highest altitude. and the city will probably run again in 2026. On the one hand, public opinion, on the other, climate change, as illustrated by the graph opposite, Olympic 1981-2010 locations as Chamonix, Grenoble, Vancouver may no in 2050 longer be able to host the Games in 2050. In Sochi many athletes have complained of excessive in 2080 temperatures during races. The use of technologies that overcome environmental difficulties - snow machines, Albertville Calgary Cortina St. Moritz Salt Lake C. plants, and conditioned halls, additives and chemical alterations of meteorology - is always less desirable for obvious reasons of sustainability. Talking about the Winter Olympics also means referring to the growing spectacle of the Games, as the artificial track snowboards staged in Barcelona, or as the Dubai Ski Dome. May we think of the Winter Olympics in the desert? Or the opposite tendency might prevail, that one of a return to the authentic experience of winter sports. Finally there is the case of the bob and sledging: niche sports of great charm, but victims of scarcity of the venues that make it difficult to train. Disciplines who struggle against extinction, but perhaps due to the Olympics will continue to ignite the enthusiasm of millions of fans.

Chapter 2

Sapporo

L. Placid Lillehammer Nagano

Torino

Innsbruck

Oslo

Sarajevo Squaw V. Vancouver Chamonix Garmish P. Grenoble Sochi eligible unlikely eligible not eligible

Bobsleigh

Luge

Skeleton

Bobsleigh has always been staged at the Games with only one exception – those at Squaw Valley in 1960. Indeed, owing to the small number of entries turned in, the organisers, with the IOC’s agreement, refused to build a track. Since the Games in Salt Lake City in 2002, this discipline has also been open to women.

Luge appeared for the first time at the Games in Innsbruck in 1964 with three events, including one women’s. The mixed events are mostly raced only by men’s teams. Since Innsbruck in 1976, this sport has been staged on the same track as bobsleigh. The luge programme remained unchanged up to and including Vancouver 2010. In 2014 in Sochi, the team relay event made its debut.

Skeleton owes its two first appearances at the Games to the fact that the resort hosting the 1928 and 1948 editions, St Moritz, had a natural track for this discipline (the Cresta Run). This was indeed its only two appearances on the programme before its re-appearance in 2002 in Salt Lake City. Since then, there have been two events: one men’s and one women’s.

Chapter 3

From Chamonix 1924 to Sochi 2014 All the Olympic Bosleigh Tracks

3.1_Tracks around the World Tracks around the World International Luge, Bobsleigh and Skeleton Federations The International Bobsleigh & Skeleton Federation (IBSF), originally FĂŠdĂŠration Internationale de Bobsleigh et de Tobogganing (FIBT) was founded on November 23, 1923 by the delegates of Great Britain, France and Switzerland, and the representatives of Canada and the United States, meeting at an International Congress in Paris. In June 2015 the name change from FIBT to IBSF has been announced. The IBSF headquarter is located in Switzerland at Lausanne. Bobsleigh as an organized and active sport thrived from before the turn of the XIX century. However, it was the advent of the 1924 Winter Games and the acceptance of Bobsleigh as an Olympic sport that prompted the formation of a federation. The discipline of luge has its own federation: the International Luge Federation which has been founded on the 25th of January 1957 in Davos (SUI) with delegates from 13 napresident elected. The FIL was admitted to the IOC for the in Berchtesgaden, Germany.

Chapter 3

Calgary Vancouver Salt Lake City

Lake Placid

Lillehammer

Sigulda

Altenberg Paramonovo

Koenigsse Winterberg Igls St. Moritz La Plagne

Sochi Cesana

PyeongChang

Nagano

Olympic track Non-olympic track From Chamonix 1924 to Sotchi 2014: all the Olympic Bobsleigh Tracks

IBSF& ILF Olympic Tracks: data St. Moritz - 1928/1948 Total length: Competition length: Start altitude: Finish altitude: Maximum gradient: Average gradient: Vertical drop: Number of curves:

nnsbruc - 1976 Total length: Competition length: Start altitude: Finish altitude: Maximum gradient: Average gradient: Vertical drop: Number of curves:

Calgar - 1988 1962 m 1722 m 1852 m 1738 m 15.00 % 8.00 % 130.00 m 19

Total length: Competition length: Start altitude: Finish altitude: Maximum gradient: Average gradient: Vertical drop: Number of curves:

1494 m 1494 m 1251 m 1130 m 15.00 % 8.00 % 121.00 m 19

1478 m 1207 m 1124 m 1006 m 18.00 % 9.00 % 124.00 m 14

Albertville - 1992 Total length: Competition length: Start altitude: Finish altitude: Maximum gradient: Average gradient: Vertical drop: Number of curves:

1707 5 m 1507 5 m 1684 m 1559 m 14.00 % 8.00 % 124.00 m 19

illehammer - 1994 Total length: Competition length: Start altitude: Finish altitude: Maximum gradient: Average gradient: Vertical drop: Number of curves:

1710 m 1365 m 384 m 223 m 15.00 % 8.00 % 112.00 m 16

a e lacid - 1980 Total length: Competition length: Maximum gradient: Average gradient: Vertical drop: Number of curves:

1680 m 1455 m 20.00 % 9.00 % 128.00 m 20

Nagano - 1998 Total length: Competition length: Start altitude: Finish altitude: Maximum gradient: Average gradient: Vertical drop: Number of curves:

1700 m 1360 m 1028 m 922 m 15.00 % 7.00 % 112.00 m 15

Vancouver - 2010 Total length: Competition length: Start altitude: Finish altitude: Maximum gradient: Average gradient: Vertical drop: Number of curves:

1700 m 1 50 m 935 m 802 m 20.00 % 9.00 % 1 8m 16

Salt a e Cit - 2002 Total length: Competition length: Start altitude: Finish altitude: Maximum gradient: Average gradient: Vertical drop: Number of curves:

1570 m 1335 m 2232 m 2128 m 15.00 % 8.00 % 10 m 15

Sotchi - 201 Total length: Competition length: Start altitude: Finish altitude: Maximum gradient: Average gradient: Vertical drop: Number of curves:

181 m 1500 m 836 m 70 m 22.00 % 20.00 % 12 m 17

eongchang - 2018 Total length: Competition length: Start altitude: Finish altitude: Maximum gradient: Average gradient: Vertical drop: Number of curves:

1659m 1376 m 930 m 850 m 25.00 % 10.00 % 117 m 16

Torino - 2006 Total length: Start altitude: Finish altitude: Average gradient: Vertical drop: Number of curves:

1 35 m 1683 m 1,569 m 91% 11 m 19

IBSF& ILF non-olympic Tracks: data Altenberg (Germany) Total length: Competition length: Start altitude: Finish altitude: Maximum gradient: Average gradient: Vertical drop: Number of curves:

interberg (Germany) 1413 m 1413 m 785 m 660 m 15.00 % 8.66 % 122.22 m 17

Kรถnigssee (Germany) Total length: 1675 m Competition length: 1251 m Start altitude: 730 m Finish altitude: 630 m Maximum gradient: Average gradient: 9.00 % Vertical drop: 120.00 m Number of curves: 16

Sigulda (Latvia) Total length: Competition length: Start altitude: Finish altitude: Maximum gradient: Average gradient: Vertical drop: Number of curves:

1420 m 1200 m 117 m 18 m 9.00 % 8.00 % 99.00 m 16

Total length: Competition length: Start altitude: Finish altitude: Maximum gradient: Average gradient: Vertical drop: Number of curves:

1330 m 1609 m 760 m 665 m 15.00 % 9.00 % 110.00 m 15

Competitions & Leisure Activities Bob, skeleton and luge tracks are venues that need to support very high operating costs because much of the labor is to be performed manually. In fact, the layer of ice may be honed with some machinery, but the detail work is done by hand. Not to mention the costs for the operation of the refrigeration system. Recently several tracks like that of Lake Placid renewed their refrigeration systems. Other newer systems have better performance, like that of Vancouver (Whistler) that has been certified LEED Platinum building. However, the liquid used for the refrigerating machine is almost always the ammonia, potentially very pollutant when released to the environment. Only in France, in La Plagne, a glycol system is used, which is often used for indoor ice rink. Despite the high maintenance costs and the fact that the bobsled, skeleton and luge are the sports practiced by a relatively small number of athletes, the number of tracks in the world continues to grow because all the Olympic programs have always included these disciplines (for except Sqwaw Valley 1960). In any case, almost all tracks constructed after the war continued to function until today. The high-level sporting events include different leagues whose seasons run from late October to early March. Among the most important championships there are the Intercontinental Cup, the World Cup, the World Championship, and North America Cup taking place in more than 100 days each year. They are organized by IBSF, International Bobsleigh and Skeleton Federation, and by ILF, International Luge Federation. In conclusion sporting events that animate the tracks are numerous and not only thanks to professional athletes. In conclusion sporting events that animate the tracks are numerous and not only thanks to professional athletes. In fact, the tracks offer more and more opportunities to experience the adrenaline rush of descending 130 km / h along the run.

The most common activities are: Tourist Run

Where

Athlete Training school

Where

Facility Rental / Other

Where

Tourists can feel the same adrenaline as a the olympic atheletes do when riding along the run. There are several ways for tourists to descend the run, the more interesting is the taxi bob, where an expert driver and professional athlete slides three people on board of a competition bob. Some tracks offer also the chance to try luge, starting from a lower start of the run. Mono-bob is similar to luge but the person descend on board of a small bob with special protections set on top in case of overturning. Several tracks offer the wheel-bob or wheel luge during the summer season.

Several tracks work all yera round as training centers for both professional athletes and young athletes that want to learn these disciplines. There are training programs for all levels and different durations, some last only few days others offer ongoing activities.

Olympic tracks are usually part of sports complex with different services within them especially related to sports activities. They often include also other kind of services such as catering, olympic museum, space for corporate events or weddings.

- Calgary (taxi bob, luge, summer bob) - Igls (taxi bob, summer bob) - Lake Placid (taxi-bob, summer bob) - La Plagne (taxi-bob, mono-bob, bob raft) - Lillehammer (taxi-bob, bob raft, skeleton, summer bob) - Salt Lake City (taxi bob) - Vancouver (taxi-bob, luge, skeleton, summer bob)

- Igls - Vancouver - Salt Lake City

- Salt Lake City (museum) - Vancouver (self-guided tour) - Lillehammer (paint-ball)

Competitions & Leisure Activities

Chamonix 1924-General view of the Olympic stadium. credit: olympic.org

Chapter 3

Chamonix 1924

I Winter Olympic Games Host Chamonix, France Opened by Undersecretary Gaston Vidal Dates 25 January – 5 February Top Nation Norway

In 1921, the International Olympic Committee gave its patronage to a Winter Sports Week to take place in 1924 in Chamonix, France. This event was a great success, attracting 10,004 paying spectators, and was retrospectively named the First Olympic Winter Games.The sporting event was an experimental initiative, which was initially known as the “International Week of Winter Sports”. The Scandinavian countries had pushed more for the organization of the winter version of the Olympic Games. However they believed it was an affront that the experiment happened in France because according to them it was like the international version of their “Nordic Games”. The initiative, although small was a great success. Sixteen countries participated, competing in 9 disciplines: military patrol, which will become biathlon, bobsleigh, Nordic combined, curling, ice hockey, figure skating, speed skating, ski jumping, and cross country skiing. The presence of women among athletes was quite poor, only 13 out of 258, but they took part with great enthusiasm so as to enter a race not foreseen in the program, the women's individual race. Only one year after the conclusion of the Winter Sports Week, the ioc decided to consider it retrospectively as the first edition of the Winter Games. In ratifying that decision, the International Olympic Committee made the decision to play in the Games every four years and they were to be set up by the same nation as the Summer ones. As early as the next edition (Amsterdam and St Moritz 1928) it was realized that it was not possible to organize the Winter and Summer Olympics in the same country, because there were no climatic conditions and sports facilities. Many years later, from Lillehammer 1994 Winter and Summer Olympics will be staggered every two years.

From Chamonix 1924 to Sotchi 2014: all the Olympic Bobsleigh Tracks

On the top: The big bend before the arrival credit: Les Jeux de la VIIIe Olympiade Paris 1924, rapport

On the bottom: credit: Les Jeux de la VIIIe Olympiade Paris 1924:

Chapter 3

Pellerins Bobsleigh Track construction and olympic phase The location chosen for the bobsleigh track was located at the "Les Pellerins", near the aerial funicular of the Aiguille du Midi. It had a total length of 1,369 m. It had 19 curves whose total development reached 893 m with a minimum radius of 11 meters.The track had a width of 2 meters. Alignments and circles of the curves were connected in plan by "lemniscates de Bernouilli", whose gradual curvature, from the point where it leaves the alignment until entering the circle, avoids the abrupt setting in play of the centrifugal force. A maximum speed of 32 meters per second (115 kilometers per hour) was admitted. Within a radius of 15 meters this would give a centrifugal acceleration of: 322 / 15 = 69 m, 7 times the acceleration of gravity (according to the official report). In order to avoid the overturning of the bob, it was necessary to give the transverse profile a slope with proportions of 7 high for 1 base. The profile was raised gradually along the connection curve. Moreover, it was necessary that in each profile the suitable position could be found at each speed, from zero speed to maximum speed. This led to a cross section in the form of a cubic parabola. As a result, each turn affected the shape of a concave surface which had to be established in a very precise manner. Each profile was calculated, a kind of stem was used, the horizontal branch of which could move vertically like the cleat of a gauge, and slide horizontally so that its end was placed at the point whose coordinates vertical and horizontal were determined by calculation. The turn was executed in dry stone masonry, leaving a remnant sufficient for the layer of snow, and dimensioned so as to resist the centrifugal force.The highest turn was up to 4 meters in height. A water pipe followed the runway to allow watering. From Chamonix 1924 to Sotchi 2014: all the Olympic Bobsleigh Tracks

The British four-man bobsleigh team in action at the Winter Olympics at Chamonix, February 1924. The team, Ralph Broome, Thomas Arnold, Alexander Richardson and Rodney Soher, took silver in the event. Credits: Topical Press Agency/Hulton Archive/Getty Images

Italian Bobsleigh Team Credits: Les Jeux de la VIIIe Olymsports dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;hiver.

Chapter 3

The work involved no difficulties other than those which resulted from the execution of the turns which required great precision. It was possible to use the Aiguille du Midi service funicular for transportation of the bobs. It was even possible to transport the athletes on the funicular itself. A timber framing was established to serve as a station near the point of departure. But as there was only one car and there was no counter-weight, the traction effort was too high, and the power to be put into play. But later, this problem was fixed and bob could be carried throug the funicular system.

The competition

Plan and profile of the track Credits: Les jeux de la VIIIe Olympiade Paris 1924 : rapport officiel, Les sports d’hiver.

The bobsleigh, one of the most popular snow sports in Chamonix, of course was featured in the program of the Games. It was one of the major competitions, held on February 2 and 3 in the morning. The track “des Pellerins” was specially built for the occasion, and its course met all the needs. Eleven teams, representing six nations, were involved in the event, but several teams left the competition. In fact the team from Argentina, United States, Luxembourg and Sweden, including the “Champion De France”, de la Frégeolière gave up before the race start, reducing the number of runners to 9 and the nations represented in this competition to 5 nations. Belgium competed with one team; France two teams; Great Bretain two teams; Italy two teams and Switzerland two teams. The event ran in 4 innings, played in two days. A very large public spacing throughout the course, and in particular in the spots approaching the turns, took a keen interest watching the bobs launched at full speed in the race.

From Chamonix 1924 to Sotchi 2014: all the Olympic Bobsleigh Tracks

Opening ceremony, the delegations waiting outside the olympic stadium credit: olympic.org

Chapter 3

St. Moritz 1928 In the winter of 1924-1925, several Swiss cantons expressed the will to see Switzerland to apply as host town for the 1928 Winter Olympics. Three resorts, all located in Switzerland: Davos, Engelberg and St. Moritz took part to the running for the organization of the games. At the Lisbon meeting, in May 1926, the IOC elected the city of St. Moritz as the host resort of the 1928 Winter Games, furthermore, in accordance with the wishes expressed by the Olympic Congress in Prague, the commitee decided to designate retrospectively Chamonix 1924, as the 1st Winter Olympics. St. Moritz Winter Games were

II Winter Olympic Games Host St. Moritz, Switzerland Opened by President Edmund Schulthess Dates 11 February â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 19 February Top Nation Norway

Games of the same year. The members of the most important sport organization wanted to maintain a constant coupling between the summer editions, already tested since 1896 and the winter sport editions, but it was not possible. Amsterdam in fact, already designated for the Summer Games, could accommodate the ice disciplines, but not the mountains disciplines. After the decision to separate the two events was made, St. Moritz was chosen with great satisfaction of the people of Engadine and also with great pleasure of the tourists who visited one of the most famous stations in the world for winter holidays. The choiche was taken also because St Moritz already had a great natural bob and skeleton track where several international competitions had been held. The Swiss, already tested by the organization of the skeleton races, bob, horses on snow, hockey and more, welcomed the huge achievement with deep consciousness and with a bit of concern not only because technical aspects were still to be developed but also important sporting event so they did not want to fail.

From Chamonix 1924 to Sotchi 2014: all the Olympic Bobsleigh Tracks

17 Feb 1928: A competitor in action on the Skeleton Track during the Skeleton Bobsleigh event at the 1928 Winter Olympic Games in St. Moritz, Switzerland. credit: IOC Olympic Museum

Chapter 3

Cresta Run Skeleton Track from the early days until today leton event made its debut at 1928 Winter games. It was staged on the Cresta Run, considered the birthplace of skeleton. The famous track is made of natural ice which has been reconstructed every winter since 1884/85 winter. The major part of the route of this track lies in a ravine from which stones and earth were used to construct the turns. The trackâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s wooden structure is then covered with snow and ice. Both the events of the 1928 and 1948 Olympic Games staged in St. Moritz took place on this track. The run is built from scratch every year with snow which is then iced. The track starts in St Moritz and winds its way down a narrow valley to what was the village of Cresta, but which now forms part of Celerina. It is approximately 3/4 mile (1,212 m) in length with a vertical drop of 514 feet (157m). The gradient varies from 1 in 2.8 to 1 in 8.7. There are two starting points: Top and Junction. Riders from Junction begin opposite the Clubhouse, about onethird down the Run from Top. Only experienced riders can qualify to ride from Top. The Run has 10 corners, all of which are named. The most infamous is the Shuttlecock, if a rider is out of control, he risks going out at this turn. The Cresta usually opens just before Christmas and continues for nine weeks until the end of February/early March and is operated by the St Moritz Tobogganing Club. Every year there are over thirty highly competitive races and riding takes place every day of the season, except for Christmas Day.

From Chamonix 1924 to Sotchi 2014: all the Olympic Bobsleigh Tracks

Cresta Run Route:

St. Moritz - Celerina

Length:

1,214 m

Difference in altitude:

157 m

Downhill gradient:

up to 8.7%

Number of curves:

Top speed:

up to 140 km/h

Chapter 3

La Clubhouse of the Cresta-Members

Cresta Run, skilled manoeuvring is crucial on the Cresta Run. Unlike on the right off the track.

Curiosity: Why canâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t women ride? Women rode the Cresta until the decision was taken by the Membership at the Annual General Meeting in 1929 to ban them from riding, for reasons that are not clear. The Membership has not sought to change this policy.

From Chamonix 1924 to Sotchi 2014: all the Olympic Bobsleigh Tracks

Track construction credit: Daniel Martinek

Chapter 3

Olympia Bobsleigh Track from the early days until today St Moritz held two editions of the Winter Olympic Games in 1928 and 1948, both the events took advantage of the natural run to dispute all bobsleigh comptetions. For ded the 5-men.bob, even though with little success. The traditional discipline of bob was invented in 1880 in Albany, United States and later was introduced in Davos, Switzerland. This sport was usually practiced on regular streets covered by snow by teams of 5 to 6 athletes, whom one or two were women. After this edition CIO decided to keep four-men bob competitions and introduced two-men bob in debut only in 2002 at Salt Lake City. Nowadays the track is built within three weeks as it was in the past, taking advantage of few technological instruments, it is build roughly by hand and shovel work. The largest snow sculpture in the world is built in the beautiful natural arena of the Upper Engadine. From the early days of the icy bob run from St. Moritz to Celerina until the early eighties, the responsibility of the construction was in the hands of the local family Angelini, who has been building the track for three generations. In 1985 Louis Prantl took over the responsibility, until in 1990 when he was replaced by Christian Brantschen from Celerina, who is still responsible for the construction with his building company Brantschen AG today. Although for the more than 100 years of building the track many things have changed, the principles still remain the same. The construction of the track requires a lot of experience and sense of proportion. Todayâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Thus a traxcavator helps them gathering and piling snow during the construction phase. If needed, snow transport From Chamonix 1924 to Sotchi 2014: all the Olympic Bobsleigh Tracks

is also easier to accomplish with trucks as it has been in the beginning. Every mid-November the track management rial for the Olympia Bob Run St. Moritz-Celerina. For in the last week of November the South Tyrolean track workers arrive to build the largest snow sculpture of the world within the following three weeks. About 15.000 m3 snow and 7.000 m3 water is needed. Since every year the track is built from scratch, there are minimal changes in the alignment every year although every curve in the ground is leveled out exactly.

Chapter 3

Olympia Bobsleigh Run during 1928 Winter Olympic games

bus stop

Meeting point Finish Lodge

Celerina

P Finish

Bridge Corner Street closed during the whole season

Gunter Sachs Corner Tree Corner

Portago Corner

Martineau

Nameless

St. Moritz Sunny Corner Sunny House bus stop Start house info point Videoscreen

lodge

Devils Dyke Corner

Montiâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Bolt

Snake Corner

Start Wall Corner

Nash Dixon Corner

Shamrock Horse Shoe Bar Telephone Corner Horse Shoe Videoscreen

Olympia Bobsleigh Run today Technical Data Total length: Competition length: Start altitude: Finish altitude: Maximum gradient: Average gradient: Vertical drop: Number of curves:

1962 m 1722 m 1852 m 1738 m 15.00 % 8.00 % 130.00 m 19

From Chamonix 1924 to Sotchi 2014: all the Olympic Bobsleigh Tracks

Chapter 3

Lake Placid 1932 Lake Placid’s proposal to the International Olympic Committee included the express promise that if such award was made, Lake Placid would provide for the accomodation for all the athletes and delegations and for the construction of a bobsled run for international competitions equal to any of the famous European slides. The International Olympic Committee, meeting in Lausanne, Switzerland, awarded the Games to Lake Placid in April, 1929, few months before the Black Friday (25th october) that undemined the american economy and jeopardized the Games.

III Winter Olympic Games Host Lake Placid, United States Opened by Governor Franklin Roosevelt Dates 4–15 February Top Nation United States

Roosevelt and other state leaders disclosed the fact that the state was willing to cooperate with Lake Placid in its ambitious project to stage the international Games. Without this co-operation of the state the Games could never have been staged in Lake Placid. State political leaders of both parties promised that the state’s initial assistance would be in the form of funds with which to build a bobsled run, since the construction of the bob-run at that time appeared to be one of the largest items of expense in the Olympic budget. In February, 1929, the New York state legislature past a bill authorizing the building of a bob-run on privately-owned lands with state funds. Before the close of the 1929 session of the legislature another bill was introduced providing for the construction and maintenance of a bobsleigh run or slide on state lands on the western slope of Sentinel range in the of $75,000. “The lands of the state now owned or hereafter acquired,

From Chamonix 1924 to Sotchi 2014: all the Olympic Bobsleigh Tracks

Mt Van Hoevenberg Bob Run Credits: OFFICIAL REPORT III Olympic Winter Games Lake Placid 1932

Chapter 3

be forever kept as wild forest lands. They shall not be least, sold or exchanged, or taken by any corporation, public or private, nor shall the timber thereon be sold, removed or destroyed.â&#x20AC;? The matter of the construction of the bob-run rested there, during the spring of 1929 State cooperation was assuOlympic slide could legally be built. On April 10, 1929, the III Olympic Winter Games Winter Games Committee was immediately organized.

Mt Van Hoevenberg Bob Run construction and olympic phase Early in the summer of 1929 following the award of the Games to Lake Placid, it was settled to make preliminary surveys of possible bob-run sites on both state and private land. Mr Stanislaus Zentzytzki, one of the foremost bob-run designers of the world, was asked to study the proposal since the slide presented many unique engineering problems as tinent. The sport of bobsledding, known for decades abroad, was something new for American engineers. After weeks of study, three sites had been chosen as the most desirable, all within easy driving distance of Lake Placid, and all presenting in greater or less degree the necessary characteristics. These three sites were: west slope of the Sentinel Range, Scarface mountain, and Mt Jo. The last on privately-owned property. The Mt Jo site was considered because it was feared that it would be declared unconstitutional to build the run on state land. From Chamonix 1924 to Sotchi 2014: all the Olympic Bobsleigh Tracks

Workmen preparing the towering iced wall of Shady Corner for the Olympic Bobsled tests. Credits: OFFICIAL REPORT III Olympic Winter Games Lake Placid 1932

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the season of 1929-30 because of legal issues, and it was considered necessary to have a bob-run in use at least two years before the W.O.G. to familiarize Lake Placid residents with the sport of bobsledding and to inspire further interest in the construction of the Olympic slide itself. The ly-engineered run in the western hemisphere. Intervales bob-run, the predecessor of the Mt Van Hoevenberg Olympic slide, was approximately a half mile in length, maintained a grade of from 7 to 8%, contained 7 curves, and its cost was $6,600.

Another Site Found On March 18th the court stated that it was unconstitutional to build a bobsled run on state land. Shortly after the decision of the Court of Appeals, Dr Godfrey Dewey, president of the III Olympic Winter Games Committee, after much study and investigation discovered an excellent site for the bob-run on the north slope of what had been called South Meadow Mountain. This site was on court ruling was possible. South Meadow Mountain, which eight miles from the village of Lake Placid, one mile off the main high-way. Its summit rises 2,960 feet above the sea, and its north slope was found to have the grade needed for the construction of the run. Late in April Mr Zentzytzki, the German engineer, arrived for the Olympic run. Decision to build the slide on the north slope of South Meadow mountain (Mt Van Hoevenberg) was reached shortly after his arrival in Lake Placid. His juPlacid could be found.

State Votes Funds for Run In the meantime the New York state legislature voted to create a State Olympic Winter Games Commission and assigned $125,000 for the express purpose of constructing a bobsled run for the III Olympic Winter Games and for other expenses for the Games. Mr Zentzytzki left Lake Placid early in June after completing his survey of the Mt Van Hoevenberg site and preparing his plans. Henry Homburger of Smith, Golder & Homburger, engineers of Saranac Lake, worked with Mr Zentzytzki during his survey and took over the task of supervising the construction details after Mr Zentzytzkiâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s departure. A perpetual easement over this property was given to the State of New York, said easement to lapse, however, in case the state failed to maintain the run for two consecutive winters. In that event title to the property would revert to the Town of North Elba.

Constructionon of the Track All necessary preliminary details were settled, and actual construction work on the Mt. Van Hoevenberg Olympic bob-run began. The run was built by the New York State Olympic Winter Games Commission it represented an investment of nearly a quarter of a million dollars. Necessary additional funds for its construction were taken from subsequent state appropriations. On Christmas Day, that same year, the run was opened to the public. The Mt Van Hoevenberg Olympic run was 2,350 meters, or approximately 1,5 miles, in length and maintained an average drop of about 10%, with a minimum grade of 8,5% and a maximum of 15%. 27,374 cubic yards of earth and rock were moved to build the run. On the straightaways the run was 2 meters or 6,5

From Chamonix 1924 to Sotchi 2014: all the Olympic Bobsleigh Tracks

ches on Zig-zag turn, Mt Van Hoevenberg Olympic bobsled run credits: OFFICIAL REPORT III Olympic Winter Games Lake Placid 1932

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feet wide, while on the curves the width varieed from 10 to 22 feet. Some of the curves were 22 feet high, their banks of stone runned up almost at right angles to the bottom. Unlike most of the European slides the Lake Placid run had a pronounced drop in the curves. the rest of the slide, while the curves of the Mt Van Hoevenberg run had steeper grades than most of the straightaways. The drop in the curves serves as an offset to the normal loss of speed and is really helpful for the driver. The Mt Van Hoevenberg run contained 26 curves, the straightaways were of earth construction, while the highest curves were built of stone. The surface of the run in winter was iceed, made by freezing a mixture of snow and water, and was covered in the straightaways with a thin frosting of snow so that the sled runners may bite in and hold the track. 8,000 feet of pipe runned 4 feet underground from the bottom to the top to carry the water used in spraying the run each day after it was closed in the late afternoon. About 20,000 gallons of water were needed every 24 hours. Bobs and riders were carried from the bottom to the top in large open sleds, drawn by tractors. An intermediate starting-house was maintained at the half-mile-mark, at Shady Corner. Seven telephone booths, located at strategic points along the run, controlled the run operation.

Other Bob-run Facilities

ge. Thousands of people took advantage of the opportunity to dine in comfort and watch the races through the big windows. The side of the lounge parallel to the run was of plate the last curve in the run. At the foot of the run there was the bob garage, a one-story frame structure with space for 60 bobs. A large crane at the to take them up the mountain. During the Olympics, stands were provided for spectators at the three strategic points, Whiteface, Shady Corner, and Zig-zag curve. These accommodated approximately 2,500 people. Standing-room was practically unlimited. During the Olympic races spectators roamed up and down the entire course of the run. or of the clubhouse at the foot of the run and received his reports, as the bobs took each curve, from the telephone operators in the booths along the slide. Scoreboards were placed at the three stands along the run Transportation to and from the bob-run during the III Olympic Winter Games was provided by buses and taxicabs. Many, however, drove their own cars, infact parking space for several thousand cars was provided along either side of the access road. An idea of the great interest in the bob sport may be gained day of four-man racing during the Olympics.

there was the bob-run clubhouse. This building was a two-

Popularity of Run Proved

logs. The timing-room, from which the electric timer was opera-

following March. In that period 1,974 people rode the run,

From Chamonix 1924 to Sotchi 2014: all the Olympic Bobsleigh Tracks

Crowd in the stands at Zig-zag curve credits: OFFICIAL REPORT III Olympic Winter Games Lake Placid 1932

Roumanian team rounding Shady Corner: Lieut Al Papana, driver, Capt Al lonescu, Lieut Ulysse Petrescu, Capt Dumitru Hubert, brakesman. credits: OFFICIAL REPORT III Olympic Winter Games Lake Placid 1932

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and 4,680 individual rides were taken. The great slide proved to be as popular in summer as it was in winter. During the summer of 1931 a team of trained guides was on duty constantly to take visitors up and down the course and to explain the many interesting details of construction and operation. During the summer 8,453 people visited the run, they came from 33 states and 20 foreign countries. In 1931 two racing championships were held on the Mt Van Hoevenberg slide. The following year, on May 1932, after the III Olympic Winter Games, maintenance and operation of the run were taken over by the New York State Conservation Department. The run was kept open in winter for public riding, and several championship races were held each year. During the summer, professional guides were kept on duty explaining to visitors how the run was built and how it was operated.

Drawing of 4-man bobsled Credits: OFFICIAL REPORT III Olympic Winter Games Lake Placid 1932

From Chamonix 1924 to Sotchi 2014: all the Olympic Bobsleigh Tracks

General view from the ski jump hill. Credits: International Olympic Commitee, olympic.org

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Garmish-Partenkirchen 1936 The choice of Garmish as host town for the 1936 Winter Olympic Games was one of the most controversial in the whole history of the Games. It is also true that the candidates for 1936 summer edition of the games were Barcelona and Berlin. Spain was passing a staggering time from the political poin of view and the commitee picked Berlin instead, giving Germany the right to organize also the winter games, opportunity which was certainly caught. Garmish-Partenkirchen, located in the south Bavarian made a on the 8th of june 1933.

Modernization of the track

IV Winter Olympic Games Host Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany Opened by Chancellor Adolf Hitler Dates 6â&#x20AC;&#x201C;16 February Top Nation Norway

It was very challenging to transform what was the actual bobsleigh track in Garmisch, located on the steep northern slope of the Rie erkopf, into a modern venue. The Olympic Organizing Committee charged eng. Stanislaus M. Zentzytzki, that formerly had build the Olympic track in Lake Placid to modernise the bobsleigh track. After an inspection of the area, he immediately built an ideal bobsleigh track. Already in 1934 the four-man bob world championship took place in this renewed facility. However the external bending at the Kreuzeck curve and molishing under advisement and direction of the Bobsleigh Federation in 1935. Later more facilities were added to the present ones. At Bayer tower a tribune was build for the guests of honor with 200 standing places that offered a good view of the Bayer curve; for the press was built a terrasse with 320 standing places inside the track. Inside -

From Chamonix 1924 to Sotchi 2014: all the Olympic Bobsleigh Tracks

Garmich-Partenkirchen Bob Run Credits: OFFICIAL REPORT IV Olympic Winter Games Garmich-Partenkirchen 1936 On the right page: On the top: Curve being built Credits: OFFICIAL REPORT IV Olympic Winter Games Garmich-Partenkirchen 1936 On the bottom: Curve being covered with slabs of ice and snow Credits: OFFICIAL REPORT IV Olympic Winter Games Garmich-Partenkirchen 1936

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ged providing a telephone service. Another tribune with 200 places was built at the inner side of the curve to follow the spectators were built at the ground level when the breaking straightaway was enlarged. A panoramic tower was built for the radio broadcast at the Bayer tribune; here 5 newscasters could see the track from tower and on the other tribunes. Loud speakers were installed at many spots along the track. At Kreuzkurve a steel revolving bridge allowed an easy crossing of the track. Clowork station. A lift, that could carry two four-man bobs with fectly. In addition to the main bob garage another garage for 25 bobs was built.

Garmish-Partenkirchen track Today Nowadays, the famous run is a protected monument. It has become a year-round attraction for hikers and sports fans. With sturdy footwear, it is easy to hike through the run. Furthermore, it is possible to participate in a guided shed where 17 historic bobsleighs and further interesting exhibits are on display.

From Chamonix 1924 to Sotchi 2014: all the Olympic Bobsleigh Tracks

The American contingent of athletes (center, in while coats) into an outdoor stadium during the opening ceremonies of the 1948 Winter Olympics at St. Moritz, Switzerland, January 30, 1948. credits: FPG/Getty Images

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St Moritz 1948

V Winter Olympic Games Host St. Moritz, Switzerland Opened by President Enrico Celio Dates 30 January – 8 February Top Nation Norway, Sweden

In 1937, at the 36th IOC session for the Winter Games of 1940 Sapporo, the japanese city on the Hokkaido island, was awarded. The country, though, was involved in a ferocious war against China, so that in 1938 Japan waived the Winter Games. The olympic commitee had to chose another host city for the Winter Games, and the the new resort chosen was St. Moritz, awarded for the second time by the commitee. Unfortunately S. Moritz gived up as well, therefore in 1939 the London session awarded Garmisch-Partenkirchen for the second time, and stipulated also that the Winter Olympics of 1944 should take place in Cortina d’Ampezzo. The Second World War started on 1st september 1939 with the invasion of Polonia operated by german troops, and both 1940 and 1944 games were suspended. IOC met again in 1946, one year after the terrible war is over, and in Losanna session 1948 Summer Games are awarded to London while 1948 Winter Games are contended between St. Moritz and Lake Placid, since they both already hosted the winter games and their country were slightly or not touched by the war. In the end, twenty years afterwards, St. Morits become again the stage where the Olympic Winter Games would senting the renaissance through the sport. As two decades before, there was still the chance of föhn a warmer wind coming from south, which causes temperatures to rise, but this time the damages were very little and no competition was cancelled. Also in 1948, as it was in 1928, there were 28 nations participating but Germany and Japan were excluded by IOC because they were guilty of setting of the war.

From Chamonix 1924 to Sotchi 2014: all the Olympic Bobsleigh Tracks

Saint Moritz 1948- Nino Bibbia (ITA) 1st. credits: International Olympic Commitee, olympic.org

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The program included also skeleton, and it could not be otherwise since it was already included in 1928 program, and because St. Morits is the homeland of this sport. The construction of the bobsleigh track and the Cresta run had already to be set at the beginning of December 1947. The construction of these tracks meant that every The workers had been already hired one year before for the Olympic event. The Cresta run and the bobsleigh track were faultless completed at New Yearâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Eve 1948. Later, ditions could have compromised the usability of the tracks, but the very skilled team of workers and technicians got rid of all the troubles. winter games. The winner was Nino Bibbia, a skeleton athelete born in Bianzone, Valtellina, even though he moved to St Moritz when he was very young. He was practicing several winter sports, in particular hockey and ski, nordic and alpine. When only few weeks were missing for the games to start he discovered the disciplines of skeleton and bob. He was one of the fastest atheletes riding the Cresta run and the italian technicians enrolled him in the teams of both sports. In the two-men-bob he archieved the fourth place and the sixth place in the four-men-bob, but he won the gold medal for skeleton, riding the Cresta in 1â&#x20AC;?4.

From Chamonix 1924 to Sotchi 2014: all the Olympic Bobsleigh Tracks

Lighting of the cauldron. Credits: International Olympic Commitee, olympic.org

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Oslo 1952 birthplace of modern skiing. Princess Ragnhild opened the Olympic Winter Games in place of King kon VII, who was away in England attending the funeral of His Majesty King George VI. calculate the scores awarded by the different judges for the compulsory and free programmes. This enabled an athlete’s score to be given immediately. published by the Organising Committee consists of one bi-

VI Winter Olympic Games Host Oslo, Norway Opened by Princess Ragnhild Dates 14–25 February Top Nation Norway

gian member of the IOC, Mr. Thos. Fearnley, when he invited the committee to hold its annual convention in Oslo in 1935. His purpose was to prepare the ground for a later application and to stimulate interest for the idea in this country. The main obstacle at that time was that no one place in Norway had all the arenas and facilities required by the Olympic Winter Games programme. Once the Games were awarded to Norway, the basic principle of the committee’s planning and calculations was that when once construction or building was considered necessary, it should be done in such a way that facilities of permanent value were created. The committee succeeded in re-building, extending or improving the following existing arenas: Holmenkollen, Rodkleiva, Bislett and Dadilenenga, in addition completely new bobsleigh run was constructed near Frognerseteren.

From Chamonix 1924 to Sotchi 2014: all the Olympic Bobsleigh Tracks

Diagram of the bob run

Aerial view of the run as it appeared in 1951 Credits: VI Olympic Winter Games Oslo 1952.

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The Bobsleigh Track construction and olympic phase The Bob Run for the Winter Games was an entirely new construction on the Frognerseteren hill not far from the Holmenkollen jumping hill. Extensive ground work was necessary but it was not found expedient to build permanent curves. The ice track itself was, therefore, built up a new both in 1951 and in 1952 when the run was used. The curves were built entirely of snow and the track levelled, whereupon the whole construction was sprayed with water until, frozen, it formed a compact mass of ice. The Start of the bob run was at 1.410 feet a.s.l. and the average slope was 8.6%, minimum 3.67% and maximum 13.86%. Measured along the centre line the total length of the run was 4.945 feet. There were altogether 13 curves, their radii varying from 165 to 46 feet. All curves were con structed with “overhang”, the slopes of the outer walls rose to a vertical wall, thus preventing the bobs from overshosteep up-hill for braking. Bobsleigh sport had never attracted many followers in Norway, and a bob-run was never constructed before. pic Winter Games at St. Moritz 1948. The run, as already mentioned, was laid on the Frognerseter hill and the start was near the Frognerseteren Sports Restaurant, a few hundred yards from the terminal of the Holmenkolbanen suburban train line. There was an excellent carriageable road from the centre of Oslo, past the Holmenkollbakken jumping hill, to the starting point. Two Swiss experts Dr. Heinz Cattani and Mr.EmilIngold, a civil engineer, served as consultants for the Installations Committee.

The bobs were carried to the starting point by several jeeps during the training period. In competitions this was achieved by means of large 4-wheel driven trucks (lorries) carrying two bobs each. For this purpose a short road was constructed with ample turning room from the “braking plateau” to the Heftyebakken toboggan hill, which runs paralleli to the bob-run. At the start a time-keepers’ box was erected, with telephone connection to the mid-way con line, where boxes for time-keepers and judges were constructed as well. Just below the start a tower was erected, two bob garages, housing 40 bobs, and a repair shop were constructed. In this very hilly terrain the ground work was necessarily rather expensive. The Installations Committee therefore found it more advantageous to plan the run without building permanent stone or concrete curves. The actual, icy run therefore had to be made up a new every year. This was done by building the curves out of snow and levelling the track, whereupon water was sprayed on until the whole run This made it necessary, however, further to install a water main with considerable capacity and several outlets along the run. Heating coils and insulation were necessary to prevent freezing. The Swiss expert Luigi Angelini was hired to supervise the building of the ice curves. Three bobsleighs were purchased for trial runs purposes. In February 1951 the run was opened for training, and for a capacity trial an international competition was arranged in the middle of this months. Teams from France, Italy,

From Chamonix 1924 to Sotchi 2014: all the Olympic Bobsleigh Tracks

Glimpses from the preparations of The Track. Credits: VI Olympic Winter Games Oslo 1952

A bobsleigh in action at the Winter Olympics in Oslo, Norway. Credits: Fox Photos/Getty Images

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Norway and Sweden took part in the sport event. All trials proved the bob-run to be satisfactory in every respect. Measuring equipment and scales were also purchased and a warning system with eight telephone watches along the the guests of honour was built up of snow. Otherwise the public had access to trail along the run where steps were wooden bridges were built across the run to facilitate access to both sides of the run. The run, planned as a temporary construction costed 615.000 kr, and it has never been re-built after the 1952 Winter Olympic Games.

Credits: VI Olympic Winter Games Oslo 1952

From Chamonix 1924 to Sotchi 2014: all the Olympic Bobsleigh Tracks

Cortina 1956-Opening ceremony: general view with the delegations. credits: International Olympic Commitee, olympic.org

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Cortina dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Ampezzo 1956 The Olympics landed in Cortina, the pearl of the Dolomites, a place loved by the IOC, that had already been designated as resort of the 1944 Games for an edition than never took place because of World War II. live all over the world. Before becoming an Olympic centre, Cortina had only just enongh installations to satisfy the needs of those who, rather as tourists than as competing athletes, came there for winter sports. There was no proper ice stadium; the skijump was old, and built according to outworn principles; the ski runs did not come up to international requirement; the bobseigh run was far from being complete, in spite of recent repair. And last, but not least, there was no ring for speedskating. ln order for Cortina to be able to satisfy the requirements of the Olympics and at the same time, the expectations of the visiting foreigners, CONI had to undertake a programme which combined earnestness of purpose with technical

VII Winter Olympic Games Host Cortina dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Ampezzo, Italy Opened by President Giovanni Gronchi Dates 26 January â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 5 February Top Nation Soviet Union

building. What had to be done, in effect, was to arrange for installations for all the Olympic events, starting from scratch, with the exception of the bobsleigh run. This proof the entire undertaking. Thanks to the charisma of Paolo Thaon, president of the organizing team, companies such a remarkable budget, the more substantial ever reached at that time.

From Chamonix 1924 to Sotchi 2014: all the Olympic Bobsleigh Tracks

Un passaggio sulla curva Sento. Credits: VII Olympic Winter Games, Cortina dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Ampezzo, 1956:

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The Bobsleigh Track Eugenio Monti Track The sport of bobsledding had well established traditions at Cortina, where it was introduced in 1905-1906, using a snow covered road as race course, the Dolomite Road between Cortina and Pocol. gh run,only a few hundred metres long, near the centre of Cortina; but owing to the lack of funds the experiment was a failure; and the Pocol road was used again as a run for over ten years. In 1923, however,a new bobsleigh run was built near the lomite Road. A special water pipe was laid and the curves cient for the moderate speeds of those days. In 1928, a regular international bobsleigh race was held on the run during the International University Winter Games; from then on the number of teams and races grew steadily, and the run began to be well-known. In 1936 it was decided to rebuild the whole run in accordance with modern standard, as established at St. Moritz and Garmisch Partenkirchen. The very considerable expense was then supported by the Cortina Tourist Board; later the Italian Olympic Committee (CONI) took a considerable down to the bank of the river Boite (Piano di Pontechiesa); in this way the length of the run was extended to 1,500 m., with a vertical drop of 152 m., and 15 turns. On this new run, the 1937 Boblet World Championships were staged and proved to be most successful. The run was still further improved, and in 1939 a brilliant edition of From Chamonix 1924 to Sotchi 2014: all the Olympic Bobsleigh Tracks

the World Bobsleigh Championships established the fame of sion of 1937. In 1948, the run was remodeled: all the turns were rebuilt in were very carefully shaped according to modern standards. gth to 1,700 m., with 16 turns and 152 m as vertical drop. In April 1949, during the Session of the International Olympic Committee in Rome, the Olympic Winter Games of 1956 were allotted to Cortina. From that moment on the Italian Olympic Commitee (CONI) took charge of all improvements on the run, meeting very considerable expenses. These included the cost of stands, signalling equipment, timekeeping services, scoreboards, etc. In 1950, World Boblet and Bobsleigh Championships were again staged on the Cortina run with the usual excellent results. During the Congress of the International Bobsleigh Federation (F.I.B.T.) in Oslo, 1952, (Olympic Winter Games) the

Plan of the bob track. Credits: VII Olympic Winter Games, Cortina dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Ampezzo,

Technical details - Length 1,700 m - curves 16 - vertical drop of 152 m - Electric automatic timing to 1/10 of a second; Omega photo cell timerecorder, various automatic timing devices; split se cond handtiming; - 30 telephone lines for pressmen, linked to the central exchange in Cortina - 2 loudspeakers, several scoreboards, giving teams and ti mes, a large electric signboard - 4 stretchers on special sleds, 3 ambulances grandstand at the Antelao Curve, as well as several smaller ones - 5 lorries for the transport of bobsleighs - a special lift for bob sleighs and other heavy equipment, was also under construction.

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1954 World events were again allotted to Cortina, including of course, Boblet and Bobsleigh races. The organization of these events was further improved in all its details. Large size scoreboards, showing the names of teams and results, were highly appreciated by contestants and public alike: this was also the case of a large electric signboard, showing a diagram of the run and indicating the position of the sled by electric lights. It was, in fact, a highly successful rehearsal for the Olympics two years later. There is no doubt that, at that time, the runs of Cortina, Garmisch and St. Mortiz. were considered the three best in the world. Still at the present time, there is no leading team in any country connected with the International Bobsleigh framing, the Italian Olympic Committee, the Italian Winter Sports Federation, and the Cortina Bob Club were to have the great joy of witnessing the triumph of an Italian team winning the proud title of World Champion. Despite the scarcity of snow, the icy covering of the run stood up to all the trials, thanks to the labour, carried on night and day, of the special staff. The events went off perfectly from the technical point of view..

From Chamonix 1924 to Sotchi 2014: all the Olympic Bobsleigh Tracks

Cortina - Eugenio Monti Track nowadays credits: Alessandro Genuzio

Chapter 3

Eugenio Monti Track Today The track was named after the renowned bobsleits and ends in Cortina. After a serious accident he had to quit his promising career as skier and started a new career as much promising as bobsleigh athlete. At the 1956 Cortina Winter Games, Eugenio Monti earned silver medals in both the two-man and the four-man bobsleigh events. But the gold medal in the couple bob was also italian, in fact the Azzurri team rose on the podium on three occasions in this olympics, all three times for one single discipline, the bobsleigh, from this time on the italian team would become leader of this sport for many years. In 1960, the bobsled event was omitted from the Olympic programme. But the event returned four years later in Innsbruck and Monti won two bronze medals. By 1968, Monti had won nine World Championships and four Olympic medals, but no Olympic golds. At the 1964 Innsbruck Winter Games, Monti also showed great sportsmanship. He helped his rivals Tony Nash and Robin Dixon win gold medals when he loaned them an axle bolt to replace one that had broken. The International Fair Play Committee rewarded Monti’s sportsmanship with the highest possible honour, the Pierre de Coubertin Fair Play Trophy. Grenoble 1968 will be his great olympics. Aged 40, Monti knew that the 1968 Grenoble Winter Games would be his last chance to win an Olympic title. Fired up, he claimed gold medals in both the two-man and four-man events. It was a memorable way for him to cap a colourful Olympic career. He became the italian symbol of bobsleigh in the world for his talent and honour. Following the death of Eugenio Monti in 2003, the Olympic Bob-run Cortina was renamed Eugenio Monti Track early

the following year. The track was awarded the 2011 world championships in June 2007 over Winterberg, Germany and was to have undergone homologation to involve skeleton (last competed in 1992) though that was not done during the 2007-08 Bobsleigh and Skeleton World Cup season. Following some issues with the city of Cortina, the track withdrew its bid to host the 2011 because in 2008 the track has permanently closed its doors. In February 2009 Cortina has also given up as regards the commitment to carry out the World Cup in 2011. The decision to give up the World Cup 2011 has come from the City, with the bewilderment of the Bob Club Cortina. On the one hand, the reasons for a municipality forced to choose whether or not to take the road of an Olympic revival of the venue with major renovations. On the other side the Bob Club - historical association with 60 years of life and a prestigious sporting honors - and a crowd of enthusiasts who defend the destiny of the track. For many it was an unavoidable spending cuts that would also be subject to the Municipality for the coming years in favor of a marginal sport; but for others it was a painful break with the past that let Cortina be known worldwide, to which also the bobsled track has contributed. This type of structure has high running costs. The estimated budget of 2008 from Gis for the track of Ronco reported 382,000 € of costs against € 44,000 of ravenues, with a around this values: 410,000 € in 2004; 374,000 € in 2005; 351.000 € in 2006. In conclusion the ongoing management of the track to the Municipality was about 350,000 €.

From Chamonix 1924 to Sotchi 2014: all the Olympic Bobsleigh Tracks

View of the skijump during the Games credits:Olympic Winter Games Squaw Valley, California, 1960: final report.

Chapter 3

Squaw Valley 1960 On April 4, 1956, the IOC President Avery Brundaby the American Institute of Architects, the Executive ComSpackman, Kitchen and Hunt, Architects Associated, to proceed designing the Games facilities. For a 10-day period in October, twelve representatives of the Organizing Committee. Inspectors of the skiing, skating, ice hockey, bobsled and modern pentathlon federations visited Squaw Valley and gave detailed inspections to the plans as prepared by the Organizing Committee and the project drawn up by architects and engineers. -

VIII Winter Olympic Games Host Squaw Valley, United States Opened by Vice President Richard Nixon Dates 18â&#x20AC;&#x201C;28 February Top Nation Soviet Union

had to be dropped from the program because of a lack of assurance that a minimum of 12 nations would compete in the event. Only nine nations had indicated an intention to take part, thus, the organisers refused to build a track for the bobsleigh competition, making 1960 the only time that bobsleigh has not been included in the Olympic programme. At the 54th session of the IOC at Tokyo (May 10, 1958) the ruling the bobsled event would not be part of the program This edition in general was a step behind compared to prelifornians organizers.

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11th February 1964: German Dieter Bokeloh, after take off from the Berg Isel in the Winter Olympics at Innsbruck credits: Keystone/Getty Images

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Innsbruck 1964 The choice of the venue for the Winter Olympics fell on a city that could guarantee professionalism and competence, after the unhappy experiment of 1960 in Squaw Valley. The choice of Innsbruck was strongly pushed by the IOC, obtaining an absolute triumph during the vote between the candidates. A strategic error, though, affected the outcome. In fact the

IX Winter Olympic Games Host Innsbruck, Austria Opened by President Adolf SchĂ¤rf Dates 29 January â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 9 February

time the races in different locations rather far apart in an attempt to revive the entire tourist region of Tyrol. The result was that it was quite complicated to transfer athletes, coaches and judges, as well as the spectators from one venue to the other. The other imponderable factor which contributed to complicate the organizatio of the Olympics was the weather. Almost spring temperatures risked the cancellation of some of the most anticipated competitions such as cross-country, alpine skiing and bobsleigh. The Austrians recruited over two thousand soldiers to transport from the high altitude to the various competition venues around 55,000 m3 of snow and almost 25,000 blocks of ice to ensure the smooth running of all competitions. Despite everything the Olympics in Innsbruck had an inthousand enrolled athletes. In this edition there was the debut of the luge discipline ice was built for the Games and as a result the bobsleigh conditions became more controllable and the competition lost much of its danger.

Top Nation Soviet Union

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Construction work of the track. Credits: Winterspiele Innsbruck 1964

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Bobsleigh Track The beginning of bobsledding in Austria goes back to the end of XIX century. Firstly races took place on snow -covered roads , then from 1908 also bobsleigh tracks near Innsbruck, and in KitzbĂźhel and they were open since 1938, but then they decayed. After the second world war in 1948/49 the Austrian bobsleigh was active again, but athletes had to train abroad because the domestic tracks were out of order. The appointment of the IX Olympic Winter games to Innsbruck gave the Austrian bobsleigh federation the opportunity of either planning a bob track and to guarantee the carrying out of the competitions with experienced staff. The client of both venues was the Ministry of Commerce and Reconstruction, section I, under the direction of the engineer, Rudolf Kloss. The Regional Directorate of Public Works of the administration of the Tyrol received the delegation in the work, with Leopold Pack as manager in charge. The superintendent in the work it fell onto the Regional Directorate of Public Works, section VI, with Eng. Richard Greiffenhagen as director in charge. The role of site ma nager was assigned to Eng. Paul Auctions. The bobsleigh and toboggan runs were designed by Ing. Oskar Heinz with the collaboration of the engineer Siegfried Pezzei. The design of the buildings connected to the facilities it fell onto arch. Ing. Hans Buchrainer Lienz, East Tyrol. After a competition which was attended by 10 construction companies, the Ministry of Trade and Reconstruction entrusted the task for both venues on June 15, 1961 to the construction company Innsbruck Montana Buildings. The area of the bob track was located just south of the famous winter sports resort of Igls EllbĂśgener, between the From Chamonix 1924 to Sotchi 2014: all the Olympic Bobsleigh Tracks

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24th January 1964: Austrian soldiers carrying baskets of snow to the ski slopes in preparation for the Winter Olympics at Innsbruck where there is a shortage of snow and ice. Emergency squads are employed to bring snow to the ski-run and ice to the bobsleigh run. Credit: Central Press/Getty Images)

Innsbruck 1964-The bobsleigh Italia I (ITA) MONTI Eugenio and SIORPAES Sergio, 3rd. Credit: olympic.org

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road and the middle station of the Patscherkofel cable car. The area was suitable for a track of medium difficulty and it was also located in an area sheltered from the winds. The southerly wind has no bearing there and after sunset ta-kes over a wind from Patcherkofel leading to a rapid cooling at night in the area. The area of the curves 1 and 3 was very suitable while curve 2 was located on a different type of ground and it was necessary to build 20 m of masonry works. The area required special care because the water draining veins could disrupt the formation of the ice rink. Exposure and insolation The northern exposure was perfect. However, from January 10 at noon and in the afternoon 45% of the track was hit by the sun radiation. Therefore it was necessary to protect five curves with some “sails”. Tracking The layout was based on a previous pre-project made by the president of the Austrian Football Association bob J. M: Stürer and Eng. Rottensteiner. It has been particularly difficult to maintain a bending angle of 165 degrees at the most in the curves. Curved elements were used as fence in the curves. Realization of curves and straights The geological structure of the area, that is, a glacial moraine consisting of thin materials together with sediment and rock fragments, required, also for economic reasons the use of a shell in concrete for the construction of the curves. The concrete shell was made from slabs to a height from 4 to 6 meters.

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6 Feb 1968: General view of the Olympic Flame during the Opening Ceremony of the 1968 Winter Olympic Games in Grenoble, France. Credit: IOC Olympic Museum

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Grenoble 1968 The promoters of Grenoble’s application undertook, to back their proposal, a detailed study of the facilities that Grenoble and the Dauphiné resorts could offer thinking about the organization of the Xth Winter Olympic Games. The strategy settled was to create in Grenoble the central sporting axis of the different Olympic centres. Grenoble was the centre of gravity around which would interlock the various competition stadiums: the alpine disciplines, the Nordic disciplines, bobsleigh, toboggan and ice events which were shared out among the resorts. The organization of the ice events set up a series of complex problems, because these sports were hardly practised in Dauphiné, for obvious climatic reasons, the severity of peratures. During the course of numerous meetings, these issues were discussed by the International Federations, the French Federation of Ice Sports and the Organizing Committee.

Bobsleigh and Toboggan runs, site decision X Winter Olympic Games Host Grenoble, France Opened by President Charles de Gaulle Dates 6–18 February Top Nation Norway

Originally, the toboggan and bobsleigh events were to have taken place in the same resort. The French Federation proposed Saint Pierre de Chartreuse, Villard de Land and Chamrousse. During the summer 1965, the decision to install the bobsleigh run at Alpe d’Huez, and the toboggan run at Villard de Lans was taken. In the following October, Mr. Bert Isatitsch, the President of the International Toboggan Federation and Mr. Amilcare Rotta, the President of the International Bobsleigh Federation went respectively to Villard-de-Lans and Alpe-d’Huez to inspect these places and the plans of the future installations. At Alpe-d’Huez the bobsleigh run designed by Egineer Dr. Galli was to be in-

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Technical Data Length: Altitude, departure: Altitude, arrival: Vertical drop: Maximal slope: Minimal slope: Average slope: Number of curves:

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1,000 m 1,110 m 1,000 m 110 m 18.62% 1.05% 11% 5

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Technical Data Length : Altitude, departure: Altitude, arrival: Vertical drop: Maximal slope: Minimal slope: Average slope: Number of curves:

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1,500 m 2,030 m 1,890 m 140 m 14.2 % 5.7 % 9.33 % 6

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stalled in the Col du Poutran sector at 2,000 metre altitude and it was thought that the high elevation would compensate for the remarkable sunshine in this resort. In the case of Villard de Lans, it was the northern slope of the Bois de Frier which showed the advantage of being well protected from the South wind, sometimes very strong on the plateau, that was selected as the site for the toboggan run. It was necessary to wait the spring of 1966 to start the work, which was to subject the contractors to an extremely tight schedule, because apart from the Ice Stadium, all the installations were to be used the following winter during the International Weeks of January and February 1967. At the beginning of the summer, a meeting of the Ice Technical Committee summed up the situation. The toboggan run, built in concrete, and not requiring an enormous amount of earthwork (1,400 cubic metres), could be completed within a few months, with the exception of the adjoining buildings. The problem set by the bobsleigh run was more serious. Sharp criticism had been raised in connection with the project submitted by the French technicians, and the whole operation considerably delayed. However, the decision made to build this run in concrete enabled the use of a modern technique (préfabrication). The initial delay, due

On the left page: Feb 1968: Winter Olympics, Grenoble. Chamrousse. Credit: Allsport Hulton/Archive

bad weather in the Spring of 1966 was thus made up. Started in June, the major work was completed in December. After earth work amounting to nearly 110,000 cubic metres, 2,000 cubic metres of concrete were used. 7,000 tons of materials were handled. The superstructures were prefabricated at Bourg d’Oisans. These consisted of buttresses, (365) weighing an average of 3 tons each, of girders (6,200), which placed end to end would have measured 10 kilometres, straight sections (420), that is in all a total of about 4,000 tons of materials transported by trucks to Alpe-d’Huez. The assembly of these units needed a further 300 cubic metres of concrete. Finally, the whole was

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covered with a layer of concrete sprayed 7 cm thick, that was still another 200 cubic metres. During the months of January and February 1967, the International Weeks during which took place the World Bobsleigh Championships, regards the bobsleigh events, resulting from the bad weacertain criticisms made by representatives of the French Ice Sports Federation. The toboggan competitions at Villard de Lans suffered to some extent from the poor weather conditions. However, the events were able to take place, and it was possible to ascertain that the choice of the location of the run was judicious. During the World Bobsleigh Championships the cooling could not keep the ice solid in bright daylight not least because the track faced south. The four-man event was cancelled because of thawing ice. Following the perturbation caused by the cancellation of the World Bobsleigh Championships for fours, numerous meetings of the national and international technical comlayout. After a model had been made, it was decided to certain bends and also to take into account the experience

On the left page: Grenoble 1968-4-man-bob in Alpe dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Huez. The Italian team ITA I 1st.

means those bends most exposed to the sunshine. This extensive work was carried out during the summer of 1967. At the same time, the lighting and sound systems and adjoining buildings were completed. At this time, all the auxiliary installations of the toboggan run were also completed. As planned, this immense concrete cathedral was completed in the autumn. Thus, by the month of October, all the ice installations, the toboggan run, the bobsleigh run were ready. They endowed the DauphinĂŠ with an extremely complete and modern sports equipment.

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Amilcar Rotta, the President of the International Bobsleigh and Tobogganing Federation, surveys preparations of the bobsleigh track attentively. Credits: Xth Winter Olympic Games:

Workers building the run Credits: Xth Winter Olympic Games:

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The Toboggan Run Constructed following advice given by Jan Steler, an architect and former international tobogganist of the Polish team, it was in concrete throughout to ensure good preservation of the ice. Its construction necessitated 1.400 cubic metres of earthwork and 1 ,800 cubic metres of concrete were used. There were three buildings: the mens’ departure pavillion, the ladies’ departure pavillion, including a waiting room for the competitors and another reserved for the timekeepers, and an arrival pavillion, where may be mekeeping centre and a room allocated to the annoucer, as well as all the sanitary installations. The lighting system was arranged with 132 spots, distributed along the run, the type of lamps was that of sodium vapour which gave out perfect light, avoiding any danger of dazzling the competitors and emphasizing the contours of the run. The light intensity was 50 lux in the straights and 100 lux in the curves and bends, the poles were provided with a protection to avoid the possibility of any serious accident should a toboggan leave the run. An autonomous telephone circuit connected the posts located at the departure (men’s and ladies’) with the arrival and with the three control towers. Timekeeping was by means of cables installed in sheaths, making it possible to register, by means of photo-electric cells, the departure times for ladies’ and mens’ events, to give the intermediate times after 600 metres run, and also the arrival time. The arrival and departure were equipped with a signalling system using red and green lights. As soon as the competitor, who started on green, had departed, the light changed to red, and no competitor could enter the run until the signal had changed again to green. In addition, the control spots along the run gave a luminious signal as each competitor passed, which enabled the manager of the event to follow the progress of the competitor on a luminous signboard, and informed him in case

of accident. The sound system included 40 loudspeakers distributed along the run, with a concentration of instruments in the bends. Alongside the run, there was a road about 4 metres wide which allowed the servicing of the run under good conditions and the passage of the spectators. Three control towers completed the equipment, the total cost of which represented 3,1 90,000 francs.

The Bobsleigh Run Alpe-d’Huez, 65 kilometres from Grenoble, was therefore chosen by the Organizing Committee because of its altitude (1,850 metres) which ensured the almost-certainty of good conservation of the ice coating the run. Moreover, the site selected presented suitable declivity and exposure, away from the skiable area extension zone, and hotel facilities, the competitors and their escorts. Along the whole length of the run there was a four metre wide road, which allowed the passage of service vehicles, and also the movement of the spectators. This run was completed in two phases, corresponding with the spring, summer periods of 1966 and 1967. The lighting, which consisted of 165 standards, installed along the run, each of which gave out an intensity of 25 lux in the straights and 50 lux in the bends, in order to allow night racing. Finally, the sound system consisting of 45 loud-speakers was installed; this included an autonomous interior telephone circuit, departure, the arrival, and the bobsleigh park. In the light of experience gained during the 1967 World Championships and following the meeting of the Technical Commission of the International Bobsleigh and Toboggan Federation, entrances and exits from several bends, and in particular to bends 12 and 13 at the end of the run. However the

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bends 6, 9 and 12, too much exposed to the sun. Bends 6 and 9 were equipped with a system using ammonia, and bend 12 was provided with a liquid nitrogen circuit. Moreover, the humps of these bends were covered with stone and earth to prevent the concrete coming Into contact with the ambient air. Finally, jute screens were installed along the run, in order to shelter it from the sunâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s rays. The total cost of this work represented the sum of 5,500,000 Francs. The toboggan and bobsleigh races were particularly affected by the mild temperatures, and in spite of the syAlpe-dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Huez and used also at Villard-de-Lans, the jury was to take advantage of the night drop in temperature, but this issue affected all the disciplines, which were posponed in some cases. Because of numerous snow falls, training could not beperformances were excellent and the track proved to be

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Olympic champions in the four-men bobsleigh event: Monti, De Paolis, Zandonella and Armando (ITA). Credits: Xth Winter Olympic Games:

wonderfully shaped and extremely safe. In spite of a few cted on these athletes by capsizing or running off the track. The track seemed to be more fragile than the competitors,

Below: Start house On the right: Turn nÂ° 5 in 2015 Credits: vinvin20.wordpress.com

the banks at the bends. A portable system for projecting liquid nitrogen was used which shortened maintenance delays. Besides this, in certain places, which were particularly exposed to the battering of the sledges specially designed small planks were put into place. Because of weather conditions the training time-tables were somewhat disrupted and the Olympic events themselves had to be re-arranged. It was impossible to run the third and fourth heats of the four-man bobsleigh. The track closed in 1972 due to high operating costs but the structure remains as demolition would not have been economical.

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Japanese skater Tomoo Kurosawa arrives at the Tokyo Olympic Stadium, torch in hand, during a rehearsal for the ceremonies. Credits: olympic.org

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Sapporo 1972 Sapporo, capital of the Hokkaido island, one of the economic and industrial capital of Japan. The Japanese city was awarded when the candidate on the other side was Banff. Not everyone was in agreement with this choice because winter sports were not the center of the sporting passion of the country, and a Snow Olympics at sea level raised some eyebrows.

The bobsleigh and luge courses

XI Winter Olympic Games Host Sapporo, Japan Opened by Emperor Hirohito Dates 3â&#x20AC;&#x201C;13 February Top Nation Soviet Union

On the northern slope of Mt. Teine, situated approximately 12.5 kilometers northwest of the city, the slalom and giant slalom courses, and further down from them the bobsleigh and luge courses were newly installed. The construction of the luge and bobsleigh runs begun on December 2, 1971, with most of the work being completed by December 24. Along the curves were laid 15-inch thick ice blocks measuring 30 centimeters square, while a snow and ice mixture having the consistency of heavy cream was spread on the straights. The length of the bobsleigh and luge courses was 1,820 meters and 1,140 meters respectively. The quantity of ice, snow and water, and the number of workers required to build these runs may be broken down as follows: Bobsleigh Luge Ice 400 tons 135 tons Snow 3,500 m3 3,000 m3 Water 1,100 tons 880 tons Aggregate total of workers 880 580

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Structure: Course, concrete and reinforced concrete structure Construction cost: ÂĽ 433 million Duration of construction work: Started in October, 1969; completed in January, 1972 Designed by: Hokkaido Development Consultant Co. Construction work executed by: Matsumura-gumi Construction Co.

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Mt. Teine Bobsleigh Course Built midway up Mt. Teine’s northern slope at an altitude of 497 meters above sea level, the Mt. Teine bobever constructed in Japan. As such, no effort was spared to make the course acceptable by international standards. Bobsleighing has a long history, and the event has been adopted in every Winter Games but Squaw Valley since Winter Games that were held in 1924 in Chamonix, France. The bobsleigh course in order to be used in the Sapporo Olympics had to follow certain rules: the total course length had to measure more than 1,500 m; the mean gradient had to exceed 8% (4°35’) and the maximum gradient to be 15% (8°32’); the curve radius should not impart a rate of acceleration creating a force in excess of four gravities over a period of three seconds; the distance between the ice walls of the straights be less than 140 centimeters; the side-wall height be more than 5 centimeters; a predetermined distance from the starting point be straight to enable the bobsleigh to accelerate to a speed of 30 kilometers per hour. Since there were no regulations or guidelines provided as regards the number of curves and the degree of their radius to be built into the course, it was decided to make 11 to 15 curves in conformity with the foregoing conditions and taking in consideration the topography of the course. Careful consideration was put into the planning of the bobsleigh course, with the technical advice of the FIBT. The curve radius was calculated with the aid of a computer, and the insertion of the curved easing line for each curved section was decided after a study was carried out from the viewpoint of both safety and technical aspects. The maximum height of the curved wall was set at 6.5 meters. At the course site there was provided a lighting system for night-tiFrom Chamonix 1924 to Sotchi 2014: all the Olympic Bobsleigh Tracks

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Technical Data Elevation at start line Vertical drop Entire length Mean gradient Maximum gradient Number of curves

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495m 132m 1563m 8.4% 15.0% 14

me competitions, water supply equipment, course blackout curtains, course crossing gates, snow fences, a cableway for riding up the bobsleigh, roads, etc. The lighting system adopted for use at the course consisted of 77 low voltage 150 watt sodium diffusion lamps installed on the straights, and 50 high voltage 400 watt sodium diffusion lamps on the curves. The amount of illumination given off was 96-216 lux at the straights, and 180-340 lux at the curves. This well-balanced lighting system provided Ice blocks were laid on the inside of the out-curve walls and on the south walls of the straights. Only about half of the total interior wall area was lined with ice blocks. The other portions of the course were covered with snow which was then packed down and frozen by sprinkling water over it. The thickness of the ice block itself was 13.5 centimeters, which came to a total of 15 centimeters with the addition of the joiner, a mixture of ice and water. The total weight of the Sixty workers completed the icing of the course in twenty days for a total of 1,200 man-days spent on the project. An additional three tons of blocks were used in the maintenance and repair of the course while it was in use. Ready for use in February, 1970, the course was used in both the All-Japan Winter Sports Meet and the Sapporo International Winter Sports Week. Many detailed improvements were carried out before it was used in the actual Olympic Games in 1972.

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Technical Data Elevation at start line Vertical drop Entire length Mean gradient Maximum gradient Number of curves

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443m 101m 1023m 9.9% 15.0% 14

Mt. Teine Luge Course The luge course was built on the northern slope of Mt. Teine, an area commonly known as the “fourth station upland,” to the west of the bobsleigh course at an altitude of 465 meters above sea level. The International Luge Federation provided detailed regulations concerning the standards of the course and attached facilities. Among these were the stipulations that: the total course length be between 1,000 and 1,500 meters; the mean gradient be 9% (5°09’); the maximum gradient be 11% (6°17’); the course width (measured between the ice surfaces) be between 1.4 and 1.6 meters; the course must have one or more left curves, right curves, hairpin curves having an external angle of 140°- 180° and a radius of 1525 meters; S-curves having a minimum radius of 9 meters; labyrinths (a combination of at least two successive curves having a radius of over 15 meters); and straights. The FIL regulations also regarded the side-wall height of the straights, the curve and starting point structures, safety features and lighting equipment. However, there were no restrictions placed on the speed attained by the toboggan. In placing the ice blocks on the interior walls of the course, the same method as for the bobsleigh course was employed. Some 1,000 man-days were required to lay the approximately 114 tons of blocks that went into the course. An auxiliary cauldron for the Sacred Flame was installed on a hill above the starting point of the course, to make a Eniwa site) used for the Sapporo Games.

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4 Feb 1976: Winter Olympics, Innsbruck. The twin Olympic Cauldrons, to celebrate not only the present games but also the previous time they where held in Innsbruck, 1964. Credit: Allsport Hulton/Archive

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Innsbruck 1976 poro the Olympics was supposed to be set in Denver, Colorado but already in the autumn of the following year a referendum led to the withdrawal of the games due to the opposition to any intervention on the environment. The IOC found a quick solution entrusting again Innsbruck, capital of Tirolo and former Olympic venue in 1964. The alpine town gladly accepted the assignment thanks to the olympic legacy. Time to prepare for the event was tight but everything worked well and with greater simplicity.

Bobsleigh Skeleton and Luge run

XII Winter Olympic Games Host Innsbruck, Austria Opened by President Rudolf Kirchschläger Dates 4–15 February Top Nation Soviet Union

bobsleigh and luge were held on the same run. The building of this venue and the acceptance of a mutual run by both sports associations was regarded as an assurance for the future of these sports. The cost of building a bobsleigh track was one of the reasons why the residents of Colorado rejected a funding package to enable the city of Denver to host the 1976 Winter Games. With the withdrawal of the American city as host the Games returned to Austria and to the Innsbruck track that hosted the Games only twelve years earlier. sleigh, was 1220 m in length, had 14 curves and an average gradient of 8.5 %. The use of the track for both sports was not universally popular with many complaining that the One member of the British delegation was reported to state that the IOC had turned bobsleigh into “A sport for kids”. The big story of 1976 was the emergence of the German Democratic Republic as a leading force in the world of bob-

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sleigh, a position it would cling to until the countryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s eventual demise. Armed with a naturally talented driver in the converted javelin thrower [Meinhard Nehmer] and the best sports science that the DDR could provide the East German program moved from nowhere to the best in the world in just three years. sbruck had proved its worth. Prime consideration was paid to the competitors safety. Initially this led to some criticism, but looking back it is seen to have been absolutely right for there was no injury worth mentioning either during training or at the Olympic competitions themeselves. Luge organizer, Toni Weibnicht, and bobsleigh organizer, Dr. Kurt

for both sports into one mutual schedule. This was succesful both thanks to the exemplary icing carried out by Max Schneider and his small team and because of the excellent lighting system prescribed for the night luge races which made it possible to hold training runs in the evening too. On the sound sector at the 1976 Winter Olympics Philips installed Austriaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s largest sound project in the open air at the Igls bobsleigh and toboggan run. Here a special machine for three sound zones ensured that the system worked without any echo whatsoever.

In 1976, members of the West German luge team, Elisabeth Demleitner and Stephan Hoelzlwimmer, wear the latest design in helmets during a practice session on the Olympic Luge course in Innsbruck, Austria, on Friday, on January 30, 1976. Credit: http://www.theatlantic.com

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Technical Data Total length: Competition length: Start altitude: Finish altitude: Maximum gradient: Average gradient: Vertical drop: Number of curves:

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Olympia Eiskanal Innsbruck Track credits: International Bobsleigh & Skeleton Federation, ibsf.org.

1478 m 1207 m 1124 m 1006 m 18.00 % 9.00 % 124.00 m 14

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Olympia Eiskanal Innsbruck Today In view of the 1976 Olympic Winter Games, the skeleton track worldwide and, thus, served as a model for facility has been continuously modernized and expanded. In 2004 the general refurbishment of the track, including the functional building, was completed and in 2011 the refrigerating plant and the related control system were modernized. Thanks to these design features, this track is still one of the most favored sliding sport facilities worldwide and continues to be used as a venue of major events. In sportsmen circles the Innsbruck track is considered as one of the technically easiest tracks. Therefore rookies prefer sliding on this facility. However, despite the favorable technical features, in order to slide through its up to 7m concentrate as heavily as on any other particularly challenging track. Thanks to its central position in Europe, the track has become a hub of the international sliding sport and is always fully utilized throughout the period from the end of October to the beginning of March.

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Feb 1980: The Olympic Flame during the Winter Olympic Games at Lake Placid, NY, USA. Credit: Tony Duffy /Allsport

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Lake Placid 1980 At the time of the Lake Placid bid for the XIII Olympic Winter Games in Vienna in 1974, the FIBT, with its intimate knowledge of Lake Placid, its organizational abilities and the existing Mt. Van Hoevenberg Bobsled run, gave its when the Lake Placid Committee decided to refrigerate the existing run for the Bobsled Competitions rather than follow the International Olympic Committee’s mandate that a combination Bobsled/Luge run be used for all Olympic Games in these sports. This decision, which won the support of the IOC, allowed the preservation of the famous, challenging Mt. Van Hoevenberg Bobsled Run as well as the construction of a Luge Run which met the full requirements of that sport. The bobsled events of the 1980 Olympic Winter Games sled competitions. John Fell was named chairman for bobsledding in 1974 and was responsible for organizing this highly competent committee. Under his leadership the Bobsled Committee organized and conducted the test competitions and the

XIII Winter Olympic Games Host Lake Placid, United States Opened by Vice President Walter Mondale Dates 13–24 February Top Nation Soviet Union

budget of $187,896.94. At the time of the planning, construction and organization for the 1980 games Lake Placid’s sports personnel enjoyed a good working relationship with the International Bobsled Federation. This relationship was established in 1961 when the World Championships were held at Mt. Van Hoevenberg, and continued as Lake Placid subsequently organized the World Bobsled Championships in 1969, 73, and 78. Luciano Galli, Vice President of the FIBT, and Walter Hau-

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Lake Placid 1980-4-man-bob-The East Germany Bobsleigh (GDR), 1st credit: olympic.org

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senblas, a member of the technical committee, visited Lake Placid in October, 1976, to inspect the existing bobsled run in preparation for making whatever recommendations they considered necessary. Following this inspection a report was prepared for the Bobsled Committee and for the November 1976 meeting of the FIBT at Innsbruck. On March 5 and 6, 1977, Mr. Galli visited the bobrun to area. In addition, he discussed lighting, communications and course monitoring. During February, 1978, Mr. Galli gave approval to the organizing committee to proceed with the construction necessary for the installation of the refrigeration system. organizing committee held coordinating sessions at several meetings of the General Assembly of International Sports Federations and the I.O.C. sessions to report on planning and preparations for the bobsled sport and to coordinate the technical requirements and policies of the sports federations. By 1977 personnel had been recruited for the several key positions on the bobsled race committee. Many of these sledding had been a traditional winter sport for many yeStates and brought many years of experience earned as of the bobsled committee were also members of the organizing committees for the World Championships at Mt. Van Hoevenberg in 1973 and 1978. The 1978 World Championships served as a test of the organization for the XIII Olympic Winter Games. During December, 1979, international teams participated in a week of training to test the newly refrigerated run, and following these tests made their recommendations for icing From Chamonix 1924 to Sotchi 2014: all the Olympic Bobsleigh Tracks

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and grooming the run. In addition to the supervision of run construction and the selection of the support staff, other projects which were handled by the bobsled committee included communications, timing, and medical support. Actual construction began on Mt. Van Hoevenbergâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s bobsled run in September, 1978, and the work was completed in February, 1979, under the supervision of the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation at a cost ration of the lower mile of the one and one half mile track used for the 1932 Olympic Winter Games. The engineering work was under the direction of Sargent, Webster, Crenshaw and Foley, a New York State based hand at all times to assure that the construction complied

activities were correct as the rules of the sport apply. The bobsled run at Mt. Van Hoevenberg was 1,557 meters long with a vertical drop of 148 meters and an average gradient of 9.5%. There were sixteen curves in the course. The maximum gradient was 14% at curve nine (Shady Curve), with a minimum gradient of 7.6%. The out-run had a gradient of 14 percent and a distance of 194.5 meters. A common refrigeration plant was constructed adjacent to the bobrun and luge run so that a common system could serve both disciplines. The system, which was effective up to 50 degrees Fahrenheit air temperature, used 900 tons of compression in its ammonia/brine refrigeration plant. Thirty-three miles of one and one quarter inch black iron pipe, imbedded in the concrete surface of the run, carry the brine the full length of the run. 50,000 gallons of water are required to ice the run.

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In addition to the construction of the bobrun, the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation constructed a new service road to provide access for the transportation of sleds and teams and the maintenance operations at the run. During the 1980 games 39,500 people viewed the two and four-man competitions. The overall attendance marked the largest group ever to watch this sport in North America. The Mt. Van Hoevenberg recreation area, site for the Olympic Bobsled Run, was operated by New York Stateâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Department of Environmental Conservation. As a consequence the management and maintenance of the run was under the direction of personnel from this department for the training and competitions. The Organizing Committeeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Bobsled Committee, by the nature of this arrangement, was limited to supervision of the technical aspects of construction and the actual competitions.

Lake Placid 1980-Bobsleigh-4-man-bob The American team I. credit: olympic.org

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Serpentine luge run winds among light support poles credit: Final Report

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Luge Course The Olympic Luge run was designed by Jan Steler, a world renowned luge engineer from Marseille, France, and was completed at a cost of $5.8 million. Mr. Steler used computer runs of curve sections and theoretical speeds to chart the original course. Construction work began on the new luge run during the fall was completed in time for the test competitions in February, 1979. This 1,000-meter run twisted down the north face of Mt. Van Hoevenberg, nearly parallel to the world famous mile long Van Hoevenberg Bobsled Run. Its vertical drop was 93.3 meters and had an average grade of 9.35%. The men’s singles competition used the entire 1000 meters while the doubles and women’s singles events were conducted over a 740.5 meter section of the run. The Mt. Van Hoevenberg Luge run had a series of 15 curves, all in conformance to the International Luge Federation’s rules. These rules dictated that a luge run’s descent must be between 9 and 12%. Each luge run in the world is designed with a special curve which marks it as unique. The Lake Placid run’s special, unique curve was called the “Omega,” which was located at a point approximately twothirds of the distance from the 1,000-meter start. The theoretical maximum speed of 57 miles per hour was reached just prior to entering this curve. The Mt. Van Hoevenberg run was lighted in conformance to Luge Federation rules which required that one event, in both Olympic and World competitions, be run at night. The lighting was designed and located in such way that the safety of the competitor was not jeopardized. Under original planning a combination luge and two man From Chamonix 1924 to Sotchi 2014: all the Olympic Bobsleigh Tracks

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Lake Placid 1980, Tobogganning credit: olympic.org

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bobsled run was planned. This plan was abandoned due to excessive costs, and with permission of the International Federation was redesigned for exclusive luge use. The refrigeration plant, which provided the assured ice in ambient air temperatures up to 50 degrees Fahrenheit, also served the adjacent Bobsled run. It had a total capacity of 843 tons which was provided by three compressors. Twenty-six miles of welded steel pipe carried the ammonia/ brine refrigerant over the 1000 meter course. To meet the requirements of the International Federation it was relatively new in the United States. The Lake Placid training program and the conduct of the luge events in the XIII Olympic Winter Games provided this sport with an enthusiastic and experienced group of individuals in the United States to stage future events and to promote the growth of luging in the States. In 1979 James Lamy was appointed Technical Director for Luge in the Olympics. Mr. Lamy, who possessed extensive experience in the sport of bobsledding, supervised the construction of the new run and, assisted by the Luge Technical Committee of the International Federation, worked tirun completely safe as well as a challenging facility. Preparation of the track and the required maintenance was provided by the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation staff working directly under the Technical Director. The spirit of cooperation that existed in this arrangement made for an effective operation of the run in the test competitions and the Olympic events. Throughout its bid preparation and during the construction and planning phases of the luge program the International Luge Federation supported Lake Placidâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s sports developers, and were continually available to offer advice in organization and the technical information necessary to construct a viable run and conduct a high caliber competition. From Chamonix 1924 to Sotchi 2014: all the Olympic Bobsleigh Tracks

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Lake Placid Olympic Bobsled Track Today Lake Placid’s 1932 and 1980 Olympic bobsled track ofPlaces during a plaque unveiling ceremony, Monday, July 12, 2010. The National Register of Historic Places is the vation. Authorized by the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, the National Park Service’s National Register of Historic Places is part of a national program to coordinate and support public and private efforts to identify, evaluate, and protect America’s historic and archeological resources. The original one-and-a-half mile long track at Mt. Van Hoevenberg was completed in Dec. 1930, in time for the 1932 Olympic Winter Games, and since that time has was during those games that Olympic two-man racing was introduced as well as the push start. In 1934, the International Bobsled Federation (FIBT) established a one-mile standard for all tracks. To accommodate the change, the top one-half mile was shut down above the Whiteface curve and the number of curves was reduced from 26 to 16, making the upper portion of the run unusable. championship races (1949, 1969, 1973, 1978, 1983) and one more Olympic event, in 1980. The 1949 Worlds also that event.

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Technical Data Total length: Competition length: Maximum gradient: Average gradient: Vertical drop: Number of curves:

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Mt. Van Hoevenberg Combination Bobsled, Skeleton & Luge Track credits: International Bobsleigh & Skeleton Federation, ibsf.org.

1680 m 1455 m 20.00 % 9.00 % 128.00 m 20

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Mt. Van Hoevenberg Track Today The bobsled track originally built in Lake Placid the Olympic Winter Games in 1932 and 1980. However, a new combination course was built to replace the aging Olympic bobsled track. Completed in 2000, the Lake Placid Combination Track is considered one of the most technically demanding tracks for sliders of all disciplines, featuring 20 challenging curves. It is considered the home track of many of the nation’s top sliders in the sports of bobsled, skeleton and luge. The track is a regular host of World Cup and other sliding competitions, last hosting the Bobsled & Skeleton World Championships in 2012. There is the most number of curves (20) for a competitive sliding track. Curves 4-9 are known as the “Devil’s Highway”, which makes or breaks a majority of athletes runs by being one of the most technically challenging sections in the world. Requiring precise technical driving motions at speeds exceeding 120km/h, athletes have to maneuver 5 curves that drop several stories in quick succession. “Benham’s Bend” (Curve 14) is one of the fastest points on the track before athletes enter a heart-shaped omega,

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Sarajevo 1984-The opening ceremony. General view of the Olympic stadium. Credit: olympic.org

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Sarajevo 1984 The main rival of Sarajevo in the race for the organization of the 1984 Games was Sapporo, former Olympic venue in 1972. Sarajevo, after winning the challenge enthusiastically accepted the assignment and within a few years it turned its layout from the urban point of view. When the possibility of Sarajevo bidding for the Olympic Winter Games was taken in account, some possible sites to create the necessary sports facilities had already been determined. At the time of candidature, Sarajevo and biathlon tracks, and FIS homologized runs for downhill, slalom and giant slalom at Mt. Jahorina. Sports facilities to be constructed were: new alpine skiing runs, ski jumps (70 skating and a combined bobsleigh/luge run, and the already existing runs for alpine skiing at Jahorina, cross country and biathlon courses were to be reconstructed, including a totally new shooting range at Igman.

XIV Winter Olympic Games Host Sarajevo, Yugoslavia Opened by President Mika Ĺ piljak Dates 8â&#x20AC;&#x201C;19 February Top Nation East Germany

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Canada’s Alan MacLachlan and Bob Wilson compete in the two man bobsleigh event at the 1984 Sarajevo Winter Olympics. credit: CP PHOTO/ COA/ Tim O’lett, http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca

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West German bobsleigh team at the 1984 Olympics. They didn't win any medals. Credits: WALLY MCNAMEE/CORBIS/CORBIS VIA GETTY IMAGES

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The Olympic bobsleigh track of Sarajevo lays abandoned on Mount TrebeviÄ&#x2021;. credit: http://www.offbeattravelling.com

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Sarajevo Today The abandoned bobsleigh track of Sarajevo is now a relic of the past, once attracted tens of thousands of spectators for the 1984 Winter Olympics, in later years became a front line in the Bosnian war. Following the breakup of Yugoslavia in 1992, the Chetniks (Serbian nationalist army) installed themselves on Mount Trebevi as part of the plan to take over parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina. For years to come, Sarajevo and its large It would become the longest siege of a capital city in the history of modern warfare. During the encirclement of Sarajevo, the Chetniks allegedly used the concrete bobsleigh track for cover. Return artillery zens of nearby houses and structures destroyed. In 1996, the border between the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Republika Srpska. Recently though, something has changed, the relic has re born, in fact an article dated 2/11/2016 from â&#x20AC;&#x153;La Stampaâ&#x20AC;? tells about the re-opening of the track.

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The Olympic bobsleigh track of Sarajevo lately reborn. Credits:http://wtop.com

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Sarajevo, the track that lived twice 130 km/h to forget the war The suits are ultra-modern, the helmets of the last generation, the track is a skeleton that has en dured hell. At Trebevic, one of the mountains surrounding Sarajevo, has almost closed the training season ars. The track is a piece of history and shows that outright, but those details on a contemporary world, blocked by the war, are pieces of life that revive a ghost forest. There is where the 1984 Games were set, thout boycotts: during the Cold War, the world has moved into a communist country. It had never hapanimated edition remained memorable. The venues were destined for success, placed in the center of Europe and a perfect site for the training of many countries. They were even desired as a federal basis and with the fall of the wall they would certainly have transformed into centers of excellence instead to became a fort. Above that track there was the artillery used by Serbian forces during the siege of Sarajevo lasted 1,425 days. It was a mined area that was struggling to keep

the writers: they wanted to color the track to give it back a bit of life, but the street art has done nothing but increase the distance between the dreams of glory and decadence. To return to vibrate the athletes is what was needed, the noise, the bobsleigh and toboggan launched rustling behind the time and for months you canâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t hear anything else. The local federation took about two years to bring the track back to an acceptable level, and from Slovakia, with a formal letter and Sarajevo has tried to answer in the most sincere way: â&#x20AC;&#x153;We are very pleased, but there is no changing room, there are no bathrooms and no electronic devices.â&#x20AC;? They came anyway and others will follow, because Sarajevo no longer has a cutting-edge facility, however, has a vintage one that has much to tell. And evidently also to offer.

not deleted, alone brought sadness, awakened by the sport they show endurance. And not only of the track. GIULIA ZONCA

in the Balkans has redesigned Yugoslavia there was La Stampa 2/11/2016 nothing left but weeds and regrets. The holes in the corners, the arrival pit, gutted dressing rooms. War photos. The site was only recently reclaimed, then they came, From Chamonix 1924 to Sotchi 2014: all the Olympic Bobsleigh Tracks

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Calgary 1988-Opening ceremony, at MacMahon stadium. Dancers, general view.

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Calgary 1988 The International Olympic Committee (IOC) awarded the honor of hosting the XV Olympic Winter Games to the City of Calgary on September 30, 1981. Prior to that, Calgary had bid three times for the Games. CODA competed for the Games with Falun, Sweden and Cortina d’Ampezzo, Italy. In September 1981, at the XI Olympic Congress in Baden-Baden, Federal Republic of Germany, Calgary was selected as the site of the XV Olympic Winter Games, winning on the second ballot over Falun. The original plan called for nordic skiing, ski jumping, bobsleigh and luge to be located at Bragg Creek, a satellite community situated in the foothills to the west of the city. In July 1983, Paskapoo (later renamed Canada Olympic Park), a recreational ski area on the outskirts of Calgary, was chosen as the site of ski jumping, bobsleigh and luge events. Canada Olympic Park (COP) was designed and built by the Government of Canada as part of its $200 million commitment to the XV Olympic Winter Games. The $72.2 million facility represents the cornerstone of the federal government’s involvement in the Games.

XV Winter Olympic Games Host Calgary, Canada Opened by Governor General Jeanne Sauvé Dates 13–28 February

the ski jumping component of nordic combined, bobsleigh and luge. From the beginning, it was clearly envisioned that Canada Olympic Park should be a multipurpose competition, training and recreation area designed for year round use by both athletes and the general public.

Top Nation Soviet Union

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Calgary 1988-Canada Olympic Park. KIPOURS Ianis and KOSLOV Vladimir (RUS-1) 1st. credit: olympic.org

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Utilizing the latest technology from the German Democratic Republic and working under the direction of bobsleigh and luge track proceeded on a fast-track construction program from the fall of 1984 to spring 1986. This building technique let to proceed on the initial stages of the The design of the bobsleigh and luge track succeeded in striking a delicate balance between course safety and speed. One of the few combined facilities in the world, the bobsleigh and luge track featured a unique tuning-fork layout. This design feature provided separate starting points and tracklines for the two sports and was selected primarily on the basis of its lower construction and maintenance costs. Approximately one-third of the way down the course, the point. Constructed with reinforced concrete, the track comprises

October through April. Sunscreens were also installed on curves directly exposed to the sun. This prevented hazardous bumps from forming on the surface of the track as a result of ice melting and the resulting drainoff freezing in shaded areas further down the track. The facility’s main electronic scoreboard is located outside curve 12 to provide information to spectators in the track interior and at the day lodge. Running time boards are located at each start house and on the brakeline. The electronic track timing system includes double phototo ensure no runs were lost due to a malfunction of a single photocell. There were also photocells located at the entrance and exit of each curve and also at the startlines to assist coaches in determining where the athlete lost and gained speed.

hours and to allow for track maintenance during the night. include one at the top of the bobsleigh course, a men’s luge The lights are strategically positioned both to prevent shastart, a men’s doubles and ladies’ luge start, a junior start dows and glare from distracting competitors and to avoid and a revenue-generating tourist start located near the bot- interfering with television camera sight lines. tom of the track. The total length of the bobsleigh portion of A practice push track is located west of the Olympic Traithe track was 1475 metres. This track featured a total of 14 ning Centre and a warm-up sprint track is located adjacent curves, eight left and six right, including a 270-degree turn. to the bobsleigh start building at the top of the site. The Spectator pathways,which also served as service vehicle start buildings provide shelter and washroom facilities for routes, follow the length of the track on both sides and pro- the competitors while the Olympic Training Centre and the vide excellent vantage points for up to 25.000 spectators. sled storage building at the base of the track provide areas The pathways are connected by underpasses located at to store and service sleds, timing and track operation equiseveral locations along the track. pment. 100 kilometres of refrigeration pipe, is capable of holding ice at air temperatures up to 20 degrees Celsius. This state-of-the-art refrigeration system contains 1100 tonnes of coolant and proved invaluable during the Games and extends the facility’s competition and training season from

out. This work included additional spectator facilities, pageantry, television-required items and changes requested by sport technical delegates. Following surveys conducted by the Host Broadcaster,

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Bobsleigh Course Diagram

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Luge Course Diagram

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Technical Data Total length: Competition length: Start altitude: Finish altitude: Maximum gradient: Average gradient: Vertical drop: Number of curves:

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Calgaryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s WinSport Bobsleigh/Luge Track credit: ibsf.org 1494 m 1494 m 1251 m 1130 m 15.00 % 8.00 % 121.00 m 19

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included the removal and relocation of various lighting structures which interfered with camera coverage, and the installation of standby generators at each television compound to ensure a continuous signal. Many trailers and tents were also used to house the Royal and construction operations personnel. In addition, tents were used as secondary equipment storage and service areas to meet the needs of bobsleigh and luge competitors.

Calgaryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s WinSport Track Today Nowadays Calgaryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s WinSport Track is listed within the Bobsleigh took place in Calgary, hosting a mayor event. nization that owns and operates Canada Olympic Park in Calgary, which is part of the legacy left by the 1988 Olympic Games. The organization built new facilities and operated, maintained and rejuvenated the facilities from the Games and is committed to supporting Canadian athletes with the creation of the Winter Sports Institute. The organization offers a wide range of activities, all year round, both to the public and to the athletes. To list some, the more attractive ones are: public bobsleigh, luge and skating, cross country, school programs, concerts and

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23 Feb 1992: General view of the closing ceremony during the Olympic Games in Albertville, France. Credit:olympic.org

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Albertville 1992 The idea of holding the Games in Savoie was not a new one, and indeed Savoieards have always considered it an obvious choice. Chamonix, a genuine mountain resort, them in 1968. So, with such Olympic experience behind them, Albertville and the Savoie could claim to be carrying on the tradition. Winter sports were well developed in the area, but not ice sports, which had no infrastructure. The local communities wanted to invest here, in bobsleigh and luge runs, in the restoration of old equipment, and the building of new ones .

XVI Winter Olympic Games Host Albertville, France Opened by President François Mitterrand Dates 8–23 February Top Nation Germany

For the bobsleigh and luge track at La Plagne its use after the Games was incorporated into its design. Despite the altitude of La Roche, the temperatures can get quite high in November and February (+17° 25 February 1991). This posed a problem for the refrigeration of the track, as it was intended to be used from 1 October to 15 March. The refrigeration is obtained by direct evaporation of the freezing liquid which is circulating in the conduits buried in the concrete of the shell, designed to keep the ice at -5° with an outside temperature of +15°. tracks. It must however be noted that the presence of spectators near the track led the DRIRE (Regional Department of Industry, Research and the Environment) to ask for reinforced safety measures concerning the detection of leaks (which can lead to the pumps stopping or the liquid network being sectioned off), the mechanical protection of the extraction of polluted air, which was taken back to the

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SITE PLAN - OFFICIAL REPORT, LA PLAGNE OLYMPIC SPORT VENUE BOBSLEIGH-LUGE Team Captains’ Meeting Draw 2 Timing Tower 3 Weighing Room 4 Refrigeration Machinery 5 Men’s luge start

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6 Women’s and double luge start 8 Bobsleighs garage 14 Scoreboard 15 Doping Control 16 Athletes’ Medical centre 46 Recognition Ceremonies Area

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cold-production unit (and mixed with diluents on the way). The track is a kind of huge, very sophisticated refrigerator. 6 500 m3 of concrete are cooled to -15° by an 80 km complex of 10 cm conduits in which the liquid ammonia gas circulates. The water is projected manually and produces a layer of ice 4 cm thick which is kept at a temperature of -7° to -10°. The outside of the track is insulated and covered with wood. The track stands on adjustable metal supports. A 40 km network of pipes is buried in the ground to link the controls, computers, etc.). The bobsledders can reach speeds of 130 km/h and withstand pressures of up to 4G.

Environment Considerations In order to assess the effects on the environment of the construction of the Olympic amenities, Michel Barnier, President of COJO and President of the General Council of Savoie ordered an impact study to be carried out, at the expense of the General Council, by a company of specialists from Grenoble. This study, carried out when work on the Olympic venues side, the natural environment, water, natural risks and the urban environment. Heavy items of equipment, such as ski-jumping slopes, the bobsleigh track and the skating ring, and other excavation work left their mark on the surrounding countryside, without, however, being considered as permanent alterations to the site. The bobsleigh track at La Plagne has caused deterioration of the forest cover, but it is also responsible for the restoration of the countryside surrounding the nearby hamlet, an old mining settlement. Plantations of young trees have allowed a more acceptable environmental integration of the track. From Chamonix 1924 to Sotchi 2014: all the Olympic Bobsleigh Tracks

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10 Feb 1992: General view of a competitor in action during the Menâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Single Luge event during the 1992 Winter Olympic Games held in Albertville, France. Credit: Pascal Rondeau/Allsport On the right page On the top: Albertville 1992-Competitors during the event. At La Plagne. KRAUSSE Stefan and BEHRENDT Jan (GER) 1st. Credit: olympic.org On the bottom: Construction work of the track

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The works undertaken for the Games, roads and sporting amenities) proved to be biologically harmful to the rivers and streams. At La Plagne (bobsleigh track) and MĂŠribel (skating rink) the streams have disappeared into the morass created by the excavations.

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Technical Data Total length: Competition length: Start altitude: Finish altitude: Maximum gradient: Average gradient: Vertical drop: Number of curves:

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La Plagne Olympic Bobsleigh Track credit: ibsf.org 1707,5 m 1507,5 m 1684 m 1559 m 14.00 % 8.00 % 124.00 m 19

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La Plagne Olympique Bobsleigh track Today The track consists of 6,500 cubic metres (8,500 cu yd) of concrete cooled by 80 km (50 mi) of 10 cm (3.9 in) diameter glycol refrigeration piping that can keep the track cooled. nia cooling system to glycol. The track offers speed luge and bob taxi services for tourists with the driver Bruno Mingeon, World Champion and Bobsleigh Olympic medal, and also services with no driver riding a four-man-bob with an automatic braking system that speeds up to 80km/h or mono-bob that speeds up to 90km/h.

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Lillehammer 1994-The opening ceremony. At Lysgaardsbakkene. Prince Haakon lightening the Olympic flame.

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Lillehammer 1994 A separate consultancy group was established for developing and following up on the premises laid down for “surroundings and architecture”. The group consisted of an architect, an industrial designer, a landscape architect and a specialist in environmental protection. These people developed a set of general premises, as In the general premises, emphasis was put on the following: - Norwegian distinctiveness - Environmental protection - Aesthetic quality mises were concretised based on the site’s geography, topography, surroundings, need for functionality and type of sport.

XVII Winter Olympic Games Host Lillehammer, Norway Opened by King Harald V Dates 12–27 February Top Nation Russia

The combined bobsleigh and luge track is situated in the forest at Hunderfossen 15 kilometres northwest of Lillehamnavia. Norwegian consultants and contractors during the planning were assisted by specialists with experience from Olympic facilities in La Plagne, Calgary and tracks in the former East Germany, in order to accomplish the extensive plan ning and construction work. In December 1989, LOOC decided on the location for the track, and on 24 August 1990 the arena placement and a public grant were approved and adopted by the Government. The track, which has been designated as a national facility for the Bobsleigh and Luge sports, was completed 1 October 1992. The price was NOK 201 million. The facility

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Lillehammer 1994-Competitors during the event. At Hunderfossen. HACKL Georg (GER) 1st. Credits: olympic.org

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is owned by Lillehammer Development through the subsidiary Hunderfossen Bobsleigh and Luge Track AS. The architects for the building were Lillehammer Architect Team. Technical data The ammonia-based refrigeration system provides maximum operational security in that the cooling pipes are enclosed in an underground, concrete culvert. This was immediately in case of leaks, and a well-drilled emergency programme has been developed. Pressure tests and extensive x-ray control on pipes and pipe parts have shown that the risk of leaks is minimal. The track shell itself is separate and built of reinforced concrete, consisting of in all 31 separate sections along the 1710 metres of track. In all, 16 curves give the track a competition length of 1365 metres for Luge single men and 1065 metres for Luge single women and double men. The starting point is 384 metres above sea level, and the lowest point is 233.5 metres above sea level. The height difference is 112 metres, and the average fall is 8% (max. 15%). 24 photocells have been installed for time-keeping during training and competitions. Athletes can reach a top velocity of 130 km/h (up to 4 G). titors to safely slow down and stop. The competition disciplines include Two- man bobsleigh, Four-man bobsleigh, Luge men and women and Luge double men. An ultra-modern refrigeration facility with an effect of 3100 Kw and 90 tonnes ammonia circulating in 80 kilometres of pipes (divided into 94 sections) allows to keep the track iced even with outdoor temperatures up to +20 CÂ°. In all, 85 sensors monitor ice temperature, and the most exposed parts of the track are protected against direct sunlight. Environmental considerations Environmental safety and economic reasons led to cho -

se a combined track with separate starting points for Bobsleigh and Luge. The track is adapted to the main contours in the terrain, and by demanding that the surrounding vegetation be spared, the form of the track harmonises rather than dominates the landscape. By consciously using wooden materials, natural stone and turf and adapting all structures and buildings in colour and shape, the track is a functional sculpture in a large recreational area. Roads on both sides of the track and several underpasses ensure access for service and maintenance staff, and offer Emphasis was put on environmental considerations when planning this track. By shaping the track to the contours of the surrounding landscape, the track blends into the landscape. There is also an extensive security system to protect against ammonia leaks, as previously explained. Due to environmental and security considerations, this venue was moved from the Olympia Park in Lillehammer to a site 15 km north of Lillehammer. The track design was adapted to the landscape of the area. The trackâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s main contours have been adapted to and sunk into the terrain. Trees were left standing close to the track (for shade). Walls were built of natural stone. The track was built to face north in order to save energy. Fines up to NOK 50 000 could be issued to contractors for inadvertently felling large pine trees. Extensive use of wooden materials, natural stone and turf. Maximum possible safety protection for the refrigeration facility (ammonia). The refrigeration pipes were embedded in the trackâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s concrete shell and laid under ground.

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Lillehammer 1994-At Hunderfossen. USA-2: SHIMER Brian,LETURGEZ Bryan, KIRBY Karlos, JONES Randy. credits: olympic.org

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The track was designed with both speed and safety in mind. Modern sound and lighting increase the facility’s appeal. An ordinary operational season of four months (November to March) status as a national facility for two sports – makes the Lillehammer Olympic Bobsleigh and Luge Track a natural focal point for athletes in and outside of Scandinavia. During the summer of 1993, a specially designed “wheelbob” was popular among tourists. The track is also ideal for Bobsleigh and Luge schools. To improve the bobsleigh and luge broadcasts, very large platforms had to be raised (up to 17m high). The commentator positions were based on the best view for commentators to the scoreboard and to the last part of the track.

Lillehammer Olympic Bobsleigh and Luge Track Credits: Official report of the XVII OLympic Winter Games Lillehammer 1994

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Technical Data Total length: Competition length: Start altitude: Finish altitude: Maximum gradient: Average gradient: Vertical drop: Number of curves:

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Lillehammer Olympic Sliding Centre credit: ibsf.org 1710 m 1365 m 384 m 223 m 15.00 % 8.00 % 112.00 m 16

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Lillehammer Olympic Sliding Centre Today track in Scandinavia which in addition to national and international sport exercise, offers a range of different activities both winter and summer. The facility covers a large area that can be used for special events, competitions and ceremonies for groups.

Wheelbob

The wheel-bobs are in operation throughout the summer season. Each wheel-bob seats 4 passengers -- in addition to an authorized pilot, and reaches speeds up to 100 km/hr.

Bobrafting

A bobraft is a rubber bobsled for use on ice. There is room for 5-6 persons in addition to an authorized pilot. Speeds reach up to 100 km/hr and riders are subject to up to 3G during the ride.

Four-man bobsleigh

The bobsleigh is run by an authorized pilot and there is room for three passengers. Speeds reach up to 120 km/hr and up to 5G.

Skeleton

Speeds reach up to 70 km/hr. Activity within the Park In addition to bobsledding, there is a separate activity park where they offer group activities such as riding, trapeze, and a 2,500 m2 outdoor Paintball arena. that can be used as a lounge, meeting rooms, etc. Time-taking, scoreboard and sound systems are available for use during special events. From Chamonix 1924 to Sotchi 2014: all the Olympic Bobsleigh Tracks

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Nagano 1998-The opening ceremony-the doves. credit: olympic.org

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Nagano 1998 With the ideals of “respect for the beauty and bounty of nature” and “furtherance of peace and goodwill” embodied in the Vision for the Nagano Games, NAOC planned the Games around the concept “Games from the Heart – Together with Love”, and set three fundamental goals for realizing this: 1. Participation of Children 2. Homage to Nature 3. Festival of Peace and Friendship A variety of innovative programmes were introduced to en-

XVIII Winter Olympic Games Host Nagano, Japan Opened by Emperor Akihito Dates 7–22 February

the IOC was held, and was attended by 217 youths from 51 countries. Furthermore, all children’s tickets to sports events were half price, and 100,000 tickets were reserved exclusively for children. Thousands of children experienced portunities for exchange and discussion with the athletes. Through this, they amassed treasured memories of peace and goodwill to last their lifetimes as they lead us into the next century. For the Winter Games, coexistence with nature takes on and bounty of nature was given priority at every stage in preparing for the Nagano Games. For example, the bobature two uphill sections that followed the natural contours of the mountain, and used no environmentally-damaging freon gas for ice making.

Top Nation Germany

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Following the contours of the terrain, the bobsleigh / luge course goes spiralling down the mountain. In the background, Mt. Iizuna and the freestyle skiing venue. Credits: The XVIII Olympic Winter Ga-

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Spiral Bobsleigh-Skeleton- Luge Track The bobsleigh and luge competitions for the Nagano Ganue name â&#x20AC;&#x153;Spiralâ&#x20AC;? was inspired by the winding track and dynamic movements of the sleds. Respect for nature is the world to have two uphill sections. Temporary structures erected included a venue operations facility, RTV house, sub press centre, and bobsleigh storage facility. Commentary booths and commentary editing booths were set up adjacent to the track itself. Temporary spectator grandstands for the Olympic Family, with approximately 154 seats near the bobsleigh start house, and 132 Spiral continued to be used post - Games for competitions in winter, and as a family leisure park in summer. Environmental Measures A revolutionary indirect refrigeration system was installed utilising a freezing agent run through multiple pipes embedded in the concrete course. As well as being much safer, the amount of ammonia used was under 800kg, which represents a huge reduction from direct refrigeration methods in which ammonia itself runs through the pipes in the track. Freezing equipment was installed at three points along the track to reduce the effect of any equipment malfunction to the absolute minimum. Rocks and trees dug up during construction were used as materials for building settling ponds and retaining walls to prevent landslides. To restore the original vegetation at the venue as rapidly as possible, topsoil removed during construction was preserved and returned to the site once the groundwork was completed. Approximately 40,000 indiger. From Chamonix 1924 to Sotchi 2014: all the Olympic Bobsleigh Tracks

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nous broadleaf beech and oak saplings were planted two per square meter. Furthermore, rare wild plants were transplanted and space left under perimeter fencing to allow small animals to pass through freely. The track at Spiral, designed to follow the natural contours ld to feature two uphill sections. An innovative indirect cooling method utilised for ice making required less than 1/60 the amount of environmentally damaging ammonia used in direct cooling methods at the Lillehammer bobsleigh / luge course. With the enthusiastic support of local residents, numerous tree planting programmes were carried out to commemorate the Games and to restore natural forest areas within the city. For example, approximately 40,000 tree saplings were planted around the bobsleigh / luge venue.

Venue area approximately 18 ha Bobsleigh start house: wood construction,1 storey approx. 100m2 Start House 1: reinforced concrete, wood construction, 2 storeys approx. 500m2 Start House 2: reinforced concrete, wood construction, 2 storeys approx. 350m2 Storage facility: steel-framed, 1 storey approx. 400m2 Admin. building / Finish House: reinforced concrete construction, 3 storeys approx. 1,010m2 Weighing House: wood construction approx.2 220 m2 Equipment sheds (3): reinforced concrete, 2 storeys approx. 1,400m2 Spectator capacity approximately 10,000

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Technical Data Total length: Competition length: Start altitude: Finish altitude: Maximum gradient: Average gradient: Vertical drop: Number of curves:

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Nagano Bobsleigh and Luge Park credit: http://www.obayashi.co.jp 1700 m 1360 m 1028 m 922 m 15.00 % 7.00 % 112.00 m 15

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Nagano Bobsleigh and Luge Park Today Spiral is one of the most southern bobsleigh and track in Asia. Respect for nature, which is expressed in the sign which features an indirect ammonia refrigeration system. Further, the design includes two uphill slopes that allow the track to conform to the natural topography. After the Games, the facilities have been used for competitions and recreation. Nagano Bobsleigh-Luge Park has been created in the surrounding area, and after the Games it is used as an event facility and a leisure facility. The incorporation of rolling vehicles is used as a ride for summer.

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24 Feb 2002: The Children of Light enter the stadium during the Closing Ceremony of the Salt Lake City Winter Olympic Games at the Rice-Eccles Olympic Stadium in Salt Lake City, Utah. DIGITAL IMAGE. Credit: Elsa/Getty

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Salt lake City 2002 A statewide referendum held in November 1989 showed overwhelming public approval for the Olympic Winter Games. The Utah legislature responded in January 1990 and created the Utah Sports Authority, which was in charge of developing Utah’s winter sports facilities. The Games saw the expansion of the Olympic programme to 78 events, including the return of skeleton and the introduction of women’s bobsleigh. The revenues from the state tax funded the construction of the Utah Winter Sports Park, which would later be renovated into the Utah Olympic Park, site of the ski jumping, nordic combined (jumping portion), bobsleigh, luge and skeleton events. Located Outside of Park City, Utah Olympic Park provides cutting-edge facilities for ski jumping, bobsleigh, skeleton and luge. leton and luge competitions, the National Institute of Stan-

XIX Winter Olympic Games Host Salt Lake City, United States Opened by President George W. Bush Dates 8–24 February Top Nation Norway

NIST conducted start-to-end tests to measure the accuracy of the complete system, not just the timing device. During homologation testing, functionality was addressed, but the measurement accuracy wasn’t. NIST used its cesium fountain atomic clock as the time base for these tests, which was extremely stable and accurate. NIST tests showed that SLOC’s bobsleigh, skeleton and luge track was accurate down to 0.25 milliseconds. According to the tests, the UOP track was the most accurate track in world. Three other tracks have since copied the design changes that were originally implemented at UOP.

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luge men’s start

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track public standing public seating

Above: Gale, Tristan, 1st, individual, Salt Lake City 2002, SKELETON, United States of America, women Credits: www.olympic.org On the side: scheme of the track during the Winter Olympic Games

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Utah Olympic Park Track New disciplines introduced The first-ever women's Olympic bobsleigh competition was set in Salt Lake City for the first time. In 1997, five teams asking to compete in 2002 were told that due to a lack of international interest in the sport, not to mention the dearth of teams, even inclusion at the 2006 Games was far-fetched. The year 2010 seemed a more reasonable goal. So athletes from Switzerland, Germany, Great Britain, Canada and the United States began a letter-writing campaign to the sport's international federation, the IOC and the Salt Lake Organizing Committee. These athletes recruited women from other nations to form their own teams. The movement grew, far exceeding anyone's expectations. Olympic status was granted to women's bobsleigh on October 2, 1999, for inclusion in the Salt Lake 2002 Games. Also skeleton was a “new entry” in the olympic program. Actually it returned to Olympic Winter Games competition after a 54-year absence. Its last appearance was in St. Moriz 1948, at the Cresta run, the homeland of this sport, but Salt Lake City hosted for the very first time skeleton women’s competition. Thirteen athletes represented 10 nations in the first women's skeleton race in Olympic Winter Games history, in fact in St, Moritz this discipline was not open to women even today, women are not allowed to slide down the Cresta Run.

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Luge athletes ready to start. XIX Olympic Winter Games Salt Lake 2002.

On the right page On the top: Skeleton athlete competing. XIX Olympic Winter Games Salt Lake 2002. On the bottom: Andre Lange competing at the 2002 Salt Lake City Olympic Winter Games. Credits: ÂŠ2002 / GETTY

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TRAINING: On site LOCATION: Utah Olympic Park; 3000 Bear Hollow Drive TEMPERATURE: Average February: -5.5 C/24 F S N O W F A L L : Average February: 73.2 cm / 28.8 in; Average annual: 543.6 cm / 214 in ALTITUDE: Base: 2097 m / 6880 ft; Summit: 2356 m / 7330 ft U S E A G R E E M E N T : Ownership was transferred from the Utah Sports Authority to SLOC on 15 April 1999 POSTOLYMPIC USE: Bobsleigh, skeleton and luge training and competition site GROSS CAPACITY: 15,000 COMPETITION DAYS: 11 BOBSLEIGH - 125 Sport volunteers - 197 male participants, 30 female participants, 35 NOCs - 100 percent of tickets sold, 74,187 total spectators, largest crowd on 23 February (15,520 spectators), an average 14,837 spectators for each session - Six test and training events from 1999–2002 SKELETON - 125 Sport volunteers - 26 male participants, 13 female participants, 19 NOCs - Two events, one session on one competition day - 100 percent of tickets sold, 14,860 total spectators - Six test and training events from 1999–2002 LUGE - 133 Sport volunteers - 83 male participants, 29 female participants, 26 NOCs - 100 percent of tickets sold, 64,104 total spectators, largest crowd on 11 February (13,859 spectators), an average 12,820 spectators for each session - Six test and training events from 1999–2002

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Technical Data Total length: Competition length: Start altitude: Finish altitude: Maximum gradient: Average gradient: Vertical drop: Number of curves:

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Utah Olympic Park credit: ibsf.org 1570 m 1335 m 2232 m 2128 m 15.00 % 8.00 % 104 m 15

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Utah Olympic Park Today Located in Park City, and cradled by the Wasatch Mountains, the 389-acre Utah Olympic Park venue is open year-round to visitors. The venue is home to six Nordic Ski Jumps (K10, K20, K40, start areas, freestyle aerials winter training and competition hill, and 750,000-gallon training pool. It also features the Joe Quinney Winter Sports Center, which houses both the Alf Engen Ski Museum and George S. and Dolores Doré Eccles 2002 Olympic Winter Games Museum. Utah Olympic Park hosts several sport program such as G-Force: a development program for bobsled and skeleton. This is a feeder program for the U.S. Bobsled and Skeleton Federation. As a part of this program athletes learn the gressive sequence of training opportunities for young and developing athletes helping them build a solid foundation dence and safety. nization responsible for maintaining the Olympic facilities at world-class levels and using them to provide opportunities for people of all ages and abilities to watch, learn and excel in winter sports. Propelled by the success and momentum of the 2002 Games, its core missions are to: - Maintain, operate, and enhance Olympic Legacy Facilities - Engage and involve more people, especially Utah’s youth, in winter sport - Ensure long term viability & relevance of Utah’s Olympic Legacy efforts From Chamonix 1924 to Sotchi 2014: all the Olympic Bobsleigh Tracks

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Closing Ceimony, 26 February 2006, brides creating a mass coreography credit: http://balichws.com/torino-2006/

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Torino 2006 The Cesana Pariol track, which hosted all the bobsleigh, skeleton and luge events, is one of the most impressive works of the entire Olympic System. Designed and created by a mixed pool of Italian and German companies, it turned out to be a very technical and demanding course, albeit affording a high level of safety. It is 1,435 m long with a drop of 114 m, and there are a total of 19 bends (11 left- handers and 8 right-handers). The maximum speed attainable is around 130 km/h. The so-called “Toro” section, characterised by three curves (6-7-8) in succession, is the most technically demanding part of the course. In addition to the competition start, the track has a further three starting points (“Junior”, “Practice” and “Kids”). All the competitions ran smoothly, with the track well-prepared; no technical problems were encountered, despite detions - and the consequent short period of true preparation for the Games. The two Federations concerned - the International Luge Federation (FIL) and the International Bobsleigh and Skeleton Federation (FIBT) - were regularly involved in the planning

XX Winter Olympic Games Host Torino, Italy Opened by President Carlo Azeglio Ciampi Dates 10–26 February Top Nation Germany

the decision to change the intended site of the course (from ves 17 and 18. These changes were requested by the FIL on account of accidents experienced by less experienced athletes during the Sport Events of 2005. After some initial perplexity on the part of the FIBT, which already regarded the track as fully suited to requirements, the two Federations, with mediation from TOROC, reached an agreement to simplify parts of the track for the luge events without detracting from its technical level, which had been the FIBT’s

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Site plan during the Games Technical Data Total length: Start altitude: Finish altitude: Average gradient: Vertical drop: Number of curves:

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1435 m 1683 m 1,569 m 9,1 % 114 m 19

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concern. The installations at Cesana Pariol, facing Monte Chaberton on the frontier between Italy and France, were the scene of the luge, skeleton and bobsleigh events. It was fundamentally important in this situation to design a course which would meet the demands of all the events held on It, respecting the different technical criteria and giving athletes in these three disciplines the opportunity to perform to the highest standard. The Venue management team (consisting of the Venue, Site and Sport Managers) began planning the bobsleigh track in 2002. The key to the development of the Venue itself as was the collaboration with the two International Federations concerned (FIL for luge, FIBT for bobsleigh and skeleton). They were involved at all stages in the design and construction of the course, beginning with the choice of site, which had to comply with international standards. Thanks to TOROCâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s mediation, the two Federations were 18, after a postponement of the Luge World Cup to February 2005. This made it possible to create an extremely demanding track, technically suitable for all three disciplines and approved by both Federations. During the 2004/2005 winter season, when the bobsleigh, skeleton and luge World Championships were held at Cesena Pariol, the Venue team was able to test all operational aspects and improve the course. To ensure adequate snow cover on these courses but also on biathlon circuits (Cesana San Sicario) and on alpine skiing runs (San Sicario Fraiteve) two new storage reservoirs capacity in Rougies and 31,100 m3 capacity in the Italsider area). The Venue had room for 7,130 spectators, 4,400 of them From Chamonix 1924 to Sotchi 2014: all the Olympic Bobsleigh Tracks

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Andre Lange competing at the 2006 Turin Olympic Winter Games. credit: ÂŠ2006 / GETTY

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seated. During its period of activity from 11 to 25 February, the number of tickets sold for each event ranged from a minimum of 900 to a maximum of 5,800. Themost popular competition was menâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s luge, as the favourite for the gold medal was Italian, but the bobsleigh competitions were also very well attended. There was a media presence of 160 journalists and television commentators, and the coverage devoted to the events was substantially positive. Despite some changes in the composition of the Venue Team in the months preceding the Games, the Venue active planning.

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Cesana Pariol Bobsleigh Track, 27th January 2016. Credits: photo by Politecnico di Torino

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Cesana Pariol Track Pre & Post-olympic phase Cesana bobsleigh track has a controversial history, as in most of the tracks, it was not easy to find the location because the terrain has to have the right slope, not too steep, not too flat. Since the first Olympic, experience has proven the importance of building the track in a shaded place, preferably on the north side of the mountain. In numerous official reports this aspect is often mentioned. The first hypothesis at the time of the nomination of Turin was to build the track on the northern slope of the hill of Superga. Because systems of this type are highly invasive and are difficult to reconcile with the mountain. The Superga hypothesis was promptly rejected. Then came the Beaulard hypotheses, also rejected because of a landslide in motion that would have compromised the work. Finally another site was identified in Juvenceaux above Oulx. But soon serious problems arose also in this site: the terrain at Juvenceaux had strong concentrations of asbestos rock. A new brilliant idea came out: to use the venue of La Plagne, built in 1992 for the Winter Olympic Games in Albertville, France, no further than 90 km from the Valle di Susa. The state govenance did not approve saying that the facility had to remain in Italy and representatives of CONI argued that Italy couldnâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;t lose its bob and luge facility, since the historical track of Cortina would be closed shortly. A fifth site was identified in Pariol, in the municipality of Cesana, where the track was finally constructed. Cesana pariol during its short post-olympics phase hosted three main events the World Bobsleigh Cup in 2009 and 2011 and the World Luge Championships in 2011. In 2011 the track closed definitively.

After the shutdown controversy were not spared. As expected, operating costs had proved to be very high. Different sources talk about figures ranging between 600,000 and 1,300,000 Euros, which it is not a small swing. In October 2012 the emptying of the tanks containing ammonia began, nearly 50 tons, used to cool the facility were taken away. Afterwards, hopes for a reopening were never turned off completely. More or less visionary proposals have been made. The local hoteliers had offered to create a company to mantain the track and to continue its operation. Recent news involved the interests of the clubMed to create a resort with 1,000 beds. The majority group of the Movimento 5 Stelle of the City of Turin has filed a motion in which the mayor and the council reaffirmed their opposition to the planned construction of the Club Med vacation village in Val Susa. The reason of this 'no' vote would be to avoid "real estate speculation, which jeopardizes the landscapeâ&#x20AC;?. â&#x20AC;&#x153;The mayor and the council should take the lead of the possibility to reuse the bobsleigh track in Cesana, through a dialogue with sports federations and with potentially involved parties" said the representatives of the movement. In conclusion the story of the track is still open, certainly is very difficult to find a solution that puts all parties in agreement.

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Cesana Pariol Bobsleigh Track, 12th March 2016, picture taken from the cableway. Credits: photo by the author

Cesana Pariol Bobsleigh Track, 27th January 2016. Credits: photo by the author

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Cesana Pariol Bobsleigh Track, 12th March 2016, picture taken from the ski slope. Credits: photo by the author

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The lighting of the cauldron at the Vancouver 2010 Opening Ceremony. Credits: ÂŠIOC/John Huet

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Vancouver 2010 The Bid Society envisioned the bobsleigh and luge course would be built on Grouse Mountain in North Vancouver. It would run between existing ski runs on the mountain, visible from anywhere in the city and marked by the Olympic Rings. It would be seen as the backdrop for the awards ceremonies from the plaza at the Vancouver Trade and Convention Centre in downtown Vancouver. Skeleton, formerly part of the Olympic program in earlier years, was reintroduced as part of the sport program for Salt Lake 2002. The venue would hold 20,000 spectators and would be a 45-minute drive, plus a 10-minute gondola ride, from the Olympic Village in Vancouver. The venue would be entirely new, designed to exceed expectations for competition and environmental sustainability, with a legacy of recreational and competitive use after the Games.

XXI Winter Olympic Games Host Vancouver, Canada Opened by Governor General Michaëlle Jean Dates 12–28 February Top Nation Canada

Candidate City Questionnaire Before submitting the international bid, the Vancouver 2010 Bid Corporation moved the venue to a track located 15 kilometres from the athletes’ village in Whistler. The new facility would allow for 12,000 spectators, be completed in two years and cost $34.2 million USD. Candidature File By the time the Candidature File was submitted, the name was changed to the Whistler Sliding Centre. It would host all three events (bobsleigh, luge and skeleton), and ownership would be transferred to the Whistler Legacy Society (the Whistler Legacy Society, now Whistler 2010 Sport Le-

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Kerstin Szymkowiak competing Skeleton Individual Women at the 2010 Vancouver Olympic Winter Games. Credits: ÂŠ 2010/GETTY

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tes three 2010 Winter Games facilities post Games — the Whistler Sliding centre, Whistler olympic/paralympic park and the Whistler athletes’ centre) after the Games were completed. The location would take advantage of the cooler temperatures and alpine landscape, in addition to capitalizing on Whistler’s ready-made tourism industry. The tourism-related recreational use of the track after the Games was viewed as a critical factor in the facility’s long-term economic sustainability, and considered a means of minimizing the necessary funds required for ongoing operations. The longest of the three sport competitions to take place there, the men’s luge, with 17 curves and a course length of 1,312 metres, was planned to an average grade of 9.2 cent and a minimum grade of four per cent. The budget increased slightly, to almost $35.5 million USD. The planned spectator capacity of 12,000, from the Candidate City Questionnaire, would be maintained. Completion Site preparation for The Whistler Sliding Centre began on June 6, 2005; the venue was ultimately completed and opened in December 2007. The construction program included a 1,450-metre concrete track, track weather protection sydings, control and timing system, a refrigeration plant and access road system. The formal public opening took place in fall 2008. The Whistler Sliding Centre hosted bobsleigh, luge and skeleton competitions at the Vancouver 2010 Olympic Winter Games. The venue is situated on Blackcomb Mountain, complementing the other adventure-oriented activities offered by the area. In its post-Games life the venue serves as a legacy for the enjoyment of local residents, visitors and high-performance athletes. The facility operates as a centre From Chamonix 1924 to Sotchi 2014: all the Olympic Bobsleigh Tracks

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club programs and tourist passenger rides and venue tours, building the legacy of the 2010 Winter Games. The Whistler Sliding Centre was built at a cost of $104.9 million, funded jointly by the governments of British Columbia and Canada. One of only 15 tracks in the world, the highest speed reached on the track in its opening season was 147.9 kilometres per hour in the four-man bobsleigh with an elevation change of over 150 metres. nue planning and included: • smart site selection — adjacent to previously developed areas within a major ski area (such as ski trails, parking lots) • a site designed to minimize required vegetation clearing and to reduce facility footprint (such as soft edging and tree islands) • long-term operations and revenue generation opportunities through athlete training facility and visitor use Whistler business energy use include: • ammonia refrigeration system — ammonia is one of the rocarbons (which contribute to ozone-layer depletion and global climate change) • track shading and weather protection system • tree retention to cast shade • track painted white to minimize heat absorption • capture and reuse of waste heat from refrigeration plant Post-Games Use The Whistler Sliding Centre now operates under the di-

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rection of Whistler 2010 Sport Legacies, supported by an endowment trust established by the federal and provincial governments as part of their 2010 Winter Games venues investment The Whistler Sliding Centre will showcase sliding sports by hosting international competitions and developing sliding sports opportunities in the local communities. Its location, near several of the resortâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s world-class hotels, will attract many tourists, providing a sustainable revenue stream towards the centreâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s long-term operations. The venue features a new 1,450-metre competition-length concrete sliding track, refrigeration facilities, support buildings and an access road. The Whistler Sliding Centre hosted Sport Events for bobsleigh, luge and skeleton. Over the 13 days of sliding competition, athletes competed for 24 Olympic medals,

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Whistler Sliding Centre credit: ibsf.org Technical Data Total length: Competition length: Start altitude: Finish altitude: Maximum gradient: Average gradient: Vertical drop: Number of curves:

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Starting points 1700 m 1450 m 935 m 802 m 20.00 % 9.00 % 148 m 16

men/women Ice maintenance ned daily by hand Cooling system/refrigeration plant Track cooled with ammonia; fully computer operated Over 100km of refrigeration piping 4 compressors pump out 2100hp at maximum capacity LEEDS Gold standard from â&#x20AC;&#x153;Canada Green Building Councilâ&#x20AC;?

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Whistler Sliding Centre Today The Whistler Sliding Centre is home to the fastest ice track in the world. Since hosting the bobsleigh, skeleton and luge competitions during the Vancouver 2010 Olympic and Paralympic Winter Games, the Whistler Sliding Centre continues to challenge the sportsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; most elite athletes with international competitions, recruiting camps, and ongoing youth programs. Visitors are invited to tour the state-ofsenger bobsleigh (winter and summer) and skeleton rides (winter only) down part of the ice track. As a National Training Centre for Sliding Sports, the Whistler Sliding Centre supports athlete development in all three sliding disciplines in co-operation with the BC Luge Association and the BC Bobsleigh & Skeleton Association. Athletes train in the Learn to Luge program and in the Skeleton and Bobsleigh Driving School. Also national and development team and international sliding athletes and teams frequently use the track as training venue. Whistler Sliding Centre is one of only 15 internationally sanctioned competition sliding tracks in the world and regularly hosts regional, national and international competitions for Luge and for Bobsleigh/Skeleton (average of six events per year on World Cup, Intercontinental Cup, North Americaâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Cup and Provincial levels). The track deals over 17,000 runs in one winter season (public and athletes)

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A general view of sunset at the Olympic Park during the Opening Ceremony of the Sochi 2014 Winter Olympics at Fisht Olympic Stadium. Credits: GETTY IMAGES

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Sochi 2014 Even before the decision of the IOC Executive Board concerning the Candidate Cities for 2014, Sochi 2014 Polyana, which lay to the east of Rosa Khutor at the farthest end of the Krasnaya Polyana area. This area had come to the forefront of interest because technical experts in bob-

XXII Winter Olympic Games Host Sochi, Russia Opened by President Vladimir Putin Dates 7â&#x20AC;&#x201C;23 February Top Nation Russia

ideal location for a world-class sliding track in this Grushevaya Polyana area. Sites for ski jumping and a Mountain Village were examined. The area lay very close to the border of the Caucasus Biosphere, which might cause environmental impact; Ample land existed to establish a Mountain Village, which would be an excellent legacy facility in support of the bobsleigh venue, should it be located in this area. In order to minimise environmental risks, three venues (the Mountain Olympic village, Laura biathlon and cross-country ski stadium and Sanki bobsleigh track) have been relocated at the design stage from the zones of potential environmental impact on Grushevaya Polyana to their present locations on Psekhako and Aibga Ridges. The Sliding Centre Sanki, with its 5,000 seat capacity, hosted the competitions for three of the fastest Olympic sports and disciplines â&#x20AC;&#x201D; luge, bobsleigh and skeleton; it has become a unique site on an international scale. The Sliding Centre was built on the northern slope of the Aibga ridge with the track totalling 1,814 m. It was the only one among all the existing tracks with three so-called counter slopes to satisfy the speed requirements. The excess counter slope was added to ensure the additional safety

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Italyâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s Emanuel Rieder speeds down the track during a menâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s luge training at the Sanki sliding center in Rosa Khutor, a venue for the Sochi 2014 Winter Olympics near Sochi. Credits: darkroom.baltimoresun.com, REUTERS/Arnd Wiegmann

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of the competitors. The well thought-out turn design was a success in terms of overall safety with not a single serious incident throughout the Olympic Winter Games. The maximum speed reached by the athletes on the track was almost 140 km/h. The bobsleigh track for the Olympic Winter Games in Sochi was located at Krasnaya Polyana in the Alpika-Service mountain and climatic resort. The track runs through the northern slope of the Aibga Ridge in Sochi’s Krasnaya Polyana, protected from direct sunlight. During the Winter Games of 2014, competitions in luge, bobsleigh and skeleton were held there. The Russian name «Sanki» (meaning «sledge») not only conveys the functional purpose of the sports venue, but dges, sleighs and snow saucers has been a traditional Russian pastime since the time of Peter I. Sledges are an integral part of winter leisure for all children in Russia. For Russians, this word is a source of positive emotions and pleasant childhood memories. The word «Sanki» also sounds good in most foreign languages. The Sliding Centre Sanki in Sochi is the longest and only course in the world with three counter-slopes. In building the venue, state-of- the-art ice preparation technology was used, ensuring precise and consistent temperature control. The total length of the tracks is 1,814 metres, with 314 metres of braking zone. On the athletes’ route there were 17 turns in the bobsleigh and skeleton, as well as in the men’s singles luge, and 16 for women’s luge and men’s pairs. The highest speed the athletes gain is about 135 km/h. As far as possible, the track imitates the area’s existing terrain, its highest point being situated at 836 metres above sea level and the lowest at 704 metres.

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Sledding uphill Uphill bobsled course sections have been used in the past but no Olympic course has ever had three of them. “In general, most athletes are used to driving tracks that go continuously downhill or at least flat,” Gudzowsky said. “So when you design an uphill section into the track it’s not something that the athletes may have a lot experience driving.” Terry Gudzowsky is a former mem ber of the Canadian national team, a coach, and former director of the Canadian Olympic Committee, the Canadian president of Sochi track design consortium ISC/IBG Group. The last uphill section was included because the topography needed that the track crossed over itself to allow for a sufficient slowdown area after the finish line.

Sanki Sliding Center, sledding uphill credit: www.washingtonpost.com

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The track rises up the hill from a river valley in a a great physical setting. The site is very compact. It’s relatively steep, not very long and not very wide. This limited the kinds of design elements that could be incorporated. On this track there are 17 corners and what’s unique about it is that there are three uphill sections. Although having uphill sections isn’t unique, having three of them is. The third one at the bottom actually had to be put in because the bottom area wasn’t big enough to design a big sweeping corner. So the track had to rise over itself, like an overpass on a highway, where you go up and over and then you come back underneath in the braking section. The setting provided an additional challenge: it’s the warmest, or relatively the warmest area that a track’s been built in. So the refrigeration system had to be especially robust to keep the track from becoming a waterslide. Not only that, unusually large roofs were built to shade the track from the sun – so large that spectators can actually stand underneath them. The three uphill sections present that challenge for the pilots. Although Nagano had a large uphill section, most bobsledders today haven’t driven on that track. Normally, sledders are used to going downhill all the time. But all of a sudden there are these uphill sections that drop the speed by 10 km/h. In test events, top speeds were at about 135 km/h in some sections. Sochi is still one of the fastest tracks in the world. Of course, speed can bring danger, as seen when Geortraining run in Whistler and died, on the opening day of the Vancouver Olympics. The bobsleigh and luge federations wanted a slower track fore the Vancouver Olympics started, the designers did incorporate this wish by adding more uphill sections. From Chamonix 1924 to Sotchi 2014: all the Olympic Bobsleigh Tracks

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Technical Data Total length: Competition length: Start altitude: Finish altitude: Maximum gradient: Average gradient: Vertical drop: Number of curves:

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Sanki Sliding Center credit: http://olympic.ca 1814m 1500 m 836 m 704 m 22.00 % 20.00 % 124 m 17

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Sanki Sliding Center Today The Olympic Training Centre for Russian national sports teams was formed on the basis of the three Coastal Cluster venues and three Mountain Cluster venues. The Centre includes the Bolshoy Ice Dome, Iceberg Skating Palace, Sanki, which includes bobsleigh and Nordic combined training tracks. The bobsleigh track, located at the mountain and climatic resort, Alpika-Service, will be used in the future for competitions and Russian national team training camps in bobsleigh, skeleton, and luge. The venue hosted the 2015 Luge European Championships and will host the 2017 Bobsleigh and Skeleton World Campionships.

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3.2_Final 3.3_Final Balance

Chamonix 1924

Garmich-Partenkirken 1936

Cortina 1956

Innsbruck 1964

Sapporo 1972

Torino 2006

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Oslo 1952

Grenoble 1968

St. Moritz 1928, 1948

Calgary 1988

Lillerhammer 1994

Lake Placid 1932, 1980

Innsbruck 1976

Sarajevo 1984

Albertville 1992

Nagano 1998

Salt Lake City 2002

Working Tracks Vancouver 2010

Sochi 2014

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3.4_Legacies andorganizations organizationsafter afterthe theGames Games 3_ Legacies and In order to understand how some facilities for the Olympic disciplines of bobsleigh, skeleton and luge were managed and maintained, we have analyzed the organizations that are responsible for taking care of some of the most recent Olympic slopes. The organizational structures studied are: Lillehammer 1994, Salt Lake City 2002, Vancouver 2010 and Torino 2006. An aspect of great importance are the activities that are carried out and the post-Olympic use of the facilities. Often, during their life cycle, some infrastructures built for big events do not show a virtuous management due to a short-sighted planning, focused on short-term objectives, as was the case in Cesana. However, there have also been positive examples that are given in the following pages. In fact, after the Olympic Winter Games, some of the bobsleigh tracks made in countries such as Canada, United States or Norway and others, have become a benchmark for the sporting disciplines at the international level, exploited both from a sporting and a touristic point of view. The organization has acted in a coordinated way, managing the various Olympic facilities in order to create a unique sports system. This cohesive organization, instead, may have been one of the several shortcomings that led to the closure of Cesana Pariol track.

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Vancouver, Whistler Sliding Center, Summer Public Bobsleigh Program â&#x20AC;&#x153;Rolling thunderâ&#x20AC;?. Credits: whistlersportlegacies.com

Vancouver, Whistler Sliding Center, Sightseeing along the track. Credits: whistlersportlegacies.com

Innsbruck - Igls, Olympia Eiskanal, kids training session. Credits: photo by the author

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Lillehammer 1994: Olympiapark AS 3_Lillehammer 1994: Olympiapark AS Lillehammer Olympiapark AS, is a company established following the 1994 Winter Olympics to operate the Olympic venues in Lillehammer, Norway. Owned by Lillehammer Municipality, it operates five sports venues: Birkebeineren Ski Stadium, Håkons Hall, Lillehammer Olympic Sliding Centre, Kanthaugen Freestyle Arena and the ski jumping hill of Lysgårdsbakken. In addition to serving sports events, the company provides tourist and group activities at the venues as well as larger events. The company includes also the FlakkelForum, an association of local and regional businesses. Together they contribute to organize events and projects for the Olympic Park. Håkons Hall is an arena which was used for ice hockey at the 1994 Winter Olympics. In the 1994 Winter Paralympics, Håkons Hall was used for the opening and closing ceremonies. The venue has a capacity for 11,500 seated spectators and is the largest handball and ice hockey venue in the country. Lysgårdsbakkene Ski Jumping Arena is located next to Lysgårsbakken, one kilometer east of Lillehammer's town center. It consists of three hills, each tailor-made for aerials, moguls and ski ballet, respectively. The twin ski jumping hill consists of a large hill with a construction point of 123 and a hill size of 138, and a normal hill has a K-point of 90 and a hill size of 100. The hill has a capacity for 35,000 spectators, of which 7,500 can be seated. One of the world’s best ski stadiums with fully modern cross-country and biathlon facilities. The Birkebeineren Ski Stadium served as the Olympic arena for cross-country and biathlon events in 1994.

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Olympic Sliding Centre

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Lysgårdsbakkene Ski Jumping Arena. Credits: olympiaparken.no

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Conferences

Catering

Trade fair

Gift Shop

Chairlift up to the open-air terrace

Secret underground Meals in the Ski Jumping Tower

Sports Centre

Ski Jumping

LysgĂĽrdsbakkene Ski Jumping Arena

HĂĽkons Hall

Summer Activities

Activity Park: rifle, trapeze, maze, bow and arrow Bobsleigh Skeleton Luge

Biathlon

Birkebeineren Ski Stadium

Olympic Sliding Centre

Lillehammer Olympiapark AS

Accommodation

Bobrafting

Taxi bob

Skistua Cafe

Kanthaugen Freestyle Arena

Wheelbob

FakkelForum

Public Skeleton

Toboganning

Floodlit at night for event Ski Lift up to the top

Group Events

Warming House and equipment rental

Promotion of winter tourism

Organization of events

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Salt LakeLake City 2002: Olympic 3_Salt CityUtah 2002: Utah Legacy Olympic Legacy Located in Park City, Utah and cradled by the Wasatch Mountains, the 389-acre Utah Olympic Park venue is open year-round to visitors. The venue is home to six Nordic Ski Jumps (K10, K20, K40, K64, K90, K120 meter), 1,335-meter sliding track with five start areas, freestyle aerials winter training and competition hill, and 750,000-gallon training pool. It also features the Joe Quinney Winter Sports Center, which houses both the Alf Engen Ski Museum and George S. and Dolores DorĂŠ Eccles 2002 Olympic Winter Games Museum. Utah Olympic Park is part of the Utah Olympic Legacy Foundation and sister venue to Utah Olympic Oval. The Legacy Foundationâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s primary mission is a Utah non-profit organization responsible for managing and maintaining world-class Olympic legacy facilities and providing opportunities for people of all ages and abilities to participate, educate, and excel in winter sports.

On the side: On top: Utah Olympic Park, Winter Comet Bobsled. Credits: dadlogic.net Below: Utah Olympic Oval. Credits: utaholympiclegacy.org

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20 km

10 km Utah Olympic Park

Utah Olympic Oval

Snowshoeing

Public Ice Skating

Biathlon

Running Indoor Track

Curling Utah Olympic Park Hockey

Utah Olympic Oval Speed Skating

Figure Skating

Utah Olympic Legacy Foundation

Luge Bobsleigh Skeleton Winter/Summer Comet Bobsled

Utah Olympic Park Ski and Ski Mountaineering

Athlete training

Salt Lake 2002 Olympic Winter Games Museum

Nordic Ski Club

Fly Freestyle Dining and meeting spaces

Adventure Park

Guided Venue Tours

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Vancouver 2010: Whistler Sport Legacies 3_Vancouver 2010: Whistler Sport Legacies Whistler Sport Legacies is a not-for-profit organization that honours the spirit of sport from the 2010 Olympic and Paralympic Winter Games. On June 1, 2010, WSL became responsible for the operation of the Whistler Sliding Centre, Whistler Olympic Park and the Whistler Athletes’ Centre.

Whistler Olympic Park

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Whistler Olympic Park has a history of glory and gold .Today, it remains an active centre for world-class competitors while preserving the winter legacy. In addition to exploring 130 kilometers of ski and snowshoe trails, they offer snow play, biathlon, ski jumping, tobogganing and baseboarding. Summer activities also provide exciting recreational opportunities for adults and children alike. The Whistler Sliding Centre is home to the fastest ice track in the world. Since hosting the bobsleigh, skeleton and luge competitions during the Vancouver 2010 Olympic and Paralympic Winter Games, the Whistler Sliding Centre continues to challenge the sports’ most elite athletes with international competitions, recruiting camps, and ongoing youth programs. Visitors are invited to tour the state-of-the-art facility, or experience the action first-hand with passenger bobsleigh (winter and summer) and skeleton rides (winter only) down part of the 1,450 meter-long ice track. The Whistler Athletes’ Centre is a high performance training and accommodation facility for all levels of sport, educational groups, and art & culture organizations. Built for the athletes of the Vancouver 2010 Olympic and Paralympic Winter Games, competitors continue to utilize the Whistler Athletes’ Centre for short- and long-term lodging and dryland conditioning.

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Whistler Atletes’ Centre

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Whistler Sliding Centre, aerial view.Credits: whistlersportlegacies.com

Whistler Athletes’ Centre. Credits: whistlersportlegacies.com

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Snowshoeing

Baseboarding Tobogganing

Biathlon Fat Biking Cross Country Skiing Ski Jumping

Whistler Olympic Park

Backcountry Access

Sightseeing

Bobsleigh

Whistler Sport Legacies

Whistler Sliding Centre

Skeleton

Luge

Summer Bobsleigh

Whistler Athletes' Centre Sport Programs & Camps

Sport Services

Community Fitness Classes

Lodge Accommodations

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Torino 2006:2006: Fondazione 20 marzo 3_Torino Fondazione 20 2006 Marzo 2006

The Foundation 20 Marzo 2006 was incorporated on 20/09/2006 by the Piedmont Region, the City of Turin, the Province of Turin now Metropolitan City and the Olympic Committee at the end of the XX Olympic Winter Games Torino 2006 and relatedthe IX Paralympic Winter Games to keep and valorise the legacy; the legacy that is both material: modern sports facilities, multipurpose halls, accommodation, and immaterial: know-how for the organization of sporting events and big events, the image of Turin and the Olympic Mountains. The Foundation 20 Marzo 2006 (the date indicates the day following the end of the Paralympics) is also known by the acronym of Turin Olympic Park - TOP. The Foundation's work is aimed at promoting regional economic development, with particular reference to tourist activities, sports, cultural and social through the management of its assets.

ardonecchia Olympic illage ardonecchia alf Pipe Pragelato ki umping Cesana Olympic Centre Cesana iathlon enue Cesana obsleigh Track

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Concert at Palasport Olimpico, Torino. Credits: palaalpitour.it

Palavela, Torino. Credits: meroitaliana.it

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Meeting, congress, trade fair

Social housing

Big-Scale Concerts

Private Events

Public ice-skating

Palasport Olimpico Palavela

Pending competition

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Olympic Village Ex-MOI

Ice-skating competitions & events

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Bardonecchia Olympic Village

Winter/Summer Ski Jumping

Bardonecchia Half Pipe

Fitness & Spa

Disco Lounge Bar & meeting rooms

Pragelato Ski Jumping Stadium & Hotel

Accomodation

Snowboarding

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Cesana Pariol 2.0 As earlier mentioned in the introduction, the project of re-use of the bobsleigh track in Cesana was conceived as one of the three alternative scenarios studied within the workshop Joint Study 2016. The scenario presented in this thesis has been developed together with Amedeo Allizond and Andrea Petrigna during the workshop period, later followed slight changes but the essence of the project has not been altered. The bobsled track in Cesana, after the closing of that of Cortina dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Ampezzo in 2008, was the only italian artificial track for the Olympic disciplines of bobsleigh, skeleton and luge. Although they are niche sport, tobogganing and bobsledding in particular are traditional sports in the Alps, particularly in the eastern Alps, where they have been practiced for a long time. The track in Cesana, ten years after the Olympic Games, it is still one of the most modern and advanced in the world, although we can not pretend that time is past and that in the years of deadlock it has not deteriorated, also because of the many copper thefts. However, the track still furrows through the side of Mount Fraiteve, and dominates the Upper Susa Valley. The hypothesis of total takedown involves a significant task, in other cases, like that of Grenoble the track has never been removed due to high costs, it is still lying in the woods as a concrete skeleton. In some other cases the track re-opened unexpectedly after many years and a war have passed, this has happened in Sarajevo. But many of the latest Olympic slopes, however, are used for both sporting events and training sessions and for the entertainment of tourists. They have become a hub of various activities, which intersect along the ice channel. Certainly the major flaws of the track built for the 2006 Olympics can not be denied, among them the location is certainly the most significant but other factors have contributed to the failure of the truck. In fact, in the area of Turin, the Olympic disciplines of the bob, skeleton and luge do not have a tradition so ingrained as in the area between Veneto and Trentino Alto Adige, and particularly in Cortina, the cradle of the Italian bob. During a visit in Cortina, an unofficial source reminded me that the track of Cortina had been considered as a venue for the Olympics in Turin, but then because of the distance the idea has been abandoned. However, the right or wrong choices have led to the current situation: an Olympic structure that corresponds to the value of approximately 110 million euro completely unused and a very uncertain future ahead. The institutions do not have a clear idea about what to do, and the change of administration has once again moved the goalposts. Through it all, we reasoned on one of many possible scenarios, it can seem a risky assumption, and no doubt it is, but it is definitely not the less concrete of the many assumptions that have been imagined during the years of the track shutting. In addition, the research is not only an end in itself, but is a project that, in different places, after several Olympics, could be useful because it is an argument that thinks about all those big infrastructures that are built for big events and that after the cameras go off end up in oblivion.

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Renewal of the Olympic Bobsleigh track of Cesana Pariol Cesana Pariol 2.0

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4.1.1_The Valley: Alta Val Susa Cesana Torinese, the town that hosts the track, is located on the border with France. The mountains that surround the valley reach over 3000 meters. The areas in which the bobsleigh and biathlon tracks were built, both located in the municipality of Cesana, are characterized by the alternation of wooded areas (larch) and plains with large clearings. The bobsleigh track is located on the south side, at the foot of Mount Fraiteve, along the upper Val di Susa. The plant is bordered on the east by a dirt road connecting the tourist resort of San Sicario and Champlas Seguin and on the west side it is bordered by a road leading to San Sicario. The structure is clearly visible from the Monginevro highway, since, close to the runway, the vegetation is rather sparse. This area was part of the ski area of the Milky Way. This function has been maintained even in the use after the Olympics, even though the ski slope scheduled in the masterplan and that was supposed to cross the bobsleigh track has never been realized. A key element in terms of accessibility is the middle station of the new cable car, built for the Olympic Games. The cable car connects Cesana Torinese with the Ski Lodge in San Sicario, incorporating the bobsled track in the system of the Milky Way Ski Area. The race course is perfectly accessible from arrival to departure that thanks to the two independent paths, respectively, for the public and for the transport of the equipment on the one hand and for the operational management on the other hand.

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Cesana Ski Lodge Arrival

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4.1.2_The Territory cableways

The Alta Val di Susa is a very popular area from the tourist point of view, particularly for its wide variety of ski slopes. tracks However, there are many opportunities for a tourist who wants to take advantage of the mountain landscape to practice different sports. In fact the whole southern side of the valley is crossed by numerous trails for snowshoeing, olympic venues cycling and skiing, to which were added the Olympic tracks made in 2006. The tourist hub is Upper San Sicario from which branches off a lot of chair lifts that lead up to the nearby ski resorts like Sestriere and Sauze dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Oulx. The bobsleigh track is surrounded by different ski slopes, although the latter remains fairly bribes but do not make it fully part of the system because they are rather marginal routes. The middle station of the cable car, following the closure of the bobsleigh track was no longer used much, although it is currently running. In the project however, the presence of the intermediate station was taken into account, because it is a convenient way to move a large number of persons without involving the use of private cars.

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in use dismissed ski biking snowshoes biathlon ski slope bobsleigh track

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4.1.3_Existing infrastructures

Weight house and Start house

Finish Line Building

Restaurant and Main Entrance

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Start house Ladies Start

Practice Start

Tourist Start

Weight house

Kids Start

Arrival

Restaurant Main entrance

Cesana Ski Lodge mid-station

Indoor training run Staff & technical building

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4.2_Concept After an analysis phase on the site and on the object of intervention, we researched on the latest case studies of Olympic bobsleigh runs in particular those of Salt Lake City 2002 and Vancouver 2010. We mapped all the Olympic slopes currently in use and found that from the â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;70s all the runs continued to function. Only the run of Sarajevo built for the 1984 Olympics has had a long period of closure after the Balkan wars but recent news report that has reopened. The maintenance costs of this kind of infrastructure are very high and the sports that use them are little practiced in most of the countries, Germany is the exception, where instead there are also non-Olympic slopes. In all cases study considered the track is used for training and competing as well as by tourists who want to experience the thrill of go down the route of an Olympic track driven by a real pilot. Even in Cesana during the years following the Winter Olympics the initiative of a tourist track use had been launched, thanks to the mono-bob, a vehicle designed for the safety of tourists, and the taxi-bob, a regulatory vehicle driven by an expert athlete. However, the attempts to find new sources of revenue to make up for the high maintenance costs did not work. In fact, the most serious problem of the Cesana track was solar radiation, because, unlike the majority of the Olympic slopes, which were built on the northern slopes or in shaded areas, the track of Torino 2006 is hit by the sunâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s rays all day long. Therefore the maintenance costs for the refrigeration significantly increased also because the maintenance of the ice is still done by hand. The closure of the track because of its operating and maintenance costs led to the inevitable idea of disposal. The aim of the project was to revitalize the track that now lies unused through a new use. Thus Italy would have lost Chapter 4 242

The volume

Off-setting

Following the shape of the track

Perpendicular cuts

Main entrances and people flux

Tilted cover

Double facing

the only bobsleigh run still functioning, since the track of Cortina d’Ampezzo was closed in 2008. The structure cost more than 80 million Euros, and even today, ten years after the Olympic event, is a quite advanced track. So the idea was to think of a way to continue to use the track as a sports venue and to increase the tourism. thanks to the wider coverage that would protect the ice surface by solar radiation, reducing to servicing costs. The first objective would be achieved through a new wider coverage of the track, to protect it from solar radiation, in this way also the maintenance costs could be reduced. The second objective would be achieved by better integrating the venue within the ski resort of San Sicario, and by introducing new buildings. The new buildings would be located, along the curves facing south, which are the most critical ones. In this way would create new attractions and, at the same time, the buildings would shade with their volumes the bobsleigh track. The idea of reintroducing the sport function within the track can arouse some doubts, however, it is necessary to contextualize the project within the academic experience that involved three different research groups each of which has developed a different hypothesis of intervention. For completeness we will just list the other two alternative hypotheses that were explored in two different master’s degree thesis. - The first, and most radical, it not planned to keep the sports use of the bobsled track, yet introducing new volumes with different functions related to tourism. - The second and intermediate hypothesis was to maintain the use of the track, but only for tourists, using the track “dry” or without refrigeration system, but using bobsleds on wheels. Cesana Pariol 2.0 243

4.3_Olympic Masterplan

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4.4_Masterplan 1

Arrival Building

Biathlon Track

Kids Start Building

Chair Lift

Tourist Start Building

Cableway

C Building

Indoor Training Run

Practice Start Building

Restaurant

Adventure Park

Finish Line Building

Beginners Ski Slope

Weight House

Tapis Roulant

Ladies Start

Main Parking Lot

Start House

Ski Slope

Ski Slope Underpass

New Building Existing Building Vegetation

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4.5_Two Areas The masterplan on the previous page is the result of the urban scale project, it consists of three main elements: - The extended shed of the bobsled track. - The five buildings placed in the corners facing south. - The design of the landscape surrounding the track, in particular the areas in front of the buildings. The Shading system runs along the entire track and has a six-meter span, it is supported by a steel structure that stands from one side only, in order to ensure completely free view to the spectators. The pillars are placed by one or the other side of the track according to the shape of the curves, so as to be always on the side where the curve is higher. The five buildings are respectively: the Arrival Building, the Kids Start Building, the Tourists Start, the C5-C6-C7 building and the Practice Start. The masterplan was thought to be ideally divided into two parts: the arrival and of the start. The masterplan was thought to be ideally divided into two parts: the Arrival one and the the Start one. The first, is placed lower down, in the final area of the track, this part is designed for the most “noisy activities.” The lower ring, where The Arrival Building is placec is closely connected to the building immediately above, the Kids Start Building, in fact, the open spaces surrounded by the track, in this area, become like a ‘huge square” where a variety of outdoor activities can be held, from the slope for the skiing learing to the skating rink which can be set up temporarily. The upper area is instead designed for relaxation and quieter activities, in fact, there are located the museum, the hotel and the spa-gym. The outer space is less anthropized and left as woods and larch forest. Chapter 4 248

The caesura that separates the two areas is created by the ski run that passes under the bobsleigh track through the underpass, already present in the Olympic stage. In addition, all road infrastructure already present in Olympic fases have been maintained with a minimum effort to get to link all the new parts introduced in the project. The existing buildings - colored in blue in the masterplan are all strictly dedicated to the operation of the track as a sports venue and therefore they have not been altered or modified in form or function. The only facility currently in operation is the indoor push practice track, where athletes train for the initial phase of the race, which is also the most important one because it affects 50% of the competition. In addition to the elements introduced in the project master, first listed, it has been designed the implantation of a more numerous vegetation, in particular in the curve 13-14. next to these curves an adventure park has been planned, located on the stems of the trees. Most bobsleigh, functioning and not, was built in the forest or on the slopes of very shady mountains, on the contrary, in Cesana the valley where the venue of the 2006 Turin was built is very wide and sunny and the vegetation rather sparse, so we considered it important to increase the vegetation that contributes both to shading that to visual mitigation.

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4.5.1_Arrival Area

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Arrival

Arrival Auditorium 194 m2 Multi-funtional hall / exhibition hall 234 m2 Cafè/restaurant 190 m2

The Arrival building is one of the largest in terms of square meters, the building is developed mainly on a floor above ground with the exception of the uppermost part which is on two levels. Like all the structures designed, the strategy has been to follow the path of the track along its length, approaching to it with a volume that gradually descends along the inclined track. The building inside houses an auditorium, an exhibition hall and a restaurant coffè. The auditorium follows the slope of the land, which, in this part of the track, does not present a particularly steep slope. The space for exhibitions and coffee are placed in the higher volume while the auditorium is located in the lower one, closest to the main entrance. The cover at the entrance of the auditorium has a large overhang to create a covered space before the foier. The restaurant and the coffee bar, can be used also for evening activities, thanks to the open air section of the bar set up for après-skis and the connection with the multifunctional hall, which can be used as celebrations’ hall and disco. The Start building is definitely the most extended building as covering surface, though, it is not the broadest as regards the total square meters. The space in front of the building has a soft shape that creates an irregular square, which completes the building from the functional point of view, because it can accommodate medium and large events that may take place both indoors and outdoors the square can also be intended as a “cavea” to assist the outdoor competitions. Cesana Pariol 2.0 253

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On the following pages: On the left: View of the Arrival Building from the track. On the right: Entrance of the building Cesana Pariol 2.0

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Kids Start

Kids Start Climbing gym 210 m2 Children playground 90 m2 CafĂ¨ 50 m2

The Kids Start building is so named because it is located at the lowest point of departure, the one from which the children launched, when the bobsleigh track was still running. The curve where it is located is one of the steepest points of the track, the slope here in fact reaches 20%, the track goes up more than ten meters and the radius of curvature is one of the smallest. The building consists of two floors, both are located on two different levels because to maintain the ability to access from the road that runs along the track it was necessary to gradually lower the flooring levels. Another special feature of the Kids Start building is to be directly connected to the main parking lot which is situated on a little plateau above. It is possible to access from the car park thanks to a lift that goes down to the lower portion of the building, continuing along the tunnel coming from the parking lot that ends with a terrace that looks toward the valley. The building from the functional point of view lodges a climbing gym in the lower part, and a cafĂ¨ and childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s play area at the top. The latter overlook onto a large terrace from which you can enjoy a privileged view. Also in this building, as well as in the building of arrival, the outer space plays a very important role. In fact, the space in front the building is designed for outdoor activities of children and for the installation of a temporary ice rink, or other temporary sports facilities. An appendix of the building consists of the adventure park, reachable through the existing underpass. The adventure park is located on the north side of the track where it should be built a small coniferous forest where to install the facilities. Pending the full growth of the plants, the facilities could be installed on wooden structures. Cesana Pariol 2.0 261

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Tourist Start

Tourist Start Museum 425 m2 Hall/info point 218 m2 Rental 170 m2

The Tourist Start building is certainly the most complex one from the volumetric point of view. It is a complex of three buildings and it is located between an important junction. It is characterised by the presence of two underpasses: the first one is for the road that leads to the main parking lot, located near the track. The second one is for the ski run that connects Sansicario to the Ski Lodge intermediate stop.The building is also located right at the second starting from the bottom, from which tourists launched themselves with the mono-bob, or other specially designed vehicles. The three volumes that make up the structure, respectively, are home to a museum of the bob, and a mountain equipment rental. The museum introduces to the history of Olympic Games and the history of the bob, it hosts temporary and fixed installations, with the possibility to know more from the XX Olympic Games. It is located at a higher altitude than the other volumes, it consists of two separate buildings, with a single roof. The access however is at a lower level, the one of the underpass. In this space it has been placed the ticket office and the info point. Approximately on the same level, there is the equipment rental building, at the same altitude of the ski slope that separates the two areas, the museum and the rental. This area is closely linked to the main car park in order to be easily accessible by tourists who want to access the services offered. It is the starting point of the high area, characterised by quiet and relaxation, and from here leave excursions, which join the territorial system of hiking and mountain-biking paths, snowshoes and horse trails. Cesana Pariol 2.0

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C5-C6-C7 This building hosts the hotel and it is designed in the upper part of the complex, between the tourist start and the practice start, isolated from the busy activities in the lower part. The building is the only one located in the opposite side of the track than every other building, in the curve oriented towards north. It has been placed in this position in order to connect easily the hotel with the road network and the spa (located in the practice start). The hotel is easily reached by car, and is accessed by an entrance that passes under the track in correspondence of C7, and leads to a private parking under the building. At the ground floor there are the common spaces, such as the restaurant, the cafĂŠ, the relaxing area and the game hall, with the possibility to use the large balcony with a splendid panoramic view of the valley. There are more than forty rooms that are on average 28 square meters with a huge balcony, fully equipped with private services and every kind of comfort that is required by a high standard hotel. Each floor has a public and relaxing area where you can admire the panorama through large glazed windows or, for those spaces that are more related to the track, is possible to see the competitions comfortably form the building.

C5-C6-C7 restaurant 190 m2 Hall 90 m2 (44) Rooms 16 m2 / 24 m2 / 40 m2

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Practice Start The Practice Start is the very last starting point, because the athletes always have some training sessions from here, before riding from the official Competition Start in order to gain confidence in the track path. The new Building will host a gym and a spa, where the athletes will be able to warm up before practice, this venue is also open to public use, even though it is a facility within the hotel. In fact, the guests of the hotel will have a direct access through the underground passage that connects the two buildings. The western part of the building will host the gym while the estern part will house the Spa; this latter volume will be mainly underground, because many features within the spa require strictly controlled temperature such as sauna, hammam and steam room, or a controlled light environment in particular in the chromotherapy area. The upper level, instead, will display a curtain wall as to create a close relationship with the landscape.

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4.6_Shading system The bobsleigh track coverage is undoubtedly one of the key elements of the project, in fact without it is not conceivable to think to start using the track again. In fact, the almost total shading of the icy surface should drastically reduce the temperature in the immediate vicinity of the ice channel, so as to reduce the energy consumption for cooling and the maintenance costs. The cover is designed to run along the entire length of the track. Its inclination follows that of the track, in fact along the curves it has a slope of about 16 째 in the same direction of the curve, while in the straights, the slope changes so as to follow the shape of the track, based on where the curve is facing next. The cover is designed so as not to be never in the way for the view of the spectators during competitions, for this reason, the pillars are placed only on one side, and in most of the time they are placed behind the vertical walls of the curves. The track already had a roll-shading system that was added in the early stages, however, it is a manual system that, when closed, prevents the view of the spectators. The concept behind the shed project, in addition to the functionality, also has the objective to create a ribbon that runs along the entire slope of the mountain and outlines the layout of the track.

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View of curve 14, which has been changed after the first trials on advise of the IBSF Credits: photo by the author

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4.7.1_The concept behind the facade The facades of the buildings were designed to unite them with a similar appearance. The dominant material is wood, followed by the glass. All buildings have very large windows that overlook the track so you can watch competitions also from the inside. Also the concave facades, those which look toward the landscape, show very large openings to tie the outer space with the internal one. However, the concave facades are characterized mainly by wooden brise soleil that make up a shield to the solar radiation and create a play of solids and voids. The wooden brise soleil are placed at modular distances, which vary between 15 cm and 115 cm. The optical effect is given by the fact that the planks are placed both in front of the opaque walls and in front of the transparent casing. In this way, the building takes on a different look depending on the angle from which it is observed. This effect is also a tribute to velocity, in fact it can remember some examples of futurist works from the XX century, where the speed is captured by a series of overlapping images that are detached slightly. Futurist dynamism is inspired by chronophotography and cinematographic techniques, they paints a kind of frames in succession to represent moving objects and figures. The speed reference is a way to tie the buildings to the main function of the track. Above on the right: Giacomo Balla, Dynamic espansion + speed, 1913 On the right: Facade reference, Bibliothek Ludothek Verwaltung, Spiez, Bauzeit Architekten. Credits: http://www.bauzeit.com

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Final Considerations In conclusion it is fair to ask whether it is right to build a new bobsled track for each edition of the Winter Olympics. Currently, there are 15 running slopes, and not all of them are fully utilized for competitions throughout the season. The story of Cesana can teach something to the venues that will host the games in the future, such as Beijing, where in 2022 the Olympic flame will shine for the second time. In China, the tradition of the bobsled, skeleton and luge is not so strong as in the European Alps, but this opportunity might ignite the enthusiasm of new fans and new athletes. The Olympics also are made for this. But, it is also true that it is not possible to imagine to build another twenty or more runs in the next century, it is not sustainable. Looking behind at all the past editions it is possible to take the cue from previous olympics. For example, the St. Moritz track is rebuilt every year with only snow and ice, yet it is one of the best tracks in the world. So why not to take advantage of the skills of Harbin artists, who create wonderful ice sculptures, and build a natural track for Beijing 2022? Unfortunately, the climatic conditions of the Olympic venues are not always suitable for the purpose. And, perhaps it might be also the case of Yanqing, where the future track will be built. Secondly, some of the rules governing the location of the Olympic venues may need to be modified. Obviously, it is preferable that the competition venues are as close as possible to the host city. However considerations also based on a longer term programming might extend the range. For example, as in the case of Cesana, it was proposed to use the French circuit of La Plagne, which dates back to Albertiville 1992. It was also proposed Cortina, because there was and there still is a strong tradition linked to winter sliding sports. In both cases, the assumptions were been rejected for several reasons, but, in the future priority should be given to those sites where infrasctures are already present, even if they belong to regions or countries other than the one organizing the games. A choice of improvement of sports infrastructure in the long term is certainly more sustainable than building from scratch a new run. Despite it might worse reconciles with short-term needs of the Olympic Games. In an increasingly globalized world, it is perhaps not wrong to think of an inter-national Olympic Games. Perhaps this will be the trend towards which the games will go. Before, the Olympic Games were organized by mountain towns, following cities close to the mountains took over, in the future, may the Olympics furhter expand their range?

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Appendix A A tour across the heart of the Alps These so particular objects represent a major burden on the host city of the Olympic Winter Games. However, all editions, except for one: Squaw Valley in 1960, have built or improved, where it already existed, a bobsleigh run. Yet, it all started in the Eastern Alps. In fact, it is precisely here that bobsledding has been practiced for the first time, and, for this reason this area can be considered its homeland. After seeing the track of Cesana, and after searching for information on the Olympic slopes, I decided to see those from which it all started. In a few days it was possible to see four tracks, some of which are still in use, while others now belong to history. The tracks that I have visited are: St Moritz 1928-1948 (Switzerland), Garmisch 1936 (Germany), Igls 1976 (Austria) and Cortina 1956 (Italy). It was interesting to compare such different tracks, from the most technological one as that of Igls with that of St. Moritz, built only with ice and snow, and yet they are still running and are both considered two flagships among the international scene. Similarly, it was also interesting to see the historic track in Garmisch, which ran until 1966 and that one of Cortina, which was only closed in 2008. The first appears only as a path that cuts through the hill, where it is even forbidden to walk in order not to erase the traces. The Italian example, instead, is now a concrete ruin, anything but evanescent. What is certain is that all of the examples, without any exception, can vaunt of being, more or less, integrated with the landscape.

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1_St. Morits, Olympia Bob Run 2_Cortina dâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;Ampezzo, Eugenio Monti Track 3_Igls, Olympia Eiskanal Innsbruck 4_Garmisch, Historische Olympia-Bobbahn

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On the previous pages: 5_St. Morits, Olympia Bob Run, while workers are on duty making the run. 6_St. Morits, Olympia Bob Run, while workers are on duty making the track. 7_St. Morits, Olympia Bob Run, view over the valley from the inside of the run. 8_St. Morits, Olympia Bob Run, view of the inside of the run. On this spread: 9_Garmisch, Historische Olympia-Bobbahn, restored bridge at Kreuzeck Kurve. 10_Garmisch, Historische Olympia-Bobbahn, view of the track after Kreuzeck Kurve. 11_Garmisch, Historische Olympia-Bobbahn, Bayern Kurve

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On this spread: 12_Igls, Olympia Eiskanal Innsbruck, kid practicing the luge discipline. 13_Igls, Olympia Eiskanal Innsbruck, view of the track. 14_Igls, Olympia Eiskanal Innsbruck, kids getting ready during a practice session.

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On this spread: 15_Cortina d’Ampezzo, Eugenio Monti Track, view over the final section of the run. 16_Cortina d’Ampezzo, Eugenio Monti Track, view from the inside of the track. 17_Cortina d’Ampezzo, Eugenio Monti Track, view from the inside of the track. 17

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Bibliography-List of web sites Part 1 1_Torino 2006 Winter Olympic Games 1.1_The Olympic System - Final report, vol. 1, p. 14. 1.2_The Venues - Final report, vol. 1, pp.48 - 111.

2_Winter Olympic Games: data and facts Winter Olympic games - VI Olympic Winter Games Oslo 1952. 2.1_Winter Olympic Games Map - V. Jacomuzzi, G. Viberti, P. Viberti, Storia delle olimpiadi invernali, Seifrontiere, Torino, 2013, pp. 4-5. 2.2_Winter Olympic Games Timeline - www.olympic.org/winter-games 2.3.1_Number of Nations, Disciplines and Athletes - www.olympic.org 2.3.2_Altitude and Current Population - International Olympic Committee, Factsheet Olympic Winter Games, update-january 2008. - Torino 2006: le olimpiadi del territorio piemontese, p. 32. - a cura di M. Bottero, Lâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;ereditĂ di un grande evento, monitoraggio territoriale ex post delle olimpiadi di Torino 2006, Celid, Torino, 2007, p. 34.

2.3.3_Olympic Costs Exhibition: Olympic Winters, dati, storie, protagonisti da Cortina ‘56 ad oggi.

3_From Chamonix 1924 to Sochi 2014: all the Olympic Bosleigh Tracks - www.ibsf.org/en/ibsf-history - www.fil-luge.org/en/about-fil/history 1924 Chamonix - Les jeux de la VIIIe Olympiade Paris 1924 : rapport officiel, Les sports d’hiver. 1928 St Moritz - Rapport général du Comité exécutif des IImes Jeux Olympiques d’hiver et documents officiels divers. - http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/olimpiadi-invernali-st-mortz-1928 - http://www.ibsf.org/en/tracks/track/15/St.%20Moritz - http://www.cresta-run.com/home/ - http://www.olympia-bobrun.ch - V. Jacomuzzi, G. Viberti, P. Viberti, Storia delle Olimpiadi invernali, Seifrontiere, Torino, 2013, p. 18-19. 1932 Lake Placid - III Olympic Winter Games, Lake Placid 1932: official report. - http://www.ibsf.org/en/tracks/track/10/Lake%20Placid - http://www.whiteface.com 1936 Garmish-Partenkirchen - IV Olympische Winterspiele 1936: Garmisch-Partenkirchen 6. bis 16. Februar: amtlicher Bericht. - http://www.scr-bob.de - http://www.gapa.de - V. Jacomuzzi, G. Viberti, P. Viberti, Storia delle Olimpiadi invernali, Seifrontiere, Torino, 2013, p. 48-50.

1948 St. Moritz - Rapport général sur les Ves Jeux Olympiques d’hiver, St-Moritz 1948. - http://www.neveitalia.it/olimpiadi-invernali/news/la-storia-delle-olimpiadi-invernali-st-moritz-1948-i-giochi-del la-rinascita 1952 Oslo - VI Olympic Winter Games Oslo 1952. 1954 Cortina d’Ampezzo - VII Olympic Winter Games, Cortina d’Ampezzo, 1956: official report. - http://www.bobclubcortina.com - http://www.storiedisport.it/?p=622 - V. Jacomuzzi, G. Viberti, P. Viberti, Storia delle Olimpiadi invernali, Seifrontiere, Torino, 2013, pp. 96-98, 105-10. - https://www.olympic.org/eugenio-monti 1960 Squaw Valley - VIII Olympic Winter Games Squaw Valley, California, 1960: final report. - http://squawalpine.com/events-things-do/olympic-museum 1964 Innsbruck - Offizieller Bericht der IX. Olympischen Winterspiele Innsbruck 1964. - http://www.ibsf.org/en/tracks/track/8/Igls - V. Jacomuzzi, G. Viberti, P. Viberti, Storia delle Olimpiadi invernali, Seifrontiere, Torino, 2013, p. 134 - 135. 1968 Grenoble - Xth Winter Olympic Games: official report. - http://www.grenoble-1968.com/alpe-dhuez/ - https://vinvin20.wordpress.com/category/au-quotiden/ 1972 Sapporo - The XI Olympic Winter Games Sapporo 1972: official report. - V. Jacomuzzi, G. Viberti, P. Viberti, Storia delle Olimpiadi invernali, Seifrontiere, Torino, 2013, p. 176.

1976 Innsbruck - Final report - http://www.ibsf.org/en/tracks/track/8/Igls - http://www.olympiaworld.at/de/arenen/bob_rodel_skeletonbahn/ - http://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/winter/1976/ - https://www.innsbruck.info/it/la-pista-olimpca-di-bob-slittino-e-skeleton-di-innsbruck-igls.html 1980 Lake Placid - Final report: XIII Olympic Winter Games, February 13-24, 1980. - http://www.ibsf.org/en/tracks/track/10/Lake%20Placid - http://www.lakestolocks.org/content/lake-placid-1932-1980-olympic-bobsled-track/ltl58E2F2069E8B0BAD2 - http://www.whiteface.com 1984 Sarajevo - Final report Sarajevoâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;84. - http://www.offbeattravelling.com/the-abandoned-bobsleigh-track-of-sarajevo/ 1988 Calgary - XV Olympic Winter Games official report. - http://www.ibsf.org/en/tracks/track/3/Calgary - http://www.winsport.ca 1992 Albertville - Official report of the Olympic Winter Games of Albertville and Savoie. - http://bobsleigh.la-plagne.com 1994 Lillehammer - Official report of the XVII Olympic Winter Games Lillehammer 1994. - http://www.ibsf.org/en/tracks/track/20/Lillehammer - http://www.olympiaparken.no/no/ - https://www.visitnorway.com

1998 Nagano - The XVIII Olympic Winter Games: official report Nagano 1998. - http://www.ibsf.org/en/tracks/track/11/Nagano - http://www.japanguides.net/nagano/nagano-winter-olympics-and-paralympics-venue.html 2002 Salt Lake City - Official report of the XIX Olympic Winter Games Salt Lake 2002. - http://utaholympiclegacy.org - http://www.ibsf.org/en/tracks/track/12/Park%20City 2006 Torino - Final report, vol. 1, Sustainability report, vol. 2. - http://doc.rero.ch/record/24834 2010 Vancouver - Post-Games report guide: the official report of the Vancouver 2010 Olympic and Paralympic Winter Games. - http://www.ibsf.org/en/tracks/track/24/Whistler - http://www.whistlersportlegacies.com 2014 Sochi - http://www.ibsf.org/en/tracks/track/2027/Sochi - http://globalnews.ca/news/1153976/how-to-build-an-olympic-bobsleigh-track/

Part 2 4.4.1_The valley: Alta Val Susa - a cura di M. Filippi, F. Mellano, Progetti, Bobsleigh, Luge and Skeleton Facilities, Electa, Milano, 2004, pp. 182-195. - a cura di M. Filippi, F. Mellano, Cantieri e opere, Bobsleigh, Luge and Skeleton Facilities, Electa, Milano, 2006, pp. 123-131.