Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Biology and Ecology of the Venomous Marine Anthozoans (Class Anthozoa)

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Biology and Ecology of Venomous Marine Cnidarians

  • 852 Accesses

Abstract

This chapter deals with the profile of venomous marine cnidarian species comprising their common name (s), global distribution, ecology; biological aspects such as diagnostic characters, size and colouration, food and feeding, life cycle, association and predators; and envenomation including injuries caused to humans (scuba divers and seafarers) by individual venomous cnidarian species.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 189.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 249.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 249.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Ager OED (2008) Actinia equina Beadlet anemone. Tyler-Walters H, Hiscock K (eds) Marine life information network: biology and sensitivity key information reviews. https://www.marlin.ac.uk/species/detail/1561. Accessed 11 Jul 2019

  • Anderluh G, Macek P (2012) Cytolytic peptide and protein toxins from sea anemones (Anthozoa: Actiniaria). Toxicon 40:111–124

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Babenko VV, Mikov AN, Manuvera VA, Anikanov NA, Kovalchuk SI, Andreev YA, Logashina YA, Daniil A, Kornilov DA, Manolov AI, Sanamyan NP, Sanamyan KE, Kostryukova ES, Kozlov SA, Grishin EV, Govorun VM, Lazarev VN (2017) Identification of unusual peptides with new Cys frameworks in the venom of the cold-water sea anemone Cnidopus japonicus. Sci Rep 7:14534

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bellomio A, Morante K, Barlic A, Gutiérrez-Aguirre I, Viguera AR, González-Mañas JM (2009) Purification, cloning and characterization of fragaceatoxin C, a novel actinoporin from the sea anemone Actinia fragacea. Toxicon 54:869–880

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ben-Ari H, Paz M, Sher D (2018) The chemical armament of reef-building corals: inter- and intra-specific variation and the identification of an unusual actinoporin in Stylophora pistilata. Sci Rep 8:251

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bernheimer AW, Avigad LS, Branch G, Dowdle E, Lai CY (1984) Purification and properties of a toxin from the South African sea anemone, Pseudactinia varia. Toxicon 22:183–191

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blaxter JHS, Russell SFS, Yonge SM (eds) (1984) Advances in marine biology, vol 21. Academic Press, London. 238 p

    Google Scholar 

  • Bowles D, Swaby J, Harlan H (2018) Guide to venomous and medically important invertebrates. CSIRO Publishing, Clayton South, VIC. 240 p

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Brough C, McBirney C (2015) Saddle anemone—carpet anemone. Animal-world. http://animal-world.com/Aquarium-Coral-Reefs/Saddle-Anemone. Accessed 11 Jul 2019

  • Bruhn T, Schaller C, Schulze C, Sanchez-Rodriguez J, Dannmeier C, Ravens U, Heubach JF, Eckhardt K, Schmidtmayer J, Schmidt H, Aneiros A, Wachter E, Béress L (2001) Isolation and characterisation of five neurotoxic and cardiotoxic polypeptides from the sea anemone Anthopleura elegantissima. Toxicon 39:693–702

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Calton GJ, Burnett JW, Vader W (1978) A study of the nematocyst venoms of the sea anemone, Bolocera tuediae. Toxicon 16:443–451

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cariello L, Santis AD, Fiore F, Piccoli R, Spagnuolo A, Zanetti L, Parente A (1989) Calitoxin, a neurotoxic peptide from the sea anemone Calliactis parasitica: amino-acid sequence and electrophysiological properties. Biochemistry 28:2484–2489

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cline EI, Wiebe LI, Young JD, Samuel J (1995) Toxic effects of the novel protein UPI from the sea anemone Urticina piscivora. Pharmacol Res 32:309–314

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Columbus-Shenkar YY, Sachkova MY, Macrander J, Fridrich A, Modepalli V, Reitzel AM, Sunagar K, Moran Y (2018) Dynamics of venom composition across a complex life cycle. elife 7:e35014

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Culver P, Jacobs RS (1981) Lophotoxin, a neuromuscular acting toxin from the sea whip Lophogorgia rigida. Toxicon 19:825–830

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Deeds JR, Handy SM, White KD, Reimer JD (2011) Palytoxin found in Palythoa sp. zoanthids (Anthozoa, Hexacorallia) sold in the home aquarium trade. PLoS One 6:e18235

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Diochot S, Loret E, Bruhn T, Béress L, Lazdunski M (2003) APETx1, a new toxin from the sea anemone Anthopleura elegantissima, blocks voltage-gated human ether-a-go-go-related gene potassium channels. Mol Pharmacol 64:59–69

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fenical W, Okuda RK, Bandurraga MM, Culver P, Jacobs RS (1981) Lophotoxin: a novel neuromuscular toxin from Pacific sea whips of the genus Lophogorgia. Science 212:1512–1514

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frazão B, Vasconcelos V, Antune A (2012) Sea anemone (Cnidaria, Anthozoa, Actiniaria) toxins: an overview. Mar Drugs 10:1812–1851

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fujita S, Warashina A, Satake M (1983) Binding characteristics of a sea anemone toxin from Parasicyonis actinostoloides with crayfish leg nerves. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 76:25–32

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gacesa R, Chung R, Dunn SR, Weston AJ, Jaimes-Becerra A, Marques AC, Morandini AC, Hranueli D, Starcevic A, Ward M, Long PF (2015) Gene duplications are extensive and contribute significantly to the toxic proteome (a proteome is the complete set of proteins expressed by an organism) of nematocysts isolated from Acropora digitifera (Cnidaria: Anthozoa: Scleractinia). BMC Genomics 16:774

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Goemans B (2012a) Palythoa tuberculosa. Saltcorner. http://www.saltcorner.com/AquariumLibrary/browsespecies.php?CritterID=2148. Accessed 11 Jul 2019

  • Goemans B (2012b) Saltcorner. http://www.saltcorner.com/AquariumLibrary/browsespecies.php?CritterID=2299. Accessed 11 Jul 2019

  • Häussermann V, Försterra G (2001) A new species of sea anemone from Chile, Anemonia alicemartinae n. sp. (Cnidaria: Anthozoa). An invader or an indicator for environmental change in shallow water? Org Divers Evol 1:211–224

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoffmann K, Hermanns-Clausen M, Buhl C, Kauferstein S (2008) A case of palytoxin poisoning due to contact with zoanthid corals through a skin injury. Toxicon 51(8):1535–1537

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Honma T, Hasegawa Y, Ishida M, Nagai H, Nagashima Y, Shiomi K (2005) Isolation and molecular cloning of novel peptide toxins from the sea anemone Antheopsis maculata. Toxicon 45:33–41

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hu B, Guo W, Wang L, Jiao B, Wang J, Liu X (2011) Purification and characterization of gigantoxin-4, a new actinoporin from the sea anemone Stichodactyla gigantea. Int J Biol Sci 7(6):729–739

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Il’ina AP, Monastyrsnaia MM, Sokotun IN, Egorov TA, Nazarenko YA, Likhatskaia GN, Kozlovskaia EP (2005) Actinoporins from the sea of Japan anemone Oulactis orientalis: isolation and partial characterization. Bioorg Khim 31:39–48

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Imani M, Jaliani HZ, Kheirandish MH, Azadpour M (2017) Recombinant production and affinity purification of the FraC pore forming toxin using hexa-His tag and pET expression cassette. Iran J Basic Med Sci 20:380–385

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Jouiaei M (2016) Evolution and diversification of the cnidarian venom system. Doctor of Pharmacy (Pharm.D) Thesis, The University of Queensland, Australia

    Google Scholar 

  • Jouiaei M, Yanagihara AA, Madio B, Nevalainen TJ, Alewood PF, Fry BG (2015a) Ancient venom systems: a review on cnidaria toxins. Toxins 7:2251–2271

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kelso GJ, Blumenthal KM (1998) Identification and characterization of novel sodium channel toxins from the sea anemone Anthopleura xanthogrammica. Toxicon 36:41–51

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lagos P, Duran R, Cerveñansky C, Freitas JC, Silveira R (2001) Identification of hemolytic and neuroactive fractions in the venom of the sea anemone Bunodosoma cangicum. Braz J Med Biol Res 34:895–902

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lazcano-Pérez F, Castro H, Arenas I, García DE, González-Muñoz R, Arreguín-Espinosa R (2016) Activity of Palythoa caribaeorum venom on voltage-gated ion channels in mammalian superior cervical ganglion neurons. Toxins 8:135

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Levy S, Masry D, Halstead BW (1971) Report of stingings by the sea anemone Triactis producta Klunzinger from Red Sea. Clin Toxicol 3:637–643

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Logashina YA, Solstad RG, Mineev KS, Korolkova YV, Mosharova IV, Dyachenko IA, Palikov VA, Palikova YA, Murashev AN, Arseniev AS, Kozlov SA, Stensvåg K, Haugd T, Andree YA (2017) New disulfide-stabilized fold provides sea anemone peptide to exhibit both antimicrobial and TRPA1 potentiating properties. Toxins 9:154

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Maček P (1992) Polypeptide cytolytic toxins from sea anemones (Actiniaria). FEMS Microbiol Immunol 5:121–129

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Macrander J, Daly M (2016) Evolution of the cytolytic pore-forming proteins (Actinoporins) in sea anemones. Toxins (Basel) 8, pii: E368

    Google Scholar 

  • Malpezzi ELA, Freitas JC, Muramoto K, Kamiya H (1993) Characterization of peptides in sea anemone venom isolated by a novel procedure. Toxicon 31:853–864

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maretić Z, Russell FE (1983) Stings by sea Anemonia sulcata in the Adriztc Sea. Am J Trop Med Hyg 32:891–896

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mariottini GL, Pane L (2010) Mediterranean jellyfish venoms: a review on scyphomedusae. Mar Drugs 8:1122–1152

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Mariottini GL (2014) Hemolytic venoms from marine cnidarian jellyfish—an overview. J Venom Res 5:22–32

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Mariottini GL, Pane L (2014) Cytotoxic and cytolytic cnidarian venoms. A review on health implications and possible therapeutic applications. Toxins 6:108–151

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marsh LM, Slack-Smith S (2010) Field guide to sea stingers and other venomous and poisonous marine invertebrates of Western Australia. Western Australian Museum Welshpool., 244 p

    Google Scholar 

  • Martin EJ (1960) Observations on the toxic sea anemone, Rhodactis howesii (Coelenterata). Pac Sci 14:403–407

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Meinardi E, Azcurra JM, Florin-Christensen M, Florin-Christensen J (1994) Coelenterolysin: a hemolytic polypeptide associated with the coelenteric fluid of sea anemones. Comp Biochem Physiol B Biochem Mol Biol 109:153–161

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mizuno M, Ito Y, Morga BP (2012) Exploiting the nephrotoxic effects of venom from the sea anemone, Phyllodiscus semoni, to create a hemolytic uremic syndrome model in the rat. Mar Drugs 10:1582–1604

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Mizuno M, Nozaki M, a Morine N, Suzuki N, Nishikawa K, Morgan BP, Matsuo S (2007) A protein toxin from the sea anemone Phyllodiscus semoni targets the kidney and causes a severe renal injury with predominant glomerular endothelial damage. Am J Pathol 171:402–414

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Nagai H, Oshiro N, Takuwa-Kuroda K, Iwanaga S, Nozaki M, Nakajima T (2002) A new polypeptide toxin from the nematocyst venom of an Okinawan sea anemone Phyllodiscus semoni (Japanese name “unbachi-isoginchaku”). Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 66:2621–2625

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nedosyko AM, Young JE, Edwards JW, da Silva KB (2014) Searching for a toxic key to unlock the mystery of anemonefish and anemone symbiosis. PLoS One 9:e98449

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ne’eman I, Fishelson L, Kashman Y (1975) Sarcophine—a new toxin from the soft coral Sarcophyton glaucum (Alcyonaria). Toxicon 12:593–598

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nevalainen TJ, Peuravuori HJ, Quinn RJ, Llewellyn LE, Benzie JA, Fenner PJ, Winkel KD (2004) Phospholipase A2 in cnidaria. Comp Biochem Physiol B Biochem Mol Biol 139:731–735

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Oliveira JS, Zaharenko AJ, Ferreira WA Jr, Konno K, Shida CS, Richardson M, Lúcio AD, Beirão PS, de Freitas JC (2006) BcIV, a new paralyzing peptide obtained from the venom of the sea anemone Bunodosoma caissarum. A comparison with the Na+ channel toxin BcIII. Biochim Biophys Acta 1764:1592–1600

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Orts DJB, Peigneur S, Silva-Gonçalves LC, Arcisio-Miranda M, Bicudo JEPW, Tytgat J (2018) AbeTx1 is a novel sea anemone toxin with a dual mechanism of action on shaker-type K+ channels activation. Mar Drugs 16:360

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Orts DJB, Moran Y, Cologna CT, Peigneur S, Madio B, Praher D, Quinton L, Pauw ED, Bicudo JEPW, Tytgat J, de Freitas JC (2013) BcsTx3 is a founder of a novel sea anemone toxin family of potassium channel blocker. FEBS J 280:4839–4852

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oshiro N, Kobayashi C, Iwanaga S, Nozaki M, Namikoshi M (2004) A new membrane-attack complex/perforin (MACPF) domain lethal toxin from the nematocyst venom of the Okinawan sea anemone Actineria villosa. Toxicon 43:225–228

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Patocka J, Gupta RC, Wu Q, Kuca K (2015) Toxic potential of palytoxin. J Huazhong Univ Sci Technol Med Sci 35:773–780

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Prentis PJ, Pavasovic A, Norton RS (2018) Sea anemones: quiet achievers in the field of peptide toxins. Toxins 10:36

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Radwan FF, Aboul-Dahab HM, Burnett JW (2002) Some toxicological characteristics of three venomous soft corals from the Red Sea. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 132:25–35

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Raghubir R, Mishra V, Samuel SS, Lakshmi V (2013) A potent neurotoxic effect of the methanolic extract of the Parazoanthus mediated by NMDA receptors. Pharmacologia 4:132–137

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ramírez-Carreto S, Pérez-García EI, Salazar-García SI, Bernáldez-Sarabia J, Licea-Navarro A, Rudiño-Piñera E, Pérez-Martínez L, Pedraza-Alva G, Rodríguez-Almazán C (2019) Identification of a pore-forming protein from sea anemone Anthopleura dowii Verrill (1869) venom by mass spectrometry. J Venom Anim Toxins incl Trop Dis 25:1678–9199

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ramkumar S, Arun Sudhagar S, Venkateshvaran K (2012) Bioactivity of venom extracted from the sea anemone Anthopleura asiatica (Cnidaria: Anthozoa): toxicity and histopathological studies. Int J Fish Aquac 4:71–76

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ravindran VS, Kannan L, Venkateshwaran K (2010) Bioactivity of sea anemone proteins: 1. Toxicity and histopathology. Indian J Exptl Biol 47:1225–1232

    Google Scholar 

  • Rodríguez AA, Salceda E, Garateix AG, Zaharenko AJ, Peigneur S, López O, Pons T, Richardson M, Díaz M, Hernández Y, Ständker L, Tytgat J, Soto E (2014) A novel sea anemone peptide that inhibits acid-sensing ion channels. Peptides 53:3–12

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rodríguez AA, Garateix A, Salceda E, Peigneur S, Zaharenko J, Pons T, Santos Y, Arreguín R, Ständker L, Forssmann W, Tytgat J, Vega R, Soto E (2018) PhcrTx2, a new crab-paralyzing peptide toxin from the sea anemone Phymanthus crucifer. Toxins 10:72

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenberg P (1978) Toxins: plant, animal and microbial. Pergamon Press, Oxford. 1031 p

    Google Scholar 

  • Russell SFS (1965) Advances in marine biology, vol Volume 3. Academic Press, London & New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Sammarco PW, Coll JC (1988) The chemical ecology of alcyonarian corals (Coelenterata: Octocorallia). Bioorg Mar Chem 2:87–116

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Santana ANC, Leite AB, França MSF, França L, Vale OC, Cunha RB, Ricart CAO, Sousa MV, Carvalho KM (1998) Partial sequence and toxic effects of granulitoxin, a neurotoxic peptide from the sea anemone Bunodosoma granulifera. Braz J Med Biol Res 31:1335–1338

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schlesinger A, Zlotkin E, Kramarsky-Winter E, Loya Y (2009) Cnidarian internal stinging mechanism. Proc R Soc B 276:1063–1067

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schmitt C, de Haro L (2013) Clinical marine toxicology: a European perspective for clinical toxicologists and poison centers. Toxins 5:1343–1352

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Sencic L, Macek P (1990) New method for isolation of venom from the sea anemone Actinia cari. Purification and characterization of cytolytic toxins. Comp Biochem Physiol 97B:687–693

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shier WT (1990) Handbook of toxinology. CRC Press, Boca Raton. 872 p

    Google Scholar 

  • Shiomi K, Qian W, Lin X, Shimakura K, Nagashima Y, Ishida M (1997) Novel polypeptide toxins with crab lethality from the sea anemone, Anemonia erythraea. Biochim Biophys Acta 1335:191–198

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shiomi K, Takamiya M, Yamanaka H, Kikuchi T (1986) Physicochemical properties of a lethal hemolysin isolated from the sea anemone Anthopleura japonica. Nihon Suisan Gakkai Shi 52:539–543

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sket D, Drašlar K, Ferlan I, Lebez D (1974) Equinatoxin, a lethal protein from Actinia equina—II. Pathophysiological action. Toxicon 12:63–68

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sorokin Y (1993) Coral reef ecology. Springer-Verlag, Berlin

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Ständker L, Béress L, Garateix A, Christ T, Ravens U, Salceda E, Soto E, John H, Forssmann WG, Aneiros A (2006) A new toxin from the sea anemone Condylactis gigantea with effect on sodium channel inactivation. Toxicon 48:211–220

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sunahara S, Muramoto K, Tenma K, Kamiya H (1987) Amino acid sequence of two sea anemone toxins from Anthopleura fuscoviridis. Toxicon 25:211–219

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Suput D (2011) Interactions of cnidarian toxins with the immune system. Inflamm Allergy Drug Targets 10:429–437

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Talvinen KA, Nevalainen TJ (2002) Cloning of a novel phospholipase A2 from the cnidarian Adamsia carciniopados. Comp Biochem Physiol B Biochem Mol Biol 132:571–578

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tesseraux I, Gülden M, Schumann G (1989) Effects of toxin isolated from the sea anemone Bolocera tuediae on electrical properties of isolated rat skeletal muscle and cultured myotubes. Toxicon 27:201–210

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thangaraj S, Bragadeeswaran S (2012) Assessment of biomedical and pharmacological activities of sea anemones Stichodactyla mertensii and Stichodactyla gigantea from Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve, southeast coast of India. J Venom Anim Toxins Incl Trop Dis 18:53–61

    Google Scholar 

  • Thomson M, Moritz RL, Simpson RJ, Norton RS (1987) Tenebrosin-a, a new cardiostimulant protein from the Australian sea anemone Actinia tenebrosa. Biochem Int 15:711–718

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tkacheva ES, Leychenko EV, Monastyrnaya MM, Issaeva MP, Zelepuga EA, Anastuk SD, Dmitrenok PS, Kozlovskaya EP (2011) New Actinoporins from sea anemone Heteractis crispa: cloning and functional expression. Biochemistry 76:1131–1139

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Turk T (1999) Poisonous and venomous organisms of the Northern Adriatic Sea. Ann Ser Hist Nat 9:159–166

    Google Scholar 

  • Turk T, Maček P, Šuput D (1995) Inhibition of acetylcholinesterase by a pseudozoanthoxanthin-like compound isolated from the zoanthid Parazoanthus axinellae (O. Schmidt). Toxicon 33:133–142

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Uechi G, Toma H, Arakawa T, Sato Y (2005) Biochemical and physiological analyses of a hemolytic toxin isolated from a sea anemone Actineria villosa. Toxicon 45:761–766

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Uechi G, Toma H, Arakawa T, Sato Y (2011) Characterization of a novel proteinous toxin from sea anemone Actineria villosa. Protein J 30:422–428

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van Losenoord W, Krause J, Nance SP, Frost C (2018) Isolation and characterization of a potassium channel inhibitor isolated from Bunodosoma capensis. Biochem Mol Biol J. https://doi.org/10.21767/2471-8084-C4-018

  • Veeruraj A, Arumugam M, Ajithkumar T, Balasubramanian T (2008) Isolation and biological properties of neurotoxin from sea anemone (Stichodactyla mertensii, S. haddoni). J Toxicol 5:1–11

    Google Scholar 

  • Wiles JS, Vick JA, Christensen MK (1974) Toxicological evaluation of palytoxin in several animal species. Toxicon 12:427–433

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yamaguchi Y, Hasegawa Y, Honma T, Nagashima Y, Shiomi K (2010) Screening and cDNA cloning of Kv1 potassium channel toxins in sea anemones. Mar Drugs 8:2893–2905

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Yost GA, O’Brien RD (1978) Isolation of the two components of Condylactis toxin. Arch Biochem Biophys 185:483–487

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Fisheries College and Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Thoothukudi, Tamil Nadu, India

    Ramasamy Santhanam

Authors
  1. Ramasamy Santhanam
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2020 Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Santhanam, R. (2020). Biology and Ecology of the Venomous Marine Anthozoans (Class Anthozoa). In: Biology and Ecology of Venomous Marine Cnidarians. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-1603-0_6

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation