Revuelta, Manuel Bustillo. 2021. Construction Materials. Geology, Production and Applications

Manuel Bustillo Revuelta
Construction
Materials
Geology, Production and Applications
Springer Textbooks in Earth Sciences, Geography
and Environment
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Construction
Materials
Geology, Production and Applications
Faculty of Geology
Complutense University
Madrid, Spain
ISSN 2510-1307 ISSN 2510-1315 (electronic)

Springer Textbooks in Earth Sciences, Geography and Environment
ISBN 978-3-030-65206-7 ISBN 978-3-030-65207-4 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-65207-4
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021

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V
With all my affection, I want to dedicate this book to my mother-in-law

Concha. She was the best person I ever knew.
The Author
Foreword
This book comprises 20 chapters that cover the entire set of materials
commonly used in construction activities today, in buildings and infra-
structure, all over the world. Moreover, an insight into the traditional
use of construction materials, for example, stone, lime, ceramics, and
wood, is provided in view of their relevance in historical heritage.
Emphasis is give to the innovation of modern materials that took place
in the past century, which resulted in the construction framework that
characterizes our urban and logistics landscape at present. Thus, con-
crete, glass, metal alloys, bitumen products, new ceramics, and many
other products used either as main component or minor part of build-
ings and infrastructures are described. Interestingly, the book offers a
multifold approach to construction materials, encompassing the geo-
logical perspective and natural occurrence of raw materials, their extrac-
tion and treatments, as well as market and economics, without forgetting
environmental constraints derived from their preparation and use.
Such an integrated view of both natural and manufactured materials
requires an exhaustive compilation of data dealing with geology, min-
ing, transforming industries, and trading, which demands a sound
authorship. In this respect, Manuel Bustillo Revuelta took the advan-
tage of a large part of his professional career, almost 40 years, acquiring
quite a lot experience in the topic because of both research and teach-
ing. As shown in this book, talking about construction materials needs
a multidisciplinary approach by the author, which was fed through con-
tinuous visits to mines, quarries, and factories, encounters with other
experts, etc., a task accomplished over the years and in several countries.
I had the opportunity to share some of those activities with the author
and, believe me, it is an experience that requires permanent contact with
the industrial sectors, including fluid supervision of trade markets. As
the editing of this book was completed during the covid-19 pandemic, it
was, therefore, not possible to provide statistics on current production
and economical perspectives, in a time when many uncertainties still
exist.
This book represents a kind of summarized encyclopedia where a
large scientific and technological audience will find consistent informa-
tion for understanding the varied aspects of construction materials.
Geology aspects are included in most chapters provided that the natural
occurrence of common raw materials on the earth’s surface. Exploita-
tion of these resources is described by showing update extraction meth-
ods. The manufacturing of huge amounts of both intermediate and end
products is discussed in detail, taking in mind the multiple specificities
of treatments and implementations to spread to both local and global
markets. Regarding this point, all approaches to construction materials
are referenced to current standards, that is, ASTM, EN, and ISO, which
permanently contribute to normalize the use of commercial products at
an international scale. These standards are listed at the end of the chap-
ters together with a set of questions dealing with the discussed contents.
VII
Foreword
This is in turn supplemented by a list of selected references and links to

web pages from associations and companies.
Keeping in mind the profuse, but not excessive, information provided
in this book, it will prove of great value for undergraduate and post-
graduate students in geology, mining geology, and mining and industrial
engineering as well as architects and professionals dealing with heritage
buildings, environment managers, and so on. I am sure the book will be
a superb reference for consultation in both technical and academia
offices.
José P. Calvo
Formerly (2004–2010) director general of the Geological Institute of
Spain (IGME) and secretary general (2014–2016) of the International
Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS)
La Cabrera, Madrid, Spain
Acknowledgments
It is very clear to me that this second project for Springer would not
have been possible without the assistance of my editor, Alexis Vizcaíno;
he trusted me from the very beginning of my first Springer book. My
thanks once again go to my friend and colleague Jose Pedro Calvo, who
reviewed my imperfect English and wrote the foreword. I want to
remember here our many, many hours shared in the laboratory with the
students! Last but not least, thanks also go to the American Society for
Testing and Materials (ASTM) for the use of its Terminology Diction-
ary, essential for definitions of building and construction materials and
products referenced throughout the book. Needless to say, I accept full
responsibility for all errors that might still persist in the book. On the
other hand, I would like to acknowledge the help given for many com-
panies who have kindly provided images related to all topics involved in
the book. The acknowledgment remains forever in each figure caption.
However, it is important to remember that many people were behind
these corporations. I extend my gratitude to this friendly people.
The Author
IX
Contents
1 Introduction�� 1
2 Aggregates�� 17
3 Dimension Stone �� 55
4 Agglomerated Stone�� 91
5 Terrazzo �� 103
6 Cement�� 117
7 Lime �� 167
8 Gypsum Products�� 195
9 Concrete�� 217
10 Special Concrete�� 275
11 Mortars�� 307
12 Ceramic Products�� 339
13 Glass�� 375
14 Bituminous Materials �� 401
15 Metals and Alloys�� 435
16 Plastics �� 477
17 Geosynthetics �� 503
18 Wood and Cork �� 539
19 Construction and Demolition Waste�� 565
20 Coating Materials�� 587

1 1
Introduction
Contents
1.1 Definitions and Types of Construction Materials – 2
1.2 Durability – 5
1.3 Product Standards – 6
1.4 Sustainability in Construction Materials – 7
1.5 Questions – 14
References – 14

M. Bustillo Revuelta, Construction Materials, Springer Textbooks in Earth Sciences,
Geography and Environment, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-65207-4_1
2 Chapter 1 · Introduction
sumption of construction materials. Since the

1 Summary twentieth century, the formation and develop-
This chapter introduces the reader to the ment of material science and engineering con-
vast world of construction materials. After tributed not only to the improvement of
describing the importance of these construction materials in function and quality
materials today, the concept of durability is but also the varieties (wood, bricks, and stone
raised since it is essential to the performance are the oldest man’s construction materials).
of construction materials. Product In the second half of the twentieth century,
standards, used to guarantee the quality of construction materials evolved toward light,
materials, are further taken into account. high strength, and functional direction (Zang
To finish the chapter, the concept of 2011).
sustainable construction is considered as According to the European Construction
well as that of life cycle assessment, the Products Directive (89/106/EEC), construc-
most widely used tool for assessing the tion product “means any product that is pro-
environmental impact of products over duced for incorporation in a permanent
their life cycles. manner in construction works, including both
buildings and civil engineering works.”
According to ISO 6707-1 standard, material is
1.1 Definitions and Types a “substance that can be used to form prod-
of Construction Materials ucts,” a construction product is an “item man-
ufactured or processed for incorporation in
The twentieth century was the most active construction works,” and construction works
period of time throughout the history of mean “everything that is constructed or
human civilization. At the down of the cen- results from construction operations.” Based
tury, world population was 1500 million, on these definitions, this book is devoted to
while by the year 2020, it will reach approxi- both construction materials and products
mately 8000 million. Increment in world pop- because stone can be included in the group of
ulation has resulted in a rise in migration to construction materials while cement would be
cities and an advance in the construction a typical example of construction products.
industry. After food production, it is nowa- Construction materials may be classified
days the largest consumer of raw materials in from different angles in pursuit of study,
the world (. Figs. 1.1 and 1.2). Thus, of all
applications, and descriptions. The most com-
natural resources consumed by the human monly used classifications are based on their
population, about 20–50% are used by the chemical components and functions.
building and construction sector. For instance, According to the chemical components of
an estimated 25–50% of wood extracted in the construction materials, they can be classified
world is used as a construction material into inorganic materials, organic materials
(Margarido 2015). (. Fig. 1.3), and composite materials. Based

It is clear that the building and construc- on their functions, construction products may
tion market is one of the major and ancient be subdivided into structural materials and
activities that have supported the social and functional materials. Structural materials
economic development of nations, due to its (. Fig. 1.4) are mainly used as load-bearing

great impact on the economy, creating capital, members (e.g., materials used for beams and
and generating a lot of jobs. In Europe, the columns) while functional materials possess
building and construction market affords 18 some special functions in construction such as
million direct jobs and contributes to around waterproof, ornamental, heat-insulating func-
9% of the EU’s gross domestic product. Space tions, etc. In the construction environment,
use per person has doubled in the western the perfect building material should be light,
world since 1960. In housing, each person high strength, aesthetic, heat insulating,
consumes 40–50 m2 (Berge et al. 2009). This sound absorbing, waterproof, shockproof,
implies an approximate doubling of the con- fireproof, nontoxic, and efficient (Zang 2011).
1.1 · Definitions and Types of Construction Materials
3 1
4,500
Construction materials Industrial minerals Global financial
4,000 Recycled metals Primary metals crisis
Nonrenewable organics Wood products
3,500 Recessions
Oil crisis
3,000
Million metric tons
2,500
2,000
1,500
Great World War II
1,000 depression
World War I
500
0
1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000
.. Fig. 1.1 US nonfuel material consumption, 1900–2014 (Matos 2017)
Billion tonnes
70
60
Construction
minerals
50
Ores and
40
industrial
menerals
30
Fossil energy
carriers
20
10 Biomass
0
1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
1900 2009
.. Fig. 1.2 Global total material use in Europe by resource type (European Environment Agency)
There is a broad variety of construction and aluminum, clay products, gypsum prod-
materials since construction industry uses a ucts, many types of glasses, bituminous mate-
wider range of materials than any other indus- rials, plastics (geosynthetics—. Fig. 1.6), and

try. Thus, materials used in construction wood. Global consumption of the main mate-
include dimension stone, cement, and aggre- rials is shown in . Table 1.1 while . Table 1.2

gates to manufacture concrete or mortar compares the approximate quantities of mate-

(. Fig. 1.5), metals and alloys such as steel
rials consumed annually by construction,
.. Fig. 1.6 Geosynthetics are essential in civil engi-

neering works
.. Fig. 1.3 Wood is the most typical organic construc-
tion material
from which they must be separated prior to
their use in the construction industry. The sep-
aration processes can be complex and high
quantities of energy are required.
The composition of materials includes
whether chemical and/or mineral features,
which are key factors for the properties of
materials. Chemical composition is referred to
the chemical components; variations in chem-
ical composition result in different properties.
For instance, with the increment in the carbon
content, the strength, hardness, and tough-
.. Fig. 1.4 Concrete is one of the most popular struc- ness of carbon steel will change (see 7 Chap.
tural construction materials 15 of this book). On the other hand, since

many inorganic nonmetallic materials show a
variety of mineral compositions, these are a
key factor for the properties of some con-
struction materials such as aggregates, dimen-
sion stone, and ceramic products.
Physical properties in construction materi-
als include density, porosity, water absorp-
tion, water permeability, frost resistance, and
fire resistance. Important mechanical proper-
ties for construction materials are strength
(compressive and tensile), hardness, plasticity,
elasticity, and abrasion resistance (Dugall
2017). Strength under compression is the most
common requirement for construction mate-
.. Fig. 1.5 Masonry mortar used in building construc- rials used in structural elements because they
tion must be capable of safely supporting their
own weight and any applied loads. Other fac-
shipbuilding, automobile manufacture, and ets of behavior that can be important to
aircraft production. Some inorganic materials understand include thermal properties (ther-
like dimension stone and aggregates are found mal conductivity, thermal expansion, and spe-
in nature and need little processing while oth- cific heat capacity), acoustic behavior, optical
ers are found under the Earth’s surface chemi- characteristics (reflection and transmission),
cally combined with elements and compounds and electrical and magnetic responses.
1.2 · Durability
5 1
(often linked to cost), (c) fabrication, either
.. Table 1.1 World production of main materi-
als used in construction and approximate propor- on-site or, increasingly, off-site for rapid
tion going to the construction industry (Ahmed assembly on-site, (d) energy required to pro-
and Sturges 2014) duce the structure and consumed during its
lifetime, (e) maintenance required to ensure
Material Annual world % of world that the structure remains fit-for-purpose, and
production production
(tons) used in
(f) the end-of-life properties, particularly re-
construction use and recycling” (Soutsos and Domone
2017). Moreover, according to the European
Cement 2,400,000,000 95–100 Construction Products Directive (89/106/
Aggregates 12,000,000,000 95–100 EEC), essential requirements on construction
works are as follows: “(a) mechanical resis-
Steel 1,450,000,000 Up to 50
tance and stability, (b) safety in case of fire, (c)
Timber 1,000,000,000 c. 60 hygiene, health and the environment, (d)
Polymers 150,000,000 c.20–25 safety in use, (e) protection against noise, and
(f) energy economy and heat retention.”
Total 17,000,000,000
Nowadays, there are also a number of other
important performance requirements such as
comfort, serviceability, and appearance/aes-
.. Table 1.2 Approximate global annual con- thetic.
sumption of materials by construction, ship-
building, automobile, and aircraft production
(Ahmed and Sturges 2014) 1.2 Durability
Industry Annual consumption of
materials (tons) An essential aspect of the performance of
construction materials that have achieved
Construction At least 10,000,000,000 higher profile is related to the retention of
Shipbuilding At least 500,000,000 properties with time, this is, durability.
Durability is a comprehensive property of
Automobiles Around 400,000,000
construction materials and can be defined as
Aircraft Under 1,000,000 the “capability of a structure or any compo-
nent to satisfy, with planned maintenance, the
design performance requirements over a spec-
Increasingly, over recent decades, deep under- ified period of time under the influence of the
standing of the behavior materials and prod- environmental actions, or as a result of a self-
ucts under fire conditions is essential. ageing process” (ISO 13823) and the “capabil-
The remarkable multiplicity and diversity ity of a building, assembly, component,
of materials currently available in building product, or construction to maintain service-
and construction engineering generate a probability for at least a specified period of time”
lem of growing complexity: the adequate (ASTM E631 standard). During serving life,
selection of materials. The choice of adequate construction materials are subjected to physi-
construction materials when designing a cal, chemical, and biological actions. Physical
structure will rely on many factors. U ppermost actions extent to wet-and-dry, temperature,
is the capacity of the material to satisfy struc- and freeze and thaw alterations, all of which
tural requirements; in this regard, many of the will produce expansion and contraction of
properties of the material selected will be materials. Chemical actions include acid
important (e.g., strength, toughness, and attacks and alkali and salt aqueous solution
durability). A number of other factors are influence (. Fig. 1.7), which can change the

also critical: “(a) cost (both initial and during composition of materials. Biological actions
the lifetime of the structure), (b) availability mean the destructive actions of fungi and
.. Fig. 1.7 Salt crystallization in bricks
.. Fig. 1.9 Asphalt paving deterioration produced by

cracking
applicability. Thus, product standards are

means of establishing safe and reasonable
minimum levels of quality and performance.
They usually include product specifications,
classifications, technical functions, testing
methods, rules of inspection and acceptance,
.. Fig. 1.8 Wood destroyed by termite action
packaging, storage, transport, and others.
Many countries have well-developed con-
insects (. Fig. 1.8), which can alter the com-

struction product standards, which are estab-
position of many types of construction mate- lished by committees including members of
rials such as wood and stone. Related to these the relevant professions, trades, and manufac-
actions, the concept of durability must arise in turers involved with these products.
the construction market. Obviously, materials Each revised standard produces higher
with different composition and structure will requirements upon the products than the pre-
show diverse types of durability. Thus, steel is ceding one. This means that the concerned
easily corroded; stone, concrete, mortar, and industry has to keep up with the standards
other inorganic nonmetallic materials can be and improved production techniques. As a
strongly altered by chemical changes; and consequence, the construction materials
asphalt, plastic, and other organic materials industry gains both in quantity and in quality
are destroyed due to aging. For this reason, it and more efficient products are manufactured.
is common to address the topic of durability Moreover, the rationalization and standard-
in connection to each type of construction ization of products sizes reduce the multiplic-
material, that is, durability of concrete, dura- ity of stocks needed to be held by suppliers,
bility of steel, durability of wood, and so on. thus reducing the labor in cutting-to-fit on the
. Figure 1.9 shows an example of asphalt

building site. The scope of this book is to
paving deterioration produced by cracking. include the most important standards on sin-
gular materials in every chapter.
The most important product standards are
1.3 Product Standards developed by ISO, ASTM, and EN organiza-
tions. ISO standards are published by the
Product standards are established to meet International Standards Organization, and
either some or all requirements of construc- they are intended to have worldwide validity.
tion products in order to guarantee their They may be adopted by individual countries
1.4 · Sustainability in Construction Materials
7 1
as national standards. ASTM standards are On the other hand, eco-efficiency concept
produced in the United States by the American was first incorporated in 1991 by the World
Society for Testing and Materials and they are Business Council for Sustainable Development.
applied as mandatory in many countries It includes “the development of products and
worldwide. EN standards are developed in services at competitive prices that meet the
Europe by the European Committee for needs of humankind with quality of life, while
Standardization (CEN), reflecting the view- progressively reducing their environmental
points of European Union member states. impact and consumption of raw materials
throughout their life cycle, to a level compati-
ble with the capacity of the planet.” This con-
1.4 Sustainability in Construction cept means producing more products with
Materials fewer resources and less waste. Thus, the eco-
efficient construction materials are those that
The origin of sustainable construction is present less environmental impact. Besides the
traceable to sustainable development. In the requirement to minimize the mining of nonre-
report entitled Our Common Future, also newable raw materials, other problems must be
known as the Bruntland Report (1987), is the taken into account in the context of eco-effi-
document where appeared for the first time cient construction materials. The selection of
the expression sustainable development as one materials must focus on “(a) nontoxic materi-
that “meets the needs of the present without als, (b) materials with low embodied energy,
compromising the ability of future genera- (c) recyclable materials, (d) materials contain-
tions to meet theirs.” The promotion of har- ing wastes from other industries, (e) materials
mony among human beings and between obtained from renewable resources, (f) materi-
humanity and nature is the main goal of sus- als with high durability, and (g) materials with
tainable development. Therefore, sustainabil- self-cleaning ability and capable of reducing
ity is a broad term covering economic, social, air pollution” (Pacheco and Jalali 2011).
and environmental aspects, which are gener- The growth of the construction market
ally referred to as the pillars of sustainability. has not discharged the disadvantages of high-
Economic means equitable and fair distribu- energy consumption, overconsumption of
tion of economic resources; social means pro- resources, and environmental impacts. Some
motion of equality, well-being, and social serious examples of the impact of construc-
justice; and environmental means protection tion industry on environment are the follow-
and restoration of natural resources, habitats, ing: (a) energy consumption of the
and ecosystems. . Table 1.3 lists the environ-

construction industry is 25–40% of the global
mental impacts related to construction mate- world energy consumption, (b) construction
rials manufacture, use, and disposal. waste constitutes 20–40% of the total waste of
The guidance suggested for creating a sus- the cities, and (c) carbon dioxide emissions
tainable life is termed the three R’s of waste from cement production make up 7% of the
management, that is, the waste hierarchy total CO2 emissions. In addition, the global
defined by reduce, reuse, and recycle. Reduce construction industry consumes more raw
means to use with the least amount of materials than any other economic activity,
resources in the first place, being obviously which shows a clear unsustainable industry.
the most effective of the three R´s. Reuse Decreasing the consumption of natural
means the utilization of a whole component, resources, minimizing the environmental
in largely unchanged form and for a similar impacts, benefits from the quality and tech-
function. Recycle means melting or crushing nology guiding are currently the essential
the product and separating it into its original trends in the development of construction
constituent materials, which are further re- industry (Xiao 2018).
entered in the manufacturing process as raw Consequently, although precise definitions
material. of sustainable construction vary from place to
1 .. Table 1.3 Environmental impacts related to construction materials (Samad and Yahya 2016)
Environmental impact The relation with building materials
Impact of building materials on human health

1. Air pollution Fossil fuel combustion during manufacture, transport construction and
maintenance; manufacturing processes; and mining and crushing of
materials
2. Smog Transport of materials and equipment used at the construction site and
maintenance
3. Ecological toxicity Can be encountered in all phases of the life cycle of building materials
The impact of building materials on ecological degradation
1. Global climate change Greenhouse gas emissions of building materials are often directly related to
the embodied energy of building materials, as for most materials the
emissions stem from the fossil fuel combustion required for their production
2. S
tratospheric ozone Human caused emissions of ozone-depleting substances, such as
depletion chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs, used as a propellant in manufacturing and
refrigerant) and halon (used in fire suppression systems)
3. Acidification Wind can blow these emissions from power and manufacturing plant over
hundreds of miles before they deposited includes sulfur and NOx emissions
4. Eutrophication Manufacturing discharges, nutrients from nonpoint source runoff, fertilizers,
waste disposal
5. Deforestation, Commercial forestry and agriculture, extraction, mining, and manufacturing
desertification, and soil activities
erosion
6. Habitat alteration Primary impact resulting from mining and harvesting of materials for the
manufacture of building materials
7. Loss of biodiversity Destruction of forests and habitats, and air, water, and soil pollution as
contributors
8. Water resource depletion Product manufacturing activities and effluent wastes that are released into
water bodies reduce water resources through pollution
Building materials impacts on energy consumption
1. Energy consumption Energy required in manufacturing building product consumes 80% of the
during the production total energy input in a material
2. Energy consumption Energy for transporting on building site for construction and maintenance,
during building use and and demolition
demolition
3. Fossil fuel depletion Used in extraction, transportation, construction, and maintenance; to
produce steam or heat for industrial processes; for electricity; to power
machinery; and as raw material for production, materials with high-energy
intensity have greater environmental impacts from fuel consumption
place, it can be defined as “the adoption of (Margarido 2015) and “the practice of creat-
materials and products in construction that ing structures and using processes that are
will need less use of natural resources and environmentally responsible and resource-
increase the reusability of such materials and efficient throughout a building’s life-cycle
products for the same or similar purpose” from siting to design, construction, operation,
9 1
maintenance, renovation, and deconstruc- new constructions. In short, the materials that
tion” (U.S. Environmental Protection decrease the utilization of natural resources,
Agency). Thus, sustainable construction seeks minimize environmental impacts, display low
a balance between buildings and their sur- human health risks in their handling and ser-
roundings, minimizing their environmental vice life, and assist with sustainable site design
impact and enhancing energy efficiency. strategies can be regarded as sustainable con-
Obviously, sustainable construction cannot be struction materials (Calkins 2008).
attained without the effective collaboration of Guidelines and manuals for the attain-
all stakeholders (i.e., government, producers, ment of the main objectives of sustainable
building industry practitioners, and the public construction were largely developed in the last
at several levels). Sustainability in construc- decades. They include green product stan-
tion is inevitable due to stringent regulation dards, specifications, green procurement
that has been adopted worldwide on the emis- guidelines, sustainable design codes, etc. Some
sion of greenhouse gases including CO2 into examples are BREEAM in the United
the atmosphere to restrict the increase of the Kingdom, LEED in the United States, or
global average temperature. Green Globes in Canada and the United
By considering the size, importance, States, which provide criteria for material
resources use, and environmental impact of selection. On the other hand, many national
the construction industry, it is essential to regulations and incentives are based on lower-
produce sustainable construction materials. ing the operational energy demand of build-
Aspects such as “energy saving methodologies ings, leading to nearly zero energy buildings
and techniques, improved utilization of mate- (NZEB), among others, as stipulated by the
rials, increasing service life of products, fur- European Energy Performance of Buildings
ther reuse/recycle of materials, eco-designing, Directive (EPBD) (Meex et al. 2018).
and emission control need to be considered Therefore, the focus of sustainable construc-
for the development of sustainable construction is broadening by considering not only the
tion materials” (De Brito and Saikia 2013). In operational phase of a building but also the
this regard, the utilization of products manu- energy demand, resources, emissions, and
factured with natural resources in the con- waste from construction, maintenance as well
struction market should be kept to a minimum as the end-of-life stage of buildings. For this
with the incorporation of recycled products, purpose, Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is the
which reduce environmental impact. only internationally standardized and widely
Material efficiency is one of the most used method, being an approach to evaluate
important elements of sustainable construc- the environmental impact of processes and
tion products. Appropriate choice of materi- products during their life cycle (life cycle can
als by considering their overall service lifetime be defined as “consecutive and interlinked
and by selecting them with minimal environ- stages of a product system, from raw mate-
mental impacts may reduce CO2 emissions by rial acquisition or generation from natural
up to 30% (González and Navarro 2006). The resources to final disposal”—ISO 14040—
durability of construction materials is another . Fig. 1.10). LCA is considered as the most

item that requires to be taken into account for suitable and objective assessment method to
sustainable construction. A durable construc- quantify the energy and resource consump-
tion product is technically better and has a tion, emission, and waste generation and the
longer service life, thus decreasing the cost environmental impacts of a building over its
and amount of materials used in repair and in whole life cycle (7 Box 1.1).

Residues
1 c ts Dis
Produ Use car
ded
Residues pro
duc
ts
Product New scrap

End-of-Life
manufacture
Met s
al & clate
allo
ys Recy
from Residues
industrial
materials
Raw materials
Residues production
from
concentrates,
ores
Metal & alloys
Natural resources
.. Fig. 1.10 Simplified life cycle of metals, including production, manufacturing, utilization, and end of life (Recy-
clates are materials capable of reentering utilization after reprocessing) (Meskers 2008)
Box 1.1
Life Cycle Assessment in Construction

In the last decades, the need to quantify the
environmental impacts of human activities
increased with the goal to help mitigate climate
change. Consequently, environmental life cycle
assessment (LCA) has been standardized
(Takano et al. 2014). LCA provides a compre-
hensive approach to evaluate the environmen-
tal impacts generated in the life of a product,
that is, from mining raw materials to its dis-
posal or recycling. It also includes processing,
manufacturing, transport, utilization, and ser-
vicing (Hellweg and Canals 2014) (. Fig. 1.11).
.. Fig. 1.11 Stages in the life cycle of a product
considered in Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)
Thus, LCA is currently one of the most broadly (Güereca et al. 2018)
used tools for environmental impact evalua-
tions because the basis for sustainable produc-
tion needs an integrated assessment of all Sustainable Development. Because LCA is a
impacts (Guinée and Heijungs 2005). LCA method based on a data-intensive analysis, the
methodologies were used since the 1960s in dif- availability of adequate and credible data is an
ferent process-driven industries. The applica- essential issue for the assessment.
tion of LCA is recognized in the Sustainable Hellweg and Canals (2014) defined LCA as
Development Goals (SDGs) defined by the the “compilation and evaluation of the inputs,
United Nations in the 2030 Agenda for outputs, and potential environmental impacts of
11 1
Extraction Production of
Construction Demolition
of materials and Lifetime
process process
natural resources components
Reuse
Recycling
Final destination
landfill disposal
Environment
Waste materials
Raw-material, products and recycled materials
.. Fig. 1.12 Block diagram showing the life cycle of the construction industry (Margarido 2015)
a product system throughout its life-cycle.” ing’s life cycle. Therefore, LCA is considered as
According to ISO 14040, LCA is commonly the most suitable and objective assessment
structured in four steps: “goal and scope, life-cycle method to quantify the energy and resource
inventory, life-cycle impact assessment, and inter- consumption, emission and waste generation,
pretation.” The four stages are interdependent on and the environmental impacts of a building
each other, that is, the outputs obtained from one over its whole life cycle.
of them act as inputs to feed subsequent steps. There is a clear interaction between all the
While LCA represents the most comprehen- phases of a building’s life. For instance, if less is
sive materials assessment methodology cur- invested in the construction stage (e.g., utilizing
rently available, it does not necessarily address inadequate insulation), the investment required
all environmental impacts. For instance, life in the use and maintenance phase will increase.
cycle assessment of wood products does not LCA can help to not only support the decision-
consider the loss of biodiversity, the decreased making processes related to the selection of
quality of the water, or the soil erosion pro- construction materials, but also highlight the
duced by deficient forestry methods. Likewise, importance of considering a life cycle approach
although global warming potential is quantified in construction activities (Güereca et al. 2018).
in LCA of materials, its ultimate consequences Thus, LCA in construction is focused on either
for ecosystems and wildlife populations are not specific products, components, or the entire
taken into account (Allen and Iano 2013). facility (i.e., building and/or infrastructure) and
Nowadays, materials such as cement, con- whole processes. With the push toward sustain-
crete, steel, and PVC are commonly used in the ability, construction stakeholders are increas-
construction industry, which generates high- ingly interested in incorporating LCA into
energy costs and numerous environmental construction decision-making (Khatib 2016).
impacts. Thus, LCA has been used in the con- . Figure 1.12 shows the life cycle of the con-

struction industry to understand the environ- struction industry.

mental profile of buildings and to investigate Construction products are special since:
solutions to mitigate the impact over a build- “(a) have a comparatively long life, (b) undergo
1 changes often, (c) have commonly multiple create the need for an LCA of each individual
functions, (d) contain many different compo- building. EN 15804 standard on Environmental
nents, (e) are locally produced, (f) are normally Product Declarations or EPDs creates a frame-
unique, (g) cause local impact, and (h) are inte- work for standardization of LCA of building
grated with the infrastructure” (Zabalza et al. materials as well as buildings as a whole. In
2009). This means that producing an entire life particular, EN 15804 provides core product
cycle assessment of a building is not a simple category rules for all construction products and
process like for many other products. services. This means that standard “provides a
. Table 1.4 shows the principal target groups
structure to ensure that all Environmental
for using LCA in the early design phases of a Product Declarations of construction prod-
building while . Table 1.5 demonstrates the
ucts, construction services, and construction
impact matrix at various stages of construction processes are derived, verified, and presented in
materials. a harmonized way.”
In comparison with the LCA of consumer In order to reduce environmental impacts
products, there are a number of challenges for during their life cycle, an assessment and anal-
LCA on a building level. Firstly, the long life ysis of construction materials are imperative
span of buildings, which can last over one hun- previous to the design and construction of
dred years, introduces a high degree of uncer- buildings. Thus, “the input and output of
tainty, especially regarding the use phase (due material, energy, and waste to and from all
to refurbishments, occupant behavior, con- stages of a structure’s life are quantified and
sumption patterns, etc.) and the end-of-life their sum is a measure of the overall environ-
treatment of the building (Meex et al. 2018). mental impact; different structural forms and
Secondly, buildings are commonly unique systems can then be compared on this basis
designs that make standardization difficult and and decisions taken on the most appropriate
.. Table 1.4 Application of LCA in the building sector (Zabalza et al. 2009)
Type of user Stage of the process Purpose of LCA use
Consultants advising Preliminary phases Setting targets at municipal level

municipalities, urban Defining zones where residential/office
designers building is encouraged or prohibited
Setting targets for development areas
Property developers and Preliminary phases Choosing a building site
clients Sizing a project
Setting environmental targets in a
program
Architects Early design (sketch) and Comparing design options (geometry/
detailed design in collaboration orientation, technical choices)
with engineers
Design of a renovation project
Engineers/consultants Early design in collaboration Comparing design options (geometry,
with architects, and detailed technical choices)
design
Design of a renovation project
13 1
one(s)” (Soutsos and Domone 2017). The energy needed to mine, collect, crush, refine,
value of implementing measures such as reduc- extract, synthesize, and process the materials
ing waste or using recycled materials can thus into the form they are used, and (b) embodied
be demonstrated. Essential information in carbon: the quantity of carbon dioxide emitted
LCA is the embodied energy and the embodied during the cited processes but considering the
carbon content of construction materials, source of the energy and its impact on the envi-
defined as (a) embodied energy: the amount of ronment.
.. Table 1.5 Impact matrix at various stages of building materials (Samad and Yahya 2016)
Environmental impact Material life cycle

Mining Manufacturing Constructing Using Demolition
Human Air pollution √ √ √ √ √

health
Smog √ √ √ √
Ecological toxicity √ √ √ √ √
Eco- Global climate change √ √ √
degradation
Stratospheric ozone √
depletion
Acidification √ √ √
Eutrophication √ √ √ √
Deforestation, √ √ √ √ √
desertification, and
soil erosion
Habitat alteration √ √
Loss of biodiversity √ √ √
Water resource √ √
depletion
Energy Energy consumption √ √
consumption during the production
of building materials
Energy consumption √ √ √
during building, use,
and demolition
Fossil fuel depletion √ √ √ √ √
1.5 Questions study of three houses of low environmental impact.

1 Build Environ 41(7):902–909
Güereca LP, Jato-Espino D, Lizasoain-Arteaga E (2018)
??Short Questions Life-cycle assessment of construction materials:
55 Definition of construction product. analysis of environmental impacts and recommen-
55 Classify the construction materials accord- dations of eco-efficient management practices. In:
ing to their chemical composition. Hussain C (ed) Handbook of environmental materi-
als management. Springer, Cham, p 37
55 List some examples of special functions
Guinée JB, Heijungs R (2005) Life cycle assessment. In:
that characterize functional materials Kroschwitz JI (ed) Encyclopedia of chemical tech-
55 What are the most important mechanical nology, vol 14, 4th edn. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
properties of construction materials? New York, pp 1–31
55 List the factors involved in the selection of Hellweg S, Canals LMI (2014) Emerging approaches,
challenges and opportunities in life cycle assess-
the adequate construction materials when
ment. Science 344(6188):1109–1113
designing a structure. Khatib J (2016) Sustainability of construction materials.
55 Define durability applied to construction Woodhead Publishing, Amsterdam, p 742
materials. Margarido F (2015) Hydraulic binders. In: Goncalves
55 What are the main actions related to dura- MC, Margarido F (eds) Materials for construction
and civil engineering. Springer International
bility?
Publishing, Cham, pp 799–835
55 What is a product standard? Matos G (2017) Use of raw materials in the United
55 List the most important organizations in States from 1900 through 2014. U.S. Geological
the world that publish product standards. Survey Fact Sheet 2017–3062, p 6
55 Define sustainable development. Meex E, Hollberg A, Knapen E, Hildebrand L, Verbeeck
G (2018) Requirements for applying LCA-based
environmental impact assessment tools in the early
stages of building design. Build Environ 133:228–
??Long Questions 236
55 Explain the three R’s in waste management. Meskers CEM (2008) Coated magnesium – designed for
55 Define and explain the life cycle assessment sustainability? Ph.D. Thesis, Faculty of Mechanical
Maritime and Materials Engineering, Delft
in construction.
University of Technology, the Netherlands
Pacheco F, Jalali S (2011) Eco-efficient construction and
building materials. Springer-Verlag, London, p 247
Samad MHA, Yahya HAY (2016) Life cycle analysis of
References building materials. In: Ahmad MI, Ismail M, Riffat
S (eds) Renewable energy and sustainable technolo-
Ahmed A, Sturges J (2014) Materials science. In con- gies for building and environmental applications –
struction: an introduction. Routledge, London, options for a greener future. Springer International
p 394 Publishing Switzerland, Cham, pp 187–204
Allen E, Iano J (2013) Fundamentals of building con- Soutsos M, Domone P (2017) Selection and sustainable
struction: materials and methods, 6th edn. John use of construction materials. In: Soutsos M,
Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, p 1024 Domone P (eds) Construction materials – their
Berge B, Butters C, Henley F (2009) The ecology of nature and behaviour. Spon Press, London
building materials, 2nd edn. Elsevier, Amsterdam, Takano A, Winter S, Hughes M, Linkosalm L (2014)
p 448 Comparison of life cycle assessment databases: a
Calkins M (2008) Materials for sustainable sites: a com- case study on building assessment. Build Environ
plete guide to the evaluation, selection and use of 79:20–30
sustainable construction materials. Wiley, Hoboken, Xiao J (2018) Recycled aggregate concrete structures.
p 480 Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, Berlin,
De Brito J, Saikia N (2013) Recycled aggregate in con- Heidelberg, p 632
crete. Use of industrial, construction and demoli- Zabalza I, Aranda A, Scarpellini S (2009) Life cycle
tion waste. Springer-Verlag, London, p 445 assessment in buildings: state-of-the-art and simpli-
Dugall SK (2017) Building materials. Routledge, fied LCA methodology as a complement for build-
London, p 405 ing certification. Build Environ 44:2510–2520
González MJ, Navarro JG (2006) Assessment of the Zang H (2011) Building materials in civil engineering.
decrease of CO2 emissions in the construction field Woodhead Publishing Limited and Science Press,
through the selection of materials: practical case Cambridge, UK, p 432
References
15 1
Standards Hedstrom GSS (2018) Sustainability: what it is and how
to measure it. Walter de Gruyter Inc., Boston/
ISO 13823: 2008. General principles of the design of
Berlin, p 336
structures for durability
Letcher TM, Scott JL, Peter L (eds) (2012) Materials for
ISO 14040: 2006. Environmental management – life
a sustainable future. Royal Society of Chemistry,
cycle assessment – principles and framework
London, p 828
ASTM E631 - 15. Standard terminology of building
Schifman MR (2018) Building a sustainable home: prac-
constructions
tical green design choices for your health, wealth,
EN 15804: 2012+A2: 2019. Sustainability of construc-
and soul. Skyhorse Publishing, p 224
tion works. Environmental product declarations.
Thiele LP (2016) Sustainability. Wiley, p 256
Core rules for the product category of construction
products
Useful Links
Further Reading Sustainability. sustainability.com
Sustainability for all. www.activesustainability.com
Blackburn WR (2015) The sustainability handbook: the
Sustainability Times. www.sustainability-times.com
complete management guide to achieving social,
International Organization for Standardization. www.
economic and environmental responsibility. Taylor
iso.org
and Francis Group, p 826
American Society for Testing and Materials. www.astm.org
Doran D (2010) Construction materials reference book.
European Committee for Standardization. www.cen.eu
Butterworth Heinemann, p 768
BREEAM. www.breeam.com
Emmitt S (2018) Barry’s advanced construction of
U.S. Green Building Council. www.usgbc.org
buildings, 4th edn. Wiley-Blackwell, p 560
17 2
Aggregates
Contents
2.1 Introduction – 18
2.2 Definitions – 19
2.3 Aggregate Types – 20
2.4 Geological Occurrence – 22

2.4.1 rushed Stone – 23
C
2.4.2 Sand and Gravel – 25
2.5 Extraction Methods – 28

2.5.1 S and and Gravel – 28
2.5.2 Crushed Stone – 30
2.6 Processing Techniques – 31

2.6.1 S and and Gravel – 32
2.6.2 Crushed Stone – 36
2.7 Properties and Testing – 38

2.7.1 eneral Properties and Tests – 39
G
2.7.2 Geometrical Properties and Tests – 40
2.7.3 Mechanical and Physical Properties and Tests – 43
2.7.4 Thermal and Weathering Properties and Tests – 46
2.7.5 Chemical Properties and Tests – 47
2.8 Applications – 47
2.8.1 Railway Ballast – 47
2.9 Environmental Considerations – 49
References – 51

18 Chapter 2 · Aggregates
Summary
This chapter provides an introduction to
2 aggregates, which are the most consumed
natural resource after water. The chapter
begins with the main definitions of the
term, including those from ASTM, EN,
and ISO standards. Next heading establishes
the main types of aggregates according to
the production method: natural,
manufactured, or recycled. Natural
aggregates can be further subdivided into
sand and gravel, and crushed stone.
Geological occurrences of natural .. Fig. 2.1 Aggregate used as railway ballast
aggregates (different possibilities since
natural aggregates are generated by a great such as roads, highways and bridges, railroad
variety of geologic processes) are then beds (. Fig. 2.1), dams, airports, tunnels,

discussed as well as the main extraction and many others. According to the European
methods used in sand and gravel and Aggregates Association (UEPG), the main
crushed stone exploitation. The principal applications of aggregates in construction
processing techniques used in aggregate during 2018 and their relative percentages are
production (crushing, screening, and shown in . Fig. 2.2.

washing) are described. Then, this chapter Today, aggregate production accounts for
describes the properties of aggregates and more than half of the nonfuel mining volume
their associated tests, organized them into in the United States. Moreover, in the future,
five main groups: general, geometrical, rebuilding of deteriorated roads, highways,
mechanical and physical, thermal and bridges, airports, seaports, and private and
weathering, and chemical properties and public buildings will require huge amounts of
tests. A heading devoted to aggregate for aggregate to be mined. Although it is almost
use as railway ballast is included whereas impossible to know exactly the quantity of
other important applications of aggregates aggregates extracted every year in the world,
such as concrete, mortar, and roads are it can be roughly estimated that annual pro-
taken into account in the corresponding duction of aggregate worldwide totals about
chapters. The environmental considerations 25 billion tons. It is clear that both developed
of aggregate quarrying are finally kept in countries and developing nations require an
mind because aggregate is extracted close to extensive use of aggregates.
major centers of demand (e.g., big cities) to Some facts to outline the importance of
minimize cost of transport. aggregates are the following: (a) after water,
aggregates are the most consumed natural
resource, (b) it is estimated that 30,000 tons
2.1 Introduction of aggregates are required to construct 1 km
of highway and every new 1 km of high-speed
Aggregates (a collective term for mineral railway typically requires 9000 tons of aggre-
materials consisting of grains or fragments gates, (c) about 90% of most paved roads are
of rock) are one of the most common natu- made of aggregate, either as a base for the
ral resources used in everyday life, having road or mixed with asphalt or cement, (d) one
fundamentally enhanced the quality of life. cubic meter of concrete incorporates approxi-
Aggregates are essential for use in construc- mately two tons of aggregates (they occupy at
tion; they are used in nearly all residential, least three quarters of volume), (e) the pro-
commercial, and industrial building con- duction of aggregates in the United States
struction and in most public work projects shifted from about 200 million tons in 1940 to
2.2 · Definitions
19 2
.. Fig. 2.2 Main applications of aggregates in construction during 2018 and their relative percentages (UEPG)
The most important application of aggre-

gates deals with construction but many other
uses are envisaged. They have numerous indus-
trial uses such as the manufacture of pharma-
ceuticals, sugar, glass, paper, plastics, floor
coverings, rubber, synthetic fabrics, cosmetics,
toothpaste, and many more. Consequently,
it can be said that aggregates in one form or
another are used in practically everything that
human touch during the day, being obviously
vital to the maintenance and development of
the society.
.. Fig. 2.3 Aggregate quarry. (Image courtesy of

Benito Arnó e Hijos, S.A.U) 2.2 Definitions
approximately 2.50 billion tons in 2018, and There are many definitions for the term
(f) actually the European aggregate demand is aggregate, although most of them are very
2.7 billion tons per year, representing an aver- similar. The Encyclopaedia Britannica defines
age demand of 5 tons per capita per year. aggregate (in building and construction) as
Aggregates are generally open-pit mined “material used for mixing with cement, bitu-
(. Fig. 2.3) and used either in their natural
men, lime, gypsum, or other adhesive to form
state or after crushing, washing, and sizing. concrete or mortar.” The British Geological
They are generally combined with binding Survey (BGS) points out that “aggregates
components to form concrete, mortar, and are normally defined as being hard, granular,
asphalt although they can be used on their materials that are suitable for use either on
own nature to provide the base that under- their own or with the addition of cement, lime
lies paved roads, railroad ballast, surfaces on or a bituminous binder in construction.” The
unpaved roads, and filtering material in water Portland Cement Association (PCA) states
treatment. Unlike metals, e.g., gold or cop- that “aggregates are inert granular materials
per, aggregates are a high bulk, low unit value such as sand, gravel, or crushed stone that,
commodity. This type of raw material derives along with water and Portland cement, are an
much of its value from their location close to essential ingredient in concrete.”
the market. As a consequence, it is said to have In ASTM standards, aggregate has a num-
a high place value. The transport of aggre- ber of definitions depending primarily on
gates long distances substantially increases its their uses. Considering the most important
price and can render distant deposits uneco- applications of aggregates, aggregate related
nomical. For this reason, the aggregate opera- to concrete (ASTM C125 standard) is “a gran-
tions usually are located close to population ular material, such as sand, gravel, crushed
centers and other market areas. stone, or iron blast-furnace slag, used with a
cementing medium to form hydraulic-cement

concrete or mortar.” If aggregates are used in
roads and pavements (ASTM D8 standard),
2 they are “a granular material used as a con-
struction material, meeting the requirements
of road and paving applications.” In aggre-
gates for mortar and grout for unit masonry
(C1180 standard), aggregate is “a granular
mineral material such as natural sand, manu-
factured sand, gravel, crushed stone, and air
cooled blast furnace slag.” Consequently, .. Fig. 2.4 Recycled aggregate. (Image courtesy of Sal-
aggregate embraces a large range of naturally medina S.L.)
occurring and man-made materials of a broad
variety of sizes and physical properties. has been subject to nothing more than physi-
Regarding European standards, all EN cal processing (crushing and sizing); manufac-
documents, leaving aside the final applica- tured aggregate is aggregate of mineral origin
tion, include the same definition of aggregate: resulting from an industrial process involving
“granular material used in construction.” thermal or other modification (e.g. slag); and
Moreover, the definition of ISO is also recycled aggregate (. Fig. 2.4) is aggregate

extremely short: aggregate is an “inert granu- resulting from the processing of inorganic
lar material” (ISO 6707-1 standard for build- materials previously used in construction
ings and civil engineering works). (e.g., construction and demolition waste –
Summarizing the most important aspects CDW-).” In other words, aggregates are sand
exposed in all the previously mentioned defi- and gravel (including marine sediments),
nitions of aggregate, it is clear that aggregate crushed rock (e.g., limestone), and recycled
is a granular, inert material basically used in (e.g., reprocessed concrete) and manufactured
construction, the main applications in this aggregates.
sector being the manufacture of concrete and Natural aggregates (sand and gravel,
mortar, and for roads and pavements. and crushed stone) are extracted mainly
from quarries (in some countries also from
sea-dredged materials, that is, marine aggre-
2.3 Aggregate Types gates—7 Box 2.1: Marine Aggregates) and

they constitute by far the most important type

Aggregates can be classified based on several of aggregates: 90% of global aggregate produc-
criteria. They can be separated into light, tion in Europe according to UEPG. Recycled
heavy, or normal aggregates if their unit aggregates provide only 8% of production in
weights are taken into account. Aggregates European countries although they are essential
are also classified in fine aggregate (sand) or for instance in the Netherlands. Construction
coarse aggregate (gravel) when particle size and demolition waste is the biggest waste
is considered. The geological origin can be stream in this country and most of it—the inert
another feature to classify the types of aggre- fraction—is processed and used in concrete,
gates: sedimentary, igneous, and metamor- asphalt, or mixed aggregate. Finally, manufac-
phic. Nevertheless, the most common and tured aggregates represent only 2% of European
used system to group the different aggregate consumption. Natural aggregates are described
types is considering the production method in detail in this chapter while recycled aggre-
to be used. Thus, aggregates are separated in gates are taken into account in 7 Chap. 19,
natural, manufactured, or recycled. EN 12620 specifically devoted to construction and demo-

standard uses this classification and points lition waste. Manufactured aggregates are not
out the following definitions: “natural aggre- contemplated in this book because their impact
gate is aggregate from mineral sources that in world aggregate production is negligible.
2.3 · Aggregate Types
21 2
Box 2.1
Marine Aggregates tion and construction, neither has any signifi-

According to the British Marine Aggregate cant resource of the coarse sand or gravel
Producers Association (BMAPA), “the marine required for concrete production on their conti-
aggregate industry is one of the UK’s key sup- nental shelves.”
pliers of sand and gravel. In a typical year (e.g., The distribution of marine sand and grav-
2018), around 19 million tons of marine aggre- els that can be used by the aggregate industry is
gate are dredged from an area of c.90 km2 – limited to discrete geological deposits that
equivalent to 0.01% of the UK seabed. Marine reflect the physical processes that have formed
supplies provide around 25% of sand and them (. Fig. 2.5). Most represent relict depos-

gravel sales in England and 48% of sales in its generated as a result of ancient glacial and
Wales.” Another example of the importance of fluvial processes coupled with associated varia-
marine aggregates production is that some 16% tions in sea level relative to land. In the
of total production from UK waters is exported Quaternary period, several glacial episodes
to France, the Netherlands, and Belgium for took place from about 26 million years before
use as construction aggregate. This is because present to about 11,000 years before present.
that export market exists as a consequence of Thus, fluctuating sea levels over the past two
increasingly constrains of locally won terres- million years have led to the deposition of
trial aggregates of these countries. Russell sands and gravels on the modern seabed.
(com. pers.) points out that “The Netherlands Although these sand and gravels are now sub-
and Belgium are heavily reliant upon imports merged, they were originally deposited by large
of construction aggregate from adjacent river systems that flowed across the seafloor,
nations, especially Germany and France, along when it was exposed as dry land during glacial
with crushed rock by sea from Scandinavia; stages, which in turn corresponded to periods
while both countries have significant volumes of sea-level lowering. The sands and gravels
of fine-medium marine sand which are widely were deposited by fast-flowing rivers fed by
exploited for beach nourishment, land reclama- snow and ice melt, which poured out across the
.. Fig. 2.5 Genesis of marine aggregates in UK. (Illustration courtesy of BMAPA)

dry shelf. In turn, these deposits were subse-

quently reworked by wave and tidal processes
2 as sea levels rose during warmer interglacial
stages. This warm-cold cycle was repeated
many times producing sand and gravel deposits
that are essentially immobile and locked in
ancient river terraces and channels. The avail-
ability of suitable resources for commercial
dredging is not only defined by the presence of
ancient paleovallies, but also by the extent to
which more recent marine processes have
reworked these deposits.
Extraction of marine aggregates involves
the use of purpose-built dredging vessels. To
locate the dredging area, vessels use satellite .. Fig. 2.6 Dredged material being transferred
navigation systems. The dredge pipe is then into the hold of the vessel. (Image courtesy of
lowered to the seafloor and powerful pumps BMAPA)
remove a mixture of sand, gravel, and seawater
into the ship’s cargo hold (. Fig. 2.6).

Typically, a dry cargo will be discharged using

bucket wheels, scrapers (. Fig. 2.7), or wire-

hoisted grabs that place the aggregate onto a

conveyor system for delivery to the wharf or
processing plant. Alternatively, hydraulic dis-
charge can be used to discharge a wet cargo.
Powerful pumps on large vessels are capable of
drawing up to 2600 tons per hour of sand and
gravel raw materials from depths of up to 50
meters. It is important to note that the ability
of dredging vessels to access sand and gravel
.. Fig. 2.7 Dredger unloading its cargo of
resources will be influenced by the water depth, marine aggregates close to the center of London
with most aggregate dredgers unable to dredge with the use of scraper buckets. (Image courtesy
beyond water depths of 60 m. of Mark Russel—BMAPA)
In some countries, e.g., United Kingdom, 2.4 Geological Occurrence

the term secondary aggregate is also used.
Secondary aggregates are commonly defined Natural aggregates can be subdivided in two
as: “(a) aggregates obtained as a by-product types: (a) exposed or near-surface sedimen-
of other quarrying and mining operations tary, metamorphic, and igneous rocks that
(e.g. natural stone waste), or (b) aggregates are capable of being crushed, and (b) sand
obtained as a by-product of other indus- and gravel deposits that may be used directly
trial processes (e.g. blast furnace/steel slag or or crushed and sized to meet specifications.
coal-fired power station ash)” (BGS 2013). In Naturally occurring aggregate deposits,
European specifications, the first type is classi- whether sand and gravel or source rock for
fied as a natural aggregate whereas the second crushed stone, can be present in a great vari-
type is classed as manufactured aggregate. ety of geological environments. Volcanoes,
2.4 · Geological Occurrence
23 2
earthquakes, glaciers, rivers and streams,
and marine processes have contributed to the
formation of materials used as aggregate. In
any world region, the availability of bedrock
appropriate to crush depends on the geologi-
cal history of the region, in other words, the
processes that formed, eroded, and exposed
the bedrock. To locate suitable deposits and to
assess the potential for new aggregate sources,
the key is to understand the geological pro-
cesses that form them and the geological set-
tings in which they occur.
In general, sand and gravel were the prin-
cipal source of natural aggregate until the .. Fig. 2.8 Drilling in a crushed stone (andesite)
1980s but its importance declined since then. quarry. (Image courtesy of Benito Arnó e Hijos, S.A.U)
In many countries, the relative proportions of
crushed stone and sand and gravel produc-
tion usually are a reflection of the presence
and accessibility of sand and gravel deposits,
which commonly need fewest methods of pro-
cessing and are correspondingly cheaper to
produce, although they generate important
environmental issues. Both types of aggre-
gates are commonly used in construction,
according to the specification standards as
well as economic considerations. For exam-
ple, in the manufacturing of Portland cement
concrete, alluvial sand and gravel are gener-
ally preferred while crushed stone is selected
in asphaltic mixtures because asphalt adheres .. Fig. 2.9 Loading aggregates in a crushed stone
better to rough surfaces. (andesite) quarry for aggregates. (Image courtesy of
Benito Arnó e Hijos, S.A.U.)
2.4.1 Crushed Stone classified based on the type of rock from

which it was produced: sedimentary, igneous,
Crushed stone is “the product resulting from and metamorphic.
the artificial crushing of rock, boulders, or Obviously, a great variety of rocks is suit-
large cobblestones, substantially all faces of able for utilization as aggregates when crushed.
which have resulted from the crushing opera- The technical suitability of crushed stones for
tion” (ASTM C125 standard). It is generally different aggregate applications is based on
produced by drilling (. Fig. 2.8), blasting,
their physical characteristics. High- quality
loading (. Fig. 2.9), and crushing bedrock,
aggregate is required for applications such as
although it can involve crushing large boul- ballast whereas lower quality aggregates may
ders or cobblestones. Crushed stone tends to be acceptable for applications such as concrete
have angular edges, and substantially, all of or mortar. Most hard rocks are potentially
its surfaces have resulted from the crushing suitable for coarse aggregate but high-quality
operation. In addition to the size and shape crushed rock aggregates are usually obtained
of the particles, this type of aggregate is also from very hard, dense igneous rocks.
2.4.1.1 Sedimentary Rocks base layers) and concrete. The quality of the
There are two main types of sedimentary rocks: limestone deposits may vary based on dif-
(a) those that have been chemically or bio- ferent geological factors (e.g., waste content,
2 chemically formed (calcareous and evaporate dolomitization processes, or degree of fault-
rocks), and (b) those that have been mechani- ing and folding).
cally deposited (clastic rocks). Sedimentary Within the group of clastic (mechanically
rocks show a varied range of properties, from deposited) sedimentary rocks, sandstones,
heavy to light, strong to weak, hard to soft, when hard and dense, are generally the only
and dense to porous. For this reason, the suit- type used for aggregate production. They are
ability for their use as crushed stone for aggre- a major source of aggregate in some regions.
gates changes accordingly. However, sandstones commonly are friable or
Limestone is a sedimentary rock con- excessively porous materials due to imperfect
stituted basically by calcium carbonate cementation of the constituent grains. On
(CaCO3). Increasing the magnesium carbon- the other hand, sandstones can contain clay
ate (MgCO3) content, limestone grades into that renders the rock friable, soft, and absorp-
dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2). The vast majority tive. To a much lesser amount, siltstone and
of limestone and dolomite rocks are hard, conglomerate are used as crushed stone for
durable, and therefore useful for producing aggregates.
aggregates, being common rock types and
consequently broadly mined for this applica- 2.4.1.2 Igneous Rocks
tion (. Fig. 2.10). However, in some cases
Igneous rocks form from cooled magma,
limestone may be friable, soft, and absorptive being classified according to their origin and
when it contains significant amount of clay. composition. Where the rock formed by slow
In general, limestone and other carbon- cooling at relatively high depth, it shows
ates cover about half to three quarters of the coarse crystals and includes the general rock
rocks used for crushed stone, with granite and types of granite, diorite, and gabbro. Volcanic
other igneous rocks making up the bulk of igneous rocks were extruded onto the earth’s
the remainder. Limestone is also extensively surface where they cooled and solidified
used for cement (see 7 Chap. 6) and lime (see
relatively quickly, promoting the formation
7 Chap. 7) manufacture. Limestone depos-
of small or microscopic crystals. Examples
its are usually thickly bedded and consistent, include rhyolite, andesite (. Fig. 2.11), and

which allow them to be quarried thoroughly basalt. Many igneous rocks such as those
and economically. This type of sedimentary mentioned are hard, tough, and dense, being
deposits generally produces durable aggre- excellent crushed stone aggregates.
gates suitable for road stone (sub-base and Although igneous rocks exhibit a wide
range of chemical compositions and their
.. Fig. 2.10 Aggregate limestone quarry. (Image cour-

tesy of Calcinor) .. Fig. 2.11 Andesite aggregate (object about 10 cm)
25 2
suitability for aggregate depends on their
mineral composition and crystalline fabric
and texture, they generally tend to produce
hard aggregates with a high degree of skid
resistance, being thus very appropriate in
road surfacing applications and for utiliza-
tion in the lower parts of the road pavement.
Nevertheless, there are some exceptions: cer-
tain extrusive rocks, especially those with a
high silica content, are too porous to make
good aggregate, and other igneous rocks with
a very high content of silica tend to react
chemically with alkali when used as aggre-
gate in cement concrete. Some coarse-grained .. Fig. 2.12 Quartzite aggregates. (Image courtesy of
rocks can be less attractive in some applica- Cuminer S.A.)
tions because of their low crushing strength.
Substantial quantities of coarse aggregate
are used as railway track ballast (. Fig. 2.1).

Because ballast requires to be hard, clean, and

angular with a very high resistance to abra-
sion, most of this type of aggregate applica-
tion is produced from igneous rocks (e.g.,
andesite or basalt).
2.4.1.3 Metamorphic Rocks

Metamorphic rocks are derived from preex-
isting rocks (sedimentary, igneous, and meta-
morphic) through alteration by heat, pressure,
and chemical activity, thus comprising a com-
plex range of rock types with different physi- .. Fig. 2.13 Aggregates located in a river terrace near
cal characteristics. Vast tracts of the major Madrid (Spain)
continents worldwide consist of exposed
regional metamorphic rocks that give a choice 2.4.2 Sand and Gravel
of aggregate sources. Metamorphic rocks
that are hard, tough, and dense can be used Sand and gravel deposits are formed by ero-
as aggregate (e.g., mylonite—. Fig. 2.3).
sion, transportation, and deposition of frag-
These mainly include gneiss (a banded ments. They are accumulations of the more
crystalline rock), marble (metamorphosed durable rock fragments and mineral grains
limestone), and quartzite (metamorphosed (e.g., quartz), being mainly Pleistocene or
sandstone—. Fig. 2.12). Some metamor-
younger in age (older deposits may not be
phic rocks, such as highly foliated schist, have sufficiently unconsolidated to be regarded as
planar foliation that produces undesirable sand and gravel). Sand and gravel deposits
planes of weakness, not being therefore suit- are most common in glaciated areas, alluvial
able for crushed stone (Langer 2006a). On the basins, or as deposits accumulated in rivers
other hand, some metamorphic rocks such as and streams. Consequently, these materi-
quartzite can cause excessive wear on crush- als are found in alluvial fans, river terraces
ing equipment. (. Fig. 2.13), flood plain materials, alluvial

deltas, moraines, tills, and others. Windblown In mountainous arid and semiarid regions,
aggregates (e.g., sand dunes) are, in general, rock fragments are eroded and transported
of little importance as natural aggregate, during storms down steep-gradient streams to
2 excepting as blending sands; this is because the adjacent basins, resulting in alluvial fans.
they are confined to fine-grained materials. Alluvial fans are most common in regions of
The availability of sand and gravel deposits arid and semiarid climate, but some alluvial
is intimately linked to the regional geologic fan deposits occur in more humid environ-
history of every region. In the geological ments. The deposits commonly contain thick
assessment of any deposit of sand and gravel, unconsolidated material ranging from large
aspects such as size and location, groundwa- boulders to clay-size particles. The coarsest
ter conditions, and deleterious constituents, particles are commonly deposited adjacent to
among others, are essential. the mountains and become progressively finer
Sand and gravel aggregate is defined based toward the downstream edge of the deposits.
on particle size rather than composition. For Sand and gravel in alluvial fans may be suitable
instance, according to European standards, for aggregate but fan deposits usually include
e.g., EN 12620 standard, the term gravel (or lenticular beds or poorly sorted material inter-
coarse aggregate) is commonly used for appli- bedded with different amounts of silt and clay.
cations to define “particles between 4 and 80 In older fans, gravel may be highly weathered
mm,” and the term sand (or fine aggregate) and not suitable for aggregate. In addition, fan
for fragments that are “finer than 4 mm, but gravels may be cemented with caliche, a cal-
coarser than 0.063 mm.” The properties of cium carbonate precipitate in the soil, making
gravel, and to a lesser extent sand, largely them difficult to extract and process.
depend on the rock properties from which Alluvial (river) sand and gravel, either
they were derived. Nevertheless, where trans- in the channels or floodplains of rivers and
porting distances are short, for instance in streams, or in terraces (lying above the level of
glaciofluvial environments and alluvial fans, the present flood plain), found alongside the
deleterious components can remain and rivers or streams, are the principal sources of
diminish the importance of the deposit. sand and gravel aggregate. In general, terrace
Most sand and gravel are used as construc- deposits can be more desirable than stream
tion aggregate. In many cases, it is preferred channel deposits because they are above the
over crushed stone to manufacture Portland stream level. The availability and quality of the
cement concrete because its smooth, rounded gravel are strongly dependent on occurrence
shape allows for easy mixing without addition and properties of nearby bedrock sources.
of excess water and cement. Sand and gravel Less resistant minerals are dissolved and/or
aggregates have also numerous applications in altered into clays; the more resistant miner-
an unbound state. als stand as rock particles. Materials in these
deposits are desirable as aggregate for many
2.4.2.1 Fluvial Deposits reasons. The most important is that the nat-
They mainly comprise river sands and gravels ural abrasive action of stream transport has
that take the form of extensive spreads occur- removed most of the soft weak rocks, leaving
ring along the floors of major river valleys, only the harder particles. As a consequence,
commonly beneath alluvium, and as river ter- the latter components have undergone certain
races flanking the valley sides. River terraces degree of rounding, being thus subrounded to
are the dissected or eroded remnants of earlier well-rounded (. Fig. 2.14) an essential fac-

abandoned river floodplains. Deposit thick- tor for the utilization of aggregates in pump-
ness varies from less than 1 m to maximum ing concrete. Moreover, most of this type of
values of 10 m. Sand to gravel ratios are vari- deposits contain sand and gravel in the size
able, but river deposits typically are relatively gradations required for concrete production.
clean with lower fines content (silt and clay) Fluvial sediments can range in composi-
than glacial deposits. tion from nearly all clay, through mixtures of
27 2
Glaciofluvial deposits show a better level
of sorting and include less clay than the glacial
ones. As a rule, they have high enough quality
to yield satisfactory aggregate in comparison
with stream sand and gravel. As glacier ice
melts, rock particles that had been crushed,
abraded, and carried by the ice are further
transported, abraded, and rounded by melt-
water. These deposits are potential sources of
sand and gravel that are of great importance
for use as aggregate. The particle size in the
glacial meltwater deposits ranges from boul-
der to sand, silt, and clay, and can change
abruptly, both with depth and laterally, espe-
cially where the material was deposited under
the ice, e.g., eskers, or on or near the ice, e.g.,
moraines or kames. Glaciofluvial deposits are
.. Fig. 2.14 Well-rounded coarse aggregate commonly thinner than stream deposits in
regions of considerable topographic relief.
clay, silt, sand, and gravel, to nearly all sand
and gravel. If a river or stream changes gradi- 2.4.2.3 Marine Deposits
ent and downcuts its channel, the older chan- Marine deposits on continental shelves are
nel and floodplain deposits can be preserved large potential sources of sand and gravel,
as river terraces. Repeated downcutting can although surface materials on continental
result in a series of terraces or terrace rem- shelves are commonly sand-size and finer-
nants above the level of the modern stream grained. Marine sand and gravel deposits are
base, which can be important sources of sand a significant input to total supply of aggre-
and gravel. Older terraces can be exposed gates in some countries, for instance in Great
to prolonged weathering, thus weakening Britain and Japan. Although marine depos-
the material and reducing its suitability as its currently provide a very small proportion
aggregate. of sand and gravel production worldwide,
they could become more significant as other
2.4.2.2 Glacial Deposits sources are depleted, and if economic, regu-
Glacial deposits are commonly much less latory, and environmental concerns can be
predictable than alluvial deposits in almost adequately addressed.
every respect. Particle size distribution, par- In general, marine sand and gravel
ticle shape and composition, and thickness resources are unevenly distributed on the
and extent of glacial and glaciofluvial depos- continental shelf but are very similar to their
its vary widely. Glacial deposits subjected to land-based equivalents, occurring as small
stream action are called glaciofluvial deposits. patches separated or covered by extensive
Likewise, the landforms linked to the accumu- areas of uneconomic deposits. They vary in
lation of these deposits and from erosion by thickness, composition, and grading, and in
glacial ice are clearly distinct. Glacial mate- proximity to the shore. The mineralogy of
rials are conditioned by the type of bedrock these deposits varies depending on the source
over which the glacier passed. From a geologi- of the material. The origin of gravel-bearing
cal point of view, genuine glacial deposits are sediments offshore is directly comparable to
termed till, which can be defined as a mate- that of terrestrial deposits (7 Box 2.1). An

rial deposited directly by the ice. In general, advantageous feature of many marine sands
till is a poorly sorted mixture of clay-size to is the low silt content while presence of salt is
boulder-size particles. a disadvantageous feature.
2.4.2.4 Beach Deposits

Sand and gravel generated by currents and
waves on a beach can result in a good aggre-
2 gate because the gravel and sand particles are
commonly well-rounded and hard. Gravel
tends to be swept high onto the coast (back-
shore) and the sand and finer particles out
to sea. Beach gravels are thus strongly local-
ized vertically but laterally extensive along
the shore. The sands are generally com-
posed mainly of resistant quartz and feld-
spar. Thus, beach deposits can all be used as
aggregate if they meet the required specifica-
tions; however, many beach deposits are thin .. Fig. 2.15 Earthmoving machinery extracting sand
and gravel aggregate
and lack proper size gradation since a stable
beach will rarely contain material finer than
medium sand (around 0.2 mm). In any case, 2.5.1 Sand and Gravel
exploitation of beach deposits as aggregates
commonly generates intense and severe envi- Typically, “sand and gravel operations have
ronmental impacts. outputs in the range 10,000 up to 1 million
tons per year (t/y); however, sites larger than
500,000 t/y are rare, and most fall in the range
2.5 Extraction Methods 100,000 to 300,000 t/y” (Langer 2006b). Sand
and gravel extraction initially involves the
While aggregate sources can be widely vari- removal of overburden that is commonly
able, methods of extraction are similar formed by soil, peat and clay, and weathered
throughout the world and near all the aggre- material. Overburden thicknesses range from
gates are obtained in quarries by surface practically nothing to over 10 m, being the
mining, that is, “the extraction of aggregates thickness of the overburden essential because
from the ground in mines open to the surface” it controls the economic viability of the quarry.
(Bustillo 2018). Nevertheless, the mining sys- Other factors that can influence the economic
tem and excavating equipment are different viability are the following: (a) geologic char-
depending on the type of aggregate: sand acteristics of the deposit, (b) its quality, that
and gravel or crushed rock. Sand and gravel is, sand and gravel content, (c) whether the
show usually a low degree of consolidation, deposit can be worked dry or needs dewater-
so they can be extracted by means of normal ing, (d) whether the quarry is a new site or an
earthmoving machinery (. Fig. 2.15), and

extension, and (e) the location of the quarry
explosives are not required whereas crushed with respect to markets. The last factor is
stone is commonly hard rocks and blasting is essential from an economic viewpoint because
indispensable (. Fig. 2.9). One notable dif-

is almost impossible to extract aggregates
ference between crushed stone quarries and when the further transport distance to the mar-
sand and gravel quarries is that the latter com- ket is greater than 30–50 km. Careful removal
monly requires a higher rate of land use. This of overburden is necessary since soil (topsoil
is because the sand and gravel deposits tend to and subsoil) must be separated for further res-
be shallow in nature and bigger areas of land toration (. Fig. 2.16). Soil and/or overbur-

require disturbance for a similar amount of den should not be stockpiled over parts of the
production. deposit where future exploitation is expected.
2.5 · Extraction Methods
29 2
.. Fig. 2.16 Overburden (topsoil) stockpiled (in the

center of the image) for further restoration. (Image
courtesy of CEMEX)
.. Fig. 2.18 Pumping water to draw down the water

table. (Image courtesy of CEMEX)
Where sand and gravel mining does not

penetrate the water table, that is, whether the
.. Fig. 2.17 Sand and gravel quarry with required aggregates are naturally dry or as a result of
dewatering processes since dry mining is selected by dewatering processes, the aggregates can be
environmental regulations. (Image courtesy of CEMEX)
extracted by employing conventional earth-
moving equipment. Thus, shovels, loaders,
From an extraction perspective, different bulldozers, or similar equipment load the
machines and techniques are adopted to suit material into trucks (. Fig. 2.15) or onto

the particular situation. Thus, sand and gravel conveyor belts for transfer to the processing
deposits are subdivided into two groups: dry plant. Where sand and gravel pits penetrate the
mining or wet mining; the latter means that water table, such as floodplains or low terraces,
water table is very near the surface and thus another possibility is to fill the pit with water.
almost the entire exploitation is under water. Thus, the operator may extract the material
In this case, again two options are also pre- by using wet mining techniques. In deposits
sented: (a) dewatering the site by pumping mined below the water table (e.g., low terraces
(. Fig. 2.17) or (b) to work the site wet.

or glaciofluvial deposits), mobile pumps are
The final decision to dewater or not depends installed in the initial exploitation for pump-
mainly on deposit thickness, permeability of ing in order to draw down the water table and
the materials, and restoration requirements. hold the level below the required digging level
In general, dry working is preferred because it (. Fig. 2.18). Draglines (. Fig. 2.19) are fur-

allows a more selective extraction and is gen- ther commonly used to extract the aggregate
erally more cost-effective. although other equipment such as floating
.. Fig. 2.21 Loading operation of ANFO nylon bags.

(Image courtesy of Octavio de Lera)
.. Fig. 2.19 Dragline. (Image courtesy of Aggregates

Manager)
.. Fig. 2.22 Ripping dozer
.. Fig. 2.20 Floating suction dredge. (Image courtesy

of Tronox) Overburden thicknesses in the quarry can
change considerably from almost nil to over
suction dredges (. Fig. 2.20), bucket ladders,
30 m in some operations. It is removed using a
or slackline excavators can be used. The exca- combination of hydraulic excavators, ripping,
vated material is generally stockpiled to drain, and blasting using explosives (e.g., gelatin
taking as much 12 hours for this process, dynamite and ANFO—. Fig. 2.21). Ripping

being later rehandled to the processing plant. or mechanical breakage, using a dozer fitted
This rehandling using excavators or shovels with a tooth at the rear (. Fig. 2.22), is pos-

obviously increases the final operational costs sible where the rock mass is already fractured
of the quarry. extensively. Likewise, the extraction of sand
and gravel aggregate, in the phase of prepara-
tion of the rock mass, the works related to the
2.5.2 Crushed Stone cleaning of all the quarry area from the veg-
etation and other materials detrimental to the
Mining hard rock quarries is usually more final quality of the aggregates are included.
complicated than quarrying sand and gravel. Obviously, topsoil must be separated from
Thus, crushed rocks are obtained from much the overburden and stockpiled for reclama-
larger and deeper quarries than sand and gravel tion activities. In general, hard rock quarries
ones. They commonly “have outputs ranging have very little waste in form of overburden
from 100,000 t/y to up about 5 Mt/y” (Langer because generally all the rock is crushed.
2006a). As a consequence, the investment Blasting is usually necessary to extract the
in plant and equipment must be very large. required rock and this is carried out in one
2.6 · Processing Techniques
31 2
or more benches (quarrying commonly pro-
gresses downward on several different levels
or benches, being bench height and width
determined principally by geotechnical fac-
tors). This primary fragmentation is necessary
to reduce the size to the rock mass. In blasting,
a line of shot holes is drilled at a distance back
from the quarry face, and explosives charged
and detonated. The top portion of the hole is
filled with nonexplosive material, usually sand
or crushed stone, which is referred to as stem-
ming. The explosive in each hole is initiated
with detonators or blasting caps. The overall
blast usually lasts less than a second and is
constituted by many smaller individual blasts.
In turn, these individual blasts are separated
by delays of a few thousandths of a second.
The pattern of blast-holes, the amount of
charge used, and the timing of the blast must
be carefully defined “to ensure the maximum
efficiency of the explosive, the production of
appropriate-sized blocks, and the creation of a
new, stable quarry face” (Bustillo 2018). After .. Fig. 2.23 Hydraulic hammer for crushing large
blasting, if very large pieces of rock blocks pieces of rocks. (Image courtesy of Benito Arnó e Hijos,
are obtained, it is necessary to reduce them S.A.U.)
in order to obtain smaller blocks compatible
with the crusher dimension. This process can
take place using either a secondary blasting or
through a hydraulic hammer (. Fig. 2.23).

Finally, an excavator loads the rocks into

dump trucks for transporting to either a fixed
primary crusher commonly located in the
processing plant or a mobile crusher on the
quarry floor (. Fig. 2.24). Unlike sand and

gravel deposits, where particle size distribu-

tions are relatively narrow, the crushed rock
in the quarry tends to have a broad variety of
particle sizes, which precludes utilization of
conveyors as the primary transporting system.
.. Fig. 2.24 Mobile crusher on the quarry floor. (Image
courtesy of Octavio de Lera)
2.6 Processing Techniques
size distribution, particle shape, and mechani-
Depending on the characteristics of the cal properties. Aggregate can be processed at
aggregate deposit, some processing is neces- remote locations using mobile or temporary
sary before the product is suitable for use. devices for crushing and screening or can be
The objective of a processing plant is thus to processed at a fixed plant. The latter is con-
prepare the materials in an appropriate form stituted by a large amount of equipment
for their utilization as aggregates. It is gener- connected by a network of belt conveyors
ally established in terms of particle size and (. Fig. 2.10). Fixed plants tend to be associ-

2.6.1 Sand and Gravel
After extraction, material to be processed in

2 the plant generally is transported from the
quarry by conveyor or haul truck. The mate-
rial is further stored in a stockpile and a gate
at the bottom of the stockpile releases a con-
trolled amount of sand and gravel to a screen
where sand is separated from gravel. There are
a great number of ways to configure the plant
design based on the characteristics of the
sand and gravel deposit and its final applica-
tion, but sand and gravel processing plants are
.. Fig. 2.25 Storage of different aggregate fractions. mainly based on screening and washing pro-
(Image courtesy of Benito Arnó e Hijos, S.A.U.)
cesses. Most plants are departmentalized to
produce different products such as sand and
ated with relatively larger deposits supplying a gravel for use in concrete or gravel for utiliza-
great variety of markets. In modern processing tion as road base or bituminous aggregate.
plants, the stationary equipment is managed Processing of sand and gravel for most
by a computer located in a centrally situated applications is carried out through wash-
control tower and operated by one person. The ing for removing clay, separation of the
plant must be provided with monitoring instru- sand fraction, grading the gravel into differ-
mentation, sampling points, and control mea- ent sizes, sand classification and dewatering,
sures to assure the quality requirements of the and in some cases also crushing of oversize
aggregate utilization. All aggregate fractions gravel to produce smaller more saleable mate-
produced in the processing plant stay com- rial. Processing provides scope for adjusting
monly in storage until needed (. Fig. 2.25).
the grain size distribution to match market
Because aggregate has a very low-cost requirements for the final saleable product.
margin, the processing methods require effi- It is also common to blend materials from
ciency since additional cost is added to the the same and different sites with the aim to
final product each time aggregate is handled adjust grain size to meet user requirements
and/or processed. Processing techniques and to maximize the utilization of resources.
basically involve crushing and screening in Although the final application controls the size
crushed stone aggregates while screening and of the aggregate to use, the greatest demand is
washing are needed in sand and gravel aggre- generally concentrated in the following sizes:
gates. Some of these processes, e.g., washing 4/10 mm, 10/20 mm, and 20/40 mm.
and sometimes screening, require substantial The material usually must be processed
amounts of water that must be available on to remove lumps of clay, which can plug pro-
site. The use of water and wet processing tech- cessing equipment and contaminate the final
niques facilitates the classification of particles product (some aggregate applications request
and the rejection of fine particles, e.g., clays. a very low content of clay). The principal
Thus, the processing plant must commonly objective of washing is the elimination of
incorporate pumping and slurry handling undesirable components (e.g., clay, soft stone,
equipment as well as solid-liquid separation roots, organic matter, and etcetera). For those
and final dewatering equipment. In addition, situations, washing is generally carried out in
it is important to note that land must be avail- coarse material through the direct washing on
able near the site to accommodate the com- vibrating screens, as commented below. The
plete processing plant. The description of the washing process removes mainly fines (silt and
processing plant can be carried out according clay) defined as <0.63 mm adhering to the par-
to the processed aggregate, that is, sand and ticles or present as clay bound agglomerates
gravel or crushed stone. that need breaking down. Most sand wash-
33 2
.. Fig. 2.27 Spiral classifier. (Image courtesy of

SAMCA)
.. Fig. 2.26 Hydrocyclone for separation of fines
ing plants involve the dispersion of sand in

water and the separation of fines in a hydro-
cyclone, which delivers a partially dewatered
coarser product. Hydrocyclone (. Fig. 2.26)
has grown into one of the most interesting

and broadly used classifiers, being capable of .. Fig. 2.28 Dewatering bucket wheel
sizing particles as fine as 0.005 mm. It is usu-
ally applied in closed circuit within crushing The unwanted fines are allowed to settle
systems and is used to return coarse material out in a pond, from which process water is
back for further crushing and/or grinding. recirculated, or may be further dewatered
The main advantage of hydrocyclone is that using nonmechanical sedimentation classifi-
it has big capacities in comparison with their ers (. Fig. 2.29) or thickeners and different

size and can split at finer sizes than most other types of pressure filters (e.g., vertical plate fil-
screening and classification devices. ter—. Fig. 2.30). In a vertical plate filter, the

Spiral classifiers (. Fig. 2.27) and dewa-

slurry is situated between two plates captured
tering bucket wheels (. Fig. 2.28) can be
together by an exterior driver screw system.
used in sand and gravel processing plants for The filtering medium is located against the
dewatering. For fine-grained material (coarse- sides of the plates and the slurry is pumped
grained material is already cleaned during the between them. The slurry pressure presses the
screening process), washing and dewatering pulp against the medium, obliging the liquid
bucket wheel are typically used. In this device, to pass across the cloth and leaving the solids
a suction dredger or a compressed-air dredger as a cake on both surfaces of the frame.
feeds the feeding mixture of sand, gravel, and Deposits containing boulders may be
water. The solids are deposited in the bucket fed through a grizzly screen (. Fig. 2.31) to

wheel tub and are excavated by the bucket remove large boulders; sometimes, these boul-
wheel. Depending on the performance, the ders go to the crusher to produce crushed
bucket wheel rotates only with 0.5–2 rpm. aggregates. Thus, crushing is now a common
.. Fig. 2.29 Nonmechanical sedimentation classifier.

(Image courtesy of TEFSA)
.. Fig. 2.32 Trommel (a) and the screen inside the

device (b)
cles that go through the screen from those that

go over the screen and back into the crusher.
.. Fig. 2.30 Pressure filters for dewatering in an aggre- Trommels and vibrating screens are com-
gate plant
monly used to separate the particles into the
necessary sizes. A trommel is a horizontal or
slightly tilted, in the direction of the material
flow, rotating cylindrical screen (. Fig. 2.32).

They can operate fragments from 6 to 55 mm,

and even smaller sizes can be incorporated
under wet conditions. A trommel can sepa-
rate different products by utilizing a series of
screens with the coarsest to finest apertures
and operating both dry and wet feed material
Vibrating screens are undoubtedly the most
famous screening devices for separation of
particles. In these machines, the perforated
surface (. Fig. 2.33) is set into a frame that

is agitated vigorously. They perform size

.. Fig. 2.31 Grizzly screen used to remove large b
oulders separations from 250 mm down to 80 μm.
One, two, or three screening surfaces can be
feature at many sand and gravel processing set into a single frame in single-, double-, or
plants, being very necessary to maximize sale- triple-deck configurations. The rapid rela-
able product. The material is crushed and tive movement engineered between the par-
screened to separate properly crushed parti- ticles and the screening surface facilitates
35 2
.. Fig. 2.33 Different types of screening surfaces and apertures
.. Fig. 2.34 Polyurethane nozzles for washing placed .. Fig. 2.35 Hydraulic classifier. (Image courtesy of
cross-sectionally to the material flow in a vibrating SAMCA)
screen. (Image courtesy of SAMCA)
manufactured in polyurethane because it
rapid rates of screening. Sometimes, water is is economical and abrasion and corrosion
used to enhance the separation and washing resistant. They are installed in metallic pipes
processes. Washing is performed by apply- placed cross-sectionally in relation to the
ing water jets through spray nozzles directed material flow.
as a water curtain and under pressure at the In a number of plants, hydraulic classifi-
material being classified, aiming to remove ers or hydraulic settling tanks (. Fig. 2.35)

the impure particles adhering to the mate- can be used to separate the sand into various
rial (. Fig. 2.34). The nozzles are commonly
sizes. In these devices, the slurried particles
are introduced to a separating chamber that onto coned stockpile (. Fig. 2.25) or when

has a base consisting of several pockets. The it is dumped from trucks down a slope, the
particles are separated by contrast between material can be separated from a well-blended
2 the velocity of the particles and the velocity product into individual size fractions, origi-
of water. nating thus an inadequate product. Improper
Upon sale, the stockpiled aggregates may handling can also result in contamination
be sold as a single-size product or, as com- of the aggregate with foreign material from
mented previously, two or more materials may underneath the stockpile.
be blended to make a new, graded product.
For example, sand and properly sized gravel
may be mixed in a defined proportion to be 2.6.2 Crushed Stone
used with cement to produce concrete.
Procedures must be followed carefully After blasting in the quarry, trucks or convey-
when stockpiling and handling the final ors move material from the quarry to the pro-
product. It is important to bear in mind that cessing plant (7 Box 2.2: La Soriana Crushed

when aggregate falls too far from conveyors Stone Processing Plant).
Box 2.2
La Soriana Crushed Stone Processing Plant:

Courtesy of Benito Arnó e Hijos, S.A.U.
La Soriana crushed stone quarry and process-
ing plant (. Fig. 2.36) is located in Huesca

(Spain), being the main purpose of this instal-

lation the production of railway ballast. In the
quarry, the igneous rock (subvolcanic) is
extracted by drilling and blasting and then
loaded with a front-end loader into a large haul
truck fleet that transports the material to the
processing operations. These can include crush-
ing, screening, material handling, and storage
operations. Crushing is done in three stages: .. Fig. 2.36 Aerial view of La Soriana Crushed
primary (first stage), secondary (second stage), Stone Processing Plant. (Courtesy of Benito Arnó e
Hijos, S.A.U.)
and tertiary (third stage). In general, crushed
rock is transported along the process line on
conveyor belts. classification of crushed elements at 100 mm
The run of mine from the quarry is dumped size. The undersize is then separated into
in a hopper and a vibrating feeder sending the 0/30 mm and 30/100 mm fractions, the latter
material to a grizzly, which carry out the first being mixed with the material obtained in the
37 2
jaw crusher. The oversize, including particles

ranging from 100 to 900 mm, is send to a jaw
crusher (primary crusher) with a feed opening
of 3645 mm × 2890 mm to produce size parti-
cles ranging from 0 to 200 mm. The output
from the primary crusher is conveyed onto the
primary stockpile together with the 30/100 mm
fraction obtained with the undersize material.
This primary stockpile feeds the secondary
crusher, a cone crusher (. Fig. 2.37) that

reduces the size of the crushed stone up to

100 mm. The material is then classified using
two vibrating screens, each of one with three
mesh units. Thus, four size fractions are pro-
duced: 0/6 mm, 6/25 mm, 25/63 mm, and
63/100 mm, being the third fraction (25/63 mm)
used as railway ballast.
The 0/6 mm fraction is directly stockpiled
whereas the 6/25 mm fraction is then sending to
a tertiary crusher (another cone crusher) that
produces a 0/25 mm material. This material is
finally also separated with a vibrating screen in
three fractions: 0/6 mm, 6/12 mm, and
.. Fig. 2.37 Cone crusher. (Image courtesy of 12/25 mm, which can be used for different
Benito Arnó e Hijos, S.A.U.)
applications (e.g., concrete or road).
limited reduction ratio available with a single

crusher. In crushing terminology, this param-
eter can be commonly defined as “the ratio of
maximum particle size entering to maximum
particle size leaving the crusher.”
The type of crusher influences the size and
the shape of the aggregate result. In the pri-
mary crushing stage, pieces of rocks can be
as large as 1.5 m, being reduced to a range
between 10 and 20 cm by using heavy-duty
machines. For this purpose, jaw and gyratory
type (. Fig. 2.38) crushers are the most used

devices. They are defined by a wide input and

.. Fig. 2.38 Primary gyratory crusher. (Image courtesy a narrow discharge and can operate large ton-
of Metso) nage of material. “Jaw crushers (. Fig. 2.39)

generate a reduction ratio between 4:1 and 9:1

Crushing involves the continuous process whereas gyratory crushers originate a some-
of size reduction of the block rocks, which what larger range between 3:1 and 10:1. In
usually is a dry operation. It is carried out in general, gyratory crushers can generally pro-
several stages, e.g., primary and secondary cess larger rock pieces and more tonnage per
crushing in quarrying aggregates. The main hour than jaw crushers can, but they are usu-
reason for several stages of crushing is the ally more expensive” (Bustillo 2018).
The crushed rock normally goes to the

secondary crushing via a belt conveyor after
it leaves the primary crusher. In other cases,
2 it can pass through a screen or other size clas-
sifier with oversized material circulated back
into the crusher(s) for further reduction. Once
the pieces of rock are reduced to smaller com-
ponents by using the primary crushing units,
the secondary machines are used to obtain a
further decrease in size (commonly the final
product). These secondary units are usually
much lighter and smaller than the heavy-duty
and big rugged primary units are. Since they
use the primary crushed rock as feed, the max-
imum feed size will commonly be less than
15 cm in diameter. They work always with .. Fig. 2.40 Impact mill. (Image courtesy of Luis
dry elements and examples of these devices Fueyo)
are cone crusher (. Fig. 2.37) and impact

mills (. Fig. 2.40). “Cone crushers generate

Regarding screening, the devices used in
reduction ratios ranging from 5:1 to 8:1. Very crushed stone plants are similar to those used
high reduction ratios, for example, from 20:1 in sand and gravel plants, that is, grizzlies,
to 40:1, can only be obtained utilizing impact trommels, and mainly vibrating screens are
crushers” (Bustillo 2018). used to separate the particles into the neces-
sary sizes. After screening, truck or conveyors
move the material to stockpiles.
2.7 Properties and Testing
Properties of natural aggregates can change

depending on the source of the material.
Thus, the properties of sand and gravel aggre-
gates are the result of the petrology of the
source rocks, transport, and deposition meth-
ods, and further weathering of the aggregate
particles. Some properties in sand and gravel
particles are inherent, e.g., mineralogy, den-
sity, and porosity, while other properties such
as size, shape, and sorting are defined by the
processing methods. With respect to crushed
stone, its properties result from the origin and
mineralogy of the source rock, the subsequent
alteration and weathering processes, and obvi-
ously the processing operations. The suitabil-
ity of an aggregate for a particular application
depends mainly on its physical and mechani-
cal properties, but mineralogical and chemical
.. Fig. 2.39 Primary jaw crusher. (Image courtesy of
Benito Arnó e Hijos, S.A.U.) properties are also important in some uses.
2.7 · Properties and Testing
39 2
The assessment of aggregate properties the material as the samples on which they are
is carried out by using a range of standard performed. Representative sampling is prob-
test methods. Laboratory testing is a means ably the most difficult of the control opera-
of scientifically evaluating the properties and tions to perform satisfactorily. Regarding
suitability of aggregate material. Because sampling, EN 932-1 standard states: “the aim
aggregates have many applications, a broad of sampling is to obtain a bulk sample that
group of tests are devised to describe the is representative of the average properties of
material and evaluate its potential value. A the batch… this European Standard specifies
general overview of the most important prop- methods for obtaining samples of aggregates
erties of aggregates and their correspond- from deliveries, preparation, and processing
ing tests is described in this heading whereas plants including stocks… the methods are
considerations that are more specific are taken based on manual procedures; mechanical or
into account in each specific aggregate applica- automatic sampling and sample reduction
tion, e.g., concrete, road pavement, rail ballast. may also be used.” ASTM D75 standard
As a method of organization, the descrip- is also devoted to sampling aggregates and
tion of properties and tests is carried out in points out: “the preliminary investigation
this chapter using the following European and sampling of potential aggregate sources
classification of tests: “(a) for general proper- and types occupies a very important place in
ties of aggregates, (b) for geometrical prop- determining the availability and suitability of
erties of aggregates, (c) for mechanical and the largest single constituent entering into the
physical properties of aggregates, (d) for ther- construction. It influences the type of con-
mal and weathering properties of aggregates, struction from the standpoint of economics
and (e) for chemical properties of aggregates.” and governs the necessary material control
to ensure durability of the resulting structure,
from the aggregate standpoint… Sampling is
2.7.1 General Properties and Tests equally as important as the testing, and the
sampler shall use every precaution to obtain
European test methods include the following samples that will show the nature and condi-
parts regarding general properties of aggre- tion of the materials which they represent.”
gates: methods for sampling (EN 932-1 stan- The most classical methods of sampling are
dard) and for reducing laboratory samples coning and quartering or using a riffle box
(EN 932-2 standard), procedure and termi- (. Fig. 2.41).

nology for simplified petrographic description EN 932-1 recommends the following mini-
(EN 932-3 standard), common equipment and mum mass of a bulk sample:
calibration (EN 932-5 standard), and defini-
tions of repeatability and reproducibility (EN M 6 D b
932-6 standard). Most of them are related to where
sampling while EN 932-2 standard is devoted 55 M is the mass of the sample, in kilograms,
to petrographic description of aggregates. 55 D is the maximum grain size, in millimeters,
Some corresponding ASTM standards are 55 ρb is the loose bulk density, in mega grams
D75 standard for methods of sampling, C702 per cubic meter.
standard for reducing samples of aggregate
to testing size, and C295/295M standard for As commented above, the petrographic
petrographic examination of aggregates (for description of aggregates is covered by EN
concrete). In addition, ISO 5725 standards 932-3 and C295/C295M standards. The lat-
series covers the accuracy (trueness and pre- ter states the main purposes of petrographic
cision) of measurement methods and results. description: “to determine the physical and
Proper and careful sampling is essential chemical characteristics of the material that
to obtain reliable results. Information gener- may be observed by petrographic methods
ated from samples is only as representative of and that have a bearing on the performance
tion of the sample (or grain size fraction)

shall include: (a) brief information about the
shape, surface conditions (roughness etc.)
2 and roundness of particles, (b) a petrographic
identification based on counting a sufficiently
representative number of particles.”
2.7.2 Geometrical Properties

and Tests
In European specifications, geometrical prop-
erties and tests of aggregates include deter-
mination of particle size distribution (sieving
method) (EN 933-1 standard), determination
of particle size distribution (test sieves); nom-
inal size of apertures (EN 933-2 standard),
determination of particle shape (flakiness
index) (EN 933-3 standard), determination of
particle shape (shape index) (EN 933-4 stan-
dard), determination of percentage of crushed
and broken surfaces in coarse aggregate par-
.. Fig. 2.41 Riffle box for sampling. (Image courtesy ticles (EN 933-5 standard), assessment of
of SAMCA) surface characteristics (flow coefficient of
aggregates) (EN 933-6 standard), determi-
of the material in its intended use, to describe nation of shell content (percentage of shells
and classify the constituents of the sample, in coarse aggregates) (EN 933-7 standard),
to determine the relative amounts of the con- assessment of fines (sand equivalent test) (EN
stituents of the sample that are essential for 933-8 standard), assessment of fines (methy-
proper evaluation of the sample when the lene blue test) (EN 933-9 standard), assess-
constituents differ significantly in properties ment of fines (grading of filler aggregates) (air
that have a bearing on the performance of jet sieving) (EN 933-10 standard), and clas-
the material in its intended use, and to com- sification test for the constituents of coarse-
pare samples of aggregate from new sources recycled aggregate (EN 933-11 standard).
with samples of aggregate from one or more Some corresponding ASTM standards are
sources, for which test data or performance the following: C1777 for rapid determination
records are available.” of the methylene blue value for fine aggregate
EN 932-3 standard, covering procedure or mineral filler using a colorimeter, C136/
and terminology for simplified petrographic C136M for sieve analysis of fine and coarse
description, states that “the sample shall aggregates, C117 for materials finer than
be first subjected to a visual examination to 75-μm sieve in mineral aggregates by washing,
determine the constituent rock or mineral D3398 for index of aggregate particle shape
types. It may be appropriate to wash the and texture, D 4791 for flat particles, elon-
sample. Each rock type shall then be carefully gated particles, or flat and elongated particles
inspected using a hand lens or a stereoscopic in coarse aggregate, D2419 for sand equiva-
microscope and other appropriate means. If lent, C142/142M for clay lumps and friable
necessary, where appropriate, thin sections particles, and D5821 for determining the per-
should be examined using a polarizing micro- centage of fractured particles in coarse aggre-
scope.” For an aggregate sample, “the descrip- gate. Finally, ISO 6274 standard specifies a
41 2
100,00 100,00
90,00
92,36
80,00
80,37
70,00
cumulative passing %
67,38
60,00
58,14
50,00
40,00
33,37
30,00
20,00
10,00 12,64
2,15
0,00 0,55
0,00
<0063 0,063 0,125 0,25 0,50 1,00 2,00 4,00 8,00 16,00
Sieve aperture size
.. Fig. 2.42 Example of a particle size distribution
method, using test sieves, for the determina-

tion of the particle size distribution of normal
weight aggregates for concrete.
Particle size distribution (. Fig. 2.42),
shape/surface texture, and deleterious fines are

key features of sands that control their utiliza-
tion in many aggregate applications. A prop-
erty of great significance in the utilization of
aggregates is particle size distribution (grad-
ing). The production of size grades depends
upon the size distribution present in the raw
material for sand and gravel aggregates or the
efficacy of the crushing process for crushed
aggregates. In general, the larger the gravel-
to-sand ratio, the better the deposit because
aggregate for most construction applica-
tions requires a broad range of particle sizes
although silt-sized or smaller fine particles
are undesirable. Therefore, grain size analysis
is one of the most important test procedures,
mainly using mechanical sieving techniques
(. Fig. 2.43). In a sieve analysis, a sample of

dry aggregate of known weight is separated .. Fig. 2.43 Mechanical sieving device
through a series of sieves (. Fig. 2.44) with
progressively smaller openings. Particle size A measure derived from grain size analysis
distribution is then expressed as a percent is the sand equivalent value, which estimates
retained by weight on each sieve size. The the quantity of finest grain size (common
sieves commonly cover sizes from 0.063 mm clay) (e.g., ASTM D2419 standard). The fin-
to 32 mm or more. est content, for instance, shall be declared in
.. Fig. 2.44 Sieves used in grain size analysis
.. Fig. 2.46 Example of a color change in methylene

blue test. (Image courtesy of LafargeHolcim)
blue test, which is a well-established method

to determine the presence of clay minerals in
aggregates. The method includes the reaction
of deleterious clay fines with a blue dye and
measuring dye uptake, as a color change, to
estimate clay contamination (. Fig. 2.46).

In both types of natural aggregates, the

constituent particles within a particular size
fraction can display a wide range of shapes.
.. Fig. 2.45 Settling in a graduated cylinder. (Image On crushing, rocks break into fragments that
courtesy of LafargeHolcim) are elongated and flattened rather than cuboi-
dal. Quantification of this phenomenon is
accordance with the relevant category speci- carried out by measuring the three dimensions
fied in an EN 12620 standard table for con- of a number of particles and calculating the
crete aggregates. Sand equivalent is carried so-called flakiness index and/or shape index.
out by shaking fine aggregate in a clear gradu- The flakiness index is calculated as the mass
ated cylinder containing a flocculant and pre- of particles that pass the bar sieves with par-
servative solution. After shaking, the particles allel slots (. Fig. 2.47) and the shape index

are allowed to settle (. Fig. 2.45) and the

as ratio thickness/length, for example using a
sand equivalent value is calculated as the ratio caliper. Other shape estimations include sphe-
of the height of the sand column to the height ricity (the nearness of a grain to a sphere) and
of the sand and flocculated clay; higher per- roundness (degree of angularity of a grain).
centages indicate low clay contents. The clay Particle shapes are beneficial if the pre-
content in the fines fraction of the aggregates dominant shape is equidimensional and detri-
can be also determined through methylene mental when the predominant shape is disk or
43 2
of compressibility and confined compressive
strength of lightweight aggregates (EN 1097-
11 standard).
Corresponding or similar ASTM stan-
dards are D7428 and D6928 for micro-Deval
test, C131/131M, C535, and D3744 for resis-
tance to fragmentation and durability, includ-
ing the Los Angeles test, C29/29M for bulk
density and voids, D7698 for water content
and density, C127 and C128 for water absorp-
tion and relative density (specific gravity),
D1217 for density and relative density using
a Pycnometer, D3319 for polishing of aggre-
.. Fig. 2.47 Bar sieve with parallel slots for estimating gates, C566 for total evaporable moisture con-
flakiness index. (Image courtesy of LafargeHolcim) tent of aggregate by drying, and C1252 for
uncompacted void content of fine aggregate.
blade (Langer and Knepper 1998). For exam- With respect to ISO standards, the following
ple, particle shape influences the workability test methods are considered: ISO 6782 stan-
of concrete; thus, flat or angular particles dard for bulk density (in aggregates for con-
generated through crushing have an adverse crete), ISO 6783 standard for particle density
result on workability. Moreover, angular and water absorption (in aggregates for con-
sands may not be workable enough for appli- crete), and ISO 7033 standard for the deter-
cations including pumping of concrete. mination of the particle mass-per-volume and
the water absorption (in fine and coarse aggre-
gates for concrete) using a pycnometer.
2.7.3 Mechanical and Physical Specific gravity is the ratio of the mass
Properties and Tests of a given volume of aggregate to the mass
of an equal volume of water. Low values of
In terms of the mechanical and physical prop- this physical property commonly indicate
erties of aggregates, the following parts of aggregate that is porous, weak, or absorptive;
the test methods are available in European high-specific gravity values frequently indicate
regulation: determination of the resistance high-quality aggregate. Bulk-specific gravity
to wear (micro-Deval) (EN 1097-1 standard), is the ratio of the weight of a given volume
methods for the determination of resistance of material, including all voids, to the weight
to fragmentation (EN 1097-2 standard), of an equal volume of water. It is an impor-
determination of loose bulk density and voids tant characteristic of a fine aggregate since
(EN 1097-3 standard), determination of the the closeness by which the grains are packed
voids of the dry compacted filler (EN 1097-4 is the most important feature to be measured;
standard), determination of the water content a sand that has no voids would have a bulk
by drying in a ventilated oven (EN 1097-5 density equal to the specific gravity of the
standard), determination of particle density mineral. Specific gravity of aggregate is of sig-
and water absorption (EN 1097-6 standard), nificance when design or structural consider-
determination of the particle density of filler ations require a concrete with a maximum or
(Pycnometer method) (EN 1097-7 standard), minimum weight.
determination of the polished stone value In terms of oven-dried particle density, the
(PSV) (EN 1097-8 standard), determina- aggregates may be classified as: (a) lightweight
tion of the resistance to wear by abrasion aggregate (aggregate with oven-dried particle
from studded tires (Nordic test) (EN 1097- density ≤2000 kg/m3), (b) normal aggregate
9), determination of water suction height (aggregate with oven-dried particle density higher
(EN 1097-10 standard), and determination than 2000 kg/m3 and lower than 3000 kg/m3),
and (c) heavyweight aggregate (aggregate with low-quality aggregates. Hardness and strength
oven-dried particle density ≥3000 kg/m3). characteristics of aggregates determine their
According to Langer (2006a), “when ability to resist mechanical breakdown.
2 crushed, the stone particles should be strong, Abrasion resistance, abrasiveness, and
which means they should resist abrasion; polishing are also properties of great impor-
hard, which means they should resist loads; tance. The abrasion resistance of an aggre-
tough, which means they should resist impact; gate is commonly used as a general index of
and sound, which means they should be able its quality. For instance, it is essential where
to withstand stresses caused by repeated the aggregate is to be used in rail ballast. An
freezing and thawing or wetting and drying.” aggregate with a low abrasion resistance can
Therefore, compressive strength, resistance to increase the quantity of fines in the concrete
impact, and soundness are essential features in during mixing, which increments the water
crushed stone aggregates. For instance, mate- requirement of the mix. The most common
rials that contain weak, cleavable, absorp- test for abrasion resistance in coarse aggregate
tive, or swelling particles such as some shales, is the Los Angeles abrasion test (7 Box 2.3:
clayey rocks, very coarse crystalline rocks are Los Angeles Abrasion Test).
Box 2.3
Los Angeles Abrasion Test

In Los Angeles Abrasion Test, a specified
amount of aggregate is placed in a steel drum
(. Fig. 2.48) that contains steel balls

(. Fig. 2.49), the drum then is rotated, and the

percentage of material worn away is measured.
.. Fig. 2.49 Steel balls in Los Angeles abrasion test
The difference between the original weight and

the final weight (sieved through a specified size)
is expressed as percentage of the original
weight of the sample aggregate. This value is
termed Los Angeles abrasion value.
In EN 1097-2 standard, the “testing
machine consists of a hollow steel cylinder,
closed at both ends, with an inside diameter of
711 mm ± 5 mm and an inside length of
508 mm ± 5 mm. The steel cylinder must be
mounted on stub shafts attached to the ends of
the cylinder but not entering it, and must be
mounted in such a manner that it may be
rotated about its axis in a horizontal position.
.. Fig. 2.48 Steel drum in Los Angeles abrasion test An opening in the cylinder (150 mm ± 3 mm)
45 2
must be provided for the introduction of the Thus, a Los Angeles abrasion value of 30
test sample. The opening must be closed with a means that 30% of the original sample weight
dust-tight cover that is easily removed.” passed through the specified size (e.g., 1.6 mm
The abrasive charge consists of 11 solid, in European standard—EN 1097-2-). For
steel spheres having each one a weight between instance, the resistance to fragmentation of
400 g and 445 g and 45–49 mm diameter. Thus, coarse aggregates in European regulations for
final weight of abrasive charge ranges between aggregates in concrete (EN 12620 standard)
4690 g and 4860 g. The test sample is formed shall be determined in terms of Los Angeles
by at least 15 kg of sample sizing between coefficient. This value shall be declared in
10 mm and 14 mm and a final sample weight accordance with the relevant category specified
of 5000 g. in . Table 2.1 according to the particular

The test procedure includes the main fol- application or end use.
lowing steps (EN 1097-2 standard): “(1) place
the test specimen and abrasive charge in the
Los Angeles abrasive testing machine; (2) start .. Table 2.1 Categories for maximum val-
the testing machine and run it for 500 revolu- ues of Los Angeles coefficients in coarse
tions at a rate of 31 rpm to 33 rpm, (3) when the aggregates in concrete (EN 12620 standard)
testing machine has completed the required
Los Angeles coefficient Category LA
number of revolutions, empty the entire con-
tents into a pan and remove the abrasive charge ≤15 LA15
from the pan, (4) separate the test specimen on
≤20 LA20
the 1.6 mm sieve and weigh and record this
value, and (5) calculate the Los Angeles abra- ≤25 LA25
sion value using the following equation”: ≤30 LA30
Percent wear
A B 100 ≤35 LA35
A ≤40 LA40
where ≤50 LA50
55 A = Weight of original test specimen to
>50 LADeclared
the nearest 1 g (5000 g)
55 B = Weight retained on the 1.6 mm No requirement LANR
sieve to the nearest 1 g
An alternative to the Los Angeles abrasion test

is the micro-Deval test, which is commonly
used as an abrasion test for fine and coarse
aggregate. The main goal is to determine the
abrasion loss in the presence of water and an
abrasive charge. Many aggregates are more
susceptible to abrasion when wet than dry, and
the use of water in this test checks the reduc-
tion in resistance to degradation. Materials
yielding a low loss in micro-Deval test are
unlikely to show significant degradation dur-
ing handling, mixing, or placing, and they will
allow better long-term performance of pave-
ments. The micro-Deval test also uses a rotat- .. Fig. 2.50 Machine for micro-Deval test. (Image
ing drum with steel spheres but the drum is courtesy of LafargeHolcim)
much smaller as are the spheres (. Fig. 2.50).
The polished stone value of an aggregate jected to freezing, C672 for scaling resistance
provides a measure of resistance to the pol- of concrete surfaces exposed to deicing chem-
ishing action of vehicle tires under conditions icals, and C88 for soundness of aggregates by
2 similar to those occurring on the surface of use of sodium sulfate or magnesium sulfate.
a road.The action of road vehicle tires on Physical soundness is generally considered
road surfaces results in polishing of the top, the ability of an aggregate to resist weathering,
exposed aggregate surface, and its state of particularly freezing-thawing and wetting-
polish is one of the main factors affecting the drying cycles. Properties of rock particles
resistance to skidding. This is related to the affecting soundness are size, abundance, and
ability of the aggregates to lose their initial, continuity of pores, channels, and fractures,
rough surface, and develop a polish. Thus, together with the degree of water saturation.
this test is the most important test that an The size of the pores has a great influence in
aggregate can undergo if it is to be used as a freezing-thawing behavior of the aggregates
road surface course. The polish stone value is because when water turns to ice it increases
carried out in two steps: (a) accelerated pol- in volume by about 9%, thus creating pres-
ishing of test specimens, and (b) measurement sure within the pores of the stone. Therefore,
of their state of polish by a friction test. As a aggregates that become critically saturated
general rule, it has been found that rock types and then freeze cannot accommodate the
consisting of a variety of mineral grains of expansion of the frozen water.
different hardness or size, or of harder grains In general, data show that the coarse
in a softer cementing matrix, give higher PSV aggregates, with higher porosity values and
values compared to rocks composed of uni- medium-size pores, and not the fine ones,
form grains of uniform hardness in a similarly cause freeze-thaw deterioration. Large pores
hard matrix. do not generally become saturated and water
in very fine pores may not freeze readily. The
performance of aggregates to freezing and
2.7.4 Thermal and Weathering thawing can be evaluated following two crite-
Properties and Tests ria: (a) past performance, and (b) laboratory
freeze-thaw tests of samples. If aggregates
Thermal and weathering properties of aggre- from the same source have previously given
gates are determined by the following parts satisfactory results when used, they can be
of the test methods: determination of resis- considered suitable.
tance to freezing and thawing (EN 1367-1 The magnesium sulfate soundness test mea-
standard), magnesium sulfate test (EN 1367-2 sures how resistant an aggregate is to chemical
standard), boiling test for Sonnenbrand basalt weathering and can be carried out on different
(EN 1367-3 standard), determination of dry- aggregate sizes. For the test, a weighed sample
ing shrinkage (EN 1367-4 standard), deter- of aggregate is placed in a wire mesh basket,
mination of resistance to thermal shock (EN which is suspended in a saturated magnesium
1367-5 standard), determination of resistance sulfate solution for a period. The magnesium
to freezing and thawing in the presence of sulfate solution penetrates into the surface
salt (NaCl) (EN 1367-6 standard), determina- of the aggregate particles through any pores
tion of resistance to freezing and thawing of that exist, crystallizing in the aggregate pores
lightweight aggregates (EN 1367-7 standard), and generating a very high pressure on the
and determination of resistance to disintegra- surrounding rock matrix. If weak, the aggre-
tion of lightweight aggregates (EN 1367-8 gate matrix will disintegrate and fall through
standard). the mesh of the enclosing wire basket. When
Similar or comparable ASTM standards all the soaking/drying cycles have been car-
for these tests are C666/666M for resistance of ried out, the remaining aggregate is washed,
concrete to rapid freezing and thawing, C671 dried, and reweighed. The result is expressed
for critical dilation of concrete specimens sub- as a percentage of the weight of aggregate lost
2.8 · Applications
47 2
against the original weight. Very weak rocks 2.8 Applications
will disintegrate completely in a small num-
ber of test cycles. Results tend to be worse for Aggregates can be used as a construction
smaller aggregate sizes. material in two big types of applications:
Weathering due to wetting and drying unbound applications (the aggregate is not
can also affect the durability of aggregates. bound) and bound applications (mixes con-
Weathering is most commonly developed on a taining binding agents such as cements or
geological time scale but sometimes can take bitumen). The characteristics of aggregates in
place in service over a period of months or bound applications will be considered in the
years in some freshly exposed rock surfaces. corresponding chapter (7 Chap. 9 for con-

The expansion and contraction coefficients of crete, 7 Chap. 11 for mortar, and 7 Chap. 14

rocks change with temperature and moisture for bituminous mixtures) while the following
content. Thus, severe stress can take place in heading includes the characteristics of aggre-
some aggregates when alternate wetting and gates in railway ballast, which is the main
drying occurs, causing a permanent increase unbound application of aggregates (other
in volume. Clay lumps and other friable par- unbound applications of aggregates are as
ticles can degrade quickly with repeated wet- armourstone (. Fig. 2.51)—EN 13383-1

ting and drying (ASTM C142/142M standard standard—in filter media, and even in orna-
evaluates clay lumps and friable particles in mental decoration—. Fig. 2.52).

aggregates). A detailed petrographic study

can also help in determining this potential for
distress. 2.8.1 Railway Ballast
One of the most demanding applications

2.7.5 Chemical Properties and Tests for crushed aggregate is railway ballast
(. Fig. 2.1). Railway ballast is a selected

Chemical properties of aggregate are impor- crushed and graded aggregate placed upon
tant in many applications such as the pro- the railroad roadbed to provide drainage,
duction of concrete or bituminous mixtures. track stability, flexibility, and uniform sup-
Thus, some types of aggregates contain miner- port for the rail and ties. Moreover, this type
als that chemically are reactive and can affect of aggregate also provides distribution of the
the final suitability of the mix. Alkali-silica track loadings to the subgrade as well as facil-
reaction in concrete (see 7 Chap. 9) is prob-

itating maintenance. In addition, it deters the
ably the most outstanding chemical reaction
related to aggregate mineral composition.
The main test methods for chemical
properties of aggregates are described in the
following parts of European EN 1744 stan-
dards series: chemical analysis (EN 1744-1
standard, preparation of eluates by leaching
of aggregates (EN 1744-3 standard), deter-
mination of water susceptibility of fillers for
bituminous mixtures (EN 1744-4 standard),
and determination of acid-soluble chloride
salts (EN 1744-5 standard). ASTM stan-
dards for alkali-silica reaction are C289 for
potential alkali-silica reactivity of aggregates
(chemical method) and C1260 for potential
.. Fig. 2.51 Aggregate used as armourstone (Santander,
alkali reactivity of aggregates (mortar-bar Spain)
method).
structure, namely in what concerns to noise

and vibrations, especially in high speed lines,
(d) the voids between the aggregates provide
2 space for movement and accumulation of
crushed aggregates due to fouling, (e) provide
quick rainwater drainage system down to the
structure and contribute to the elasticity of
the railway, and (f) facilitate lining operations
and correction of geometry defects by the
possibility of rearrange ballast particles with
tamping; this eases and speeds up the mainte-
nance operations.”
The ballast is required to perform these
tasks without exceeding permissible limits
of degradation produced by the load and
the environment to which it is exposed. It
must also resist the entrance of fine particles
because the mechanical degradation of ballast
particles generates fine particles of varying
sizes. Ballast degradation is generally referred
to change in particle size distribution of the
ballast layer as the result of particle breakage
.. Fig. 2.52 Aggregates used in ornamental decoration and abrasion, and migration of fine-grained
soil from the subgrade. It is important to note
that increased levels of degradation can lead
growth of vegetation that might interfere with to ballast differential settlement, thus altering
the track structure. Two types of ballast are the track geometry. In general, ballast clean-
usually recognized: top ballast and bottom ing is a common practice over time to assure
ballast. Top ballast is the top section of the extended life for the ballast and minimize
ballast structure that is commonly exposed to load concentration on rail, sleepers, and tack
tamping whereas bottom ballast is the bottom structures.
and lower part of the structure that supports The properties of railway ballast aggre-
the overall structure. Moreover, the term sub- gate are essential to the effective load-carry-
ballast (or blanket) is also used. It is a layer of ing capacity of the rail structure. Thus, strict
specified coarse-grained material interposed standards must be established for railway
between ballast and formation. The main track ballast to provide a high-quality track
objectives of sub-ballast are to distribute the structure. It is important to bear in mind that
load on formation, to eliminate mud pump- the importance of ballast has grown expo-
ing, and to contain the seasonal moisture con- nentially by means of the increasing of axle
tent variations in subgrade. loads and train speeds. The different types of
According to Selig and Waters (1994) and materials are used according to the applied
Mundrey (2009), the most important func- requirements, availability, and cost of making
tions of ballast structure are the following: ballast. In this sense, one particular material
“(a) support the actions coming from the can possess most of the desirable features for
sleepers to the substructure and retain the good ballast while a deposit of apparently
track in its correct position; those actions can similar material located on the same geo-
be grouped as uplift, lateral and longitudinal graphical region will not meet the applicable
forces, (b) pressure reducing ballast struc- specification requirements for railway ballast.
ture to the allowable stress for the underly- Substantial amounts of coarse aggre-
ing structure just below the sleeper, (c) act as gate are used as railway track ballast since it
resiliency and energy absorbent for the track is typically made of crushed rock with sizes
2.9 · Environmental Considerations
49 2
ranging approximately between 20 and 60 mm 2.9 Environmental Considerations
(. Fig. 2.11). In fact, the term ballast comes

from a nautical term for the stones used to As already noted, primary aggregates are,
stabilize a ship during loading and transpor- where possible, extracted close to major cen-
tation. As a rule, track ballast is required to ters of demand to minimize costs. Moreover,
be strong, clean, and angular with a high since aggregates are probably the lowest value
resistance to abrasion, e.g., Los Angeles abra- materials that are transported, the cost of
sion test value of 15–20 at most. Therefore, transport is an essential factor of the final
the majority of railway ballast is sourced from delivered cost of the aggregate. The increasing
igneous rocks. In common with many aggre- number and extent of landscape, nature con-
gate specifications, the selection of suitable servation, and other designations in conjunc-
materials for railway ballast is often based on tion with constraints related to factors such
experience and judgment as well as on experi- as groundwater or location has significantly
mental test data. diminished the number of potential sites
For aggregates for railway ballast, the for the extraction of aggregates. However,
European standard is EN 13450. This standard it is essential to remember that aggregates
specifies the properties of aggregates obtained can only be extracted where the geological
by processing natural or manufactured mate- resources exist.
rials or recycled crushed unbound aggregates An aggregate operation is a temporary land
for use in construction of railway track. There use, and when mining is completed, the site is
are many other types of national specifica- likely to be converted into another beneficial
tions worldwide. Examples of national speci- use. Consequently, the overall environmental
fications are American Railway Engineering impact of aggregate extraction is usually rela-
Maintenance-of-Way Association in the tively small over the long term. In this sense,
United States (AREMA), Australian aggregates are environmentally inert materials
Standard for Railway Ballast Specifications, and their processing commonly requires only
or Canadian National Railways Specification crushing, screening, and washing. Modern
of Crushed Ballast. These specifications cover technology and scientific investigation meth-
the types, characteristics, property require- ods have made it possible to reduce the envi-
ments, and manufacture of mineral aggre- ronmental impacts from aggregate mining and
gates for processed ballast. The type or types to manage those impacts at acceptable levels.
of processed ballast material as covered in Urban growth often threatens established
these specifications and testing requirements aggregate operations. Some residents near
such as grading, resistance to wear and to quarries object to the noise, dust, and truck
fragmentation, shape and length of the mate- traffic associated with the aggregate opera-
rial, durability shall govern the acceptance or tion. As a consequence, many citizens do not
rejection of ballast material. support mining and prefer that stone and
European standardization also consid- sand and gravel not be mined nearby. Because
ers the presence of the so-called Sun-burn or aggregate mining is an extractive industry, it
Sonnenbrand alteration, which is a type of cannot be obtained from the landscape with-
defect often found in basalt rock that has been out causing environmental impacts, which
affected by atmospheric conditions. It begins usually receive the greatest public attention.
with the appearance of grey/white spots, typi- Operations associated with aggregate extrac-
cally capillary cracks that extend outwards tion and processing “are the principal causes
from the spots and connecting them with one of environmental concerns about sand,
another. The phenomenon weakens the rock’s gravel, and crushed stone production, includ-
mineral structure, and as a result, the rock ing the following: (a) increased dust, noise,
breaks down into smaller particles. and vibrations, (b) increased truck traffic near
aggregate operations, (c) visually and physi-

cally disturbed landscapes and habitats, and
(d) affected surface or groundwater” (Langer
2 et al. 2004).
Although dust and noise are part of
aggregate mining, they can be minimized
and adverse effects can be avoided. Thus, a
carefully prepared and implemented opera-
tional plan will keep dust and noise within the
required regulatory limits. From a landscape
viewpoint, minimizing unsightly changes
can be achieved: (a) through proper land- .. Fig. 2.53 Ancient quarry converted into a golf
course. (Image courtesy of CEMEX)
scape analysis, design, and operations, (b) by
extracting aggregate from the most suitable
deposits, and (c) through creation of super-
quarries and the use of underground mines,
depending on local conditions. In general,
designing a single large operation or super-
quarry at an environmentally acceptable site is
clearly preferable to many smaller operations
at scattered locations. Designing to minimize
visual impacts includes careful siting of the
operation, limiting active extraction areas,
sequential reclamation, buffering, and screen-
ing. The latter includes the construction of
berms, tree plantings, fencing, or other land- .. Fig. 2.54 Ancient sand and gravel quarry converted
scaping techniques. into the recreational area of Laguna Las Madres near
Madrid, Spain
It is not possible to return ecosystems
exactly to their original structure. Thus,
instead of returning an area to its original facilities that would otherwise be unavail-
condition, a more realistic approach is to able. In the present expanding suburban
approximate the new habitat as closely as areas, mined-out aggregate quarries are con-
possible to its original function and to recap- verted into second uses, such as wildlife habi-
ture the landscape character. Reclamation tat, golf courses (. Fig. 2.53), recreational

is becoming a major factor in sustaining the areas (. Fig. 2.54), agricultural areas, parks,

environment and in creating habitat biodiver- botanical gardens, school grounds, high-qual-
sity. Thus, it is now recognized that “restored ity lakefront housing sites, and a myriad of
mineral workings can make a major contribu- other land uses. Thus, a plan for reclaiming
tion to both biodiversity and geodiversity; as the disturbed land and its ecosystem should
the restoration works will remove any major be an essential part of every plan to mine nat-
variation in substrate, it is possible to increase ural aggregate.
the quality of the restored land compared to
that before working” (BGS 2013). Aggregate
quarries can even provide valuable nesting 2.10 Questions
sites for birds on rock faces or in sand faces
and a range of habitats and associated flora ??Short Questions
and fauna on silt and clean water ponds. 55 Define aggregate.
Reclamation can also focus on human 55 Enumerate the main types of aggregates
needs including residential, business, and based on the production method.
recreational uses. Thus, restored aggregate 55 What natural resource is the most con-
quarries also afford a group of recreation sumed?
References
51 2
55 Define natural aggregate according to EN US Geological Survey, AGI Environmental
12620 standard. Awareness Series, 68 p
Mundrey JS (2009) Railway track engineering, 4th edn.
55 Summarize the two main types of natural
Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited,
aggregates. New Delhi, 483 p
55 In general, what is the maximum distance Selig ET, Waters JM (1994) Track geotechnology and
for an economic extraction of aggregate? substructure management. Thomas Telford
55 What dragline is used for extraction of Publications, London, 446 p
aggregate?
Standards
55 What are the main processing techniques in
ASTM C117 – 17. Standard test method for materials
sand and gravel aggregate?
finer than 75-μm (No. 200) sieve in mineral aggre-
55 What is the heat of hydration? gates by washing
55 Explain the main goal of a hydrocyclone. ASTM C1180 – 19. Standard terminology of mortar
55 Classify the main types of aggregates in and grout for unit masonry
terms of oven-dried particle density. ASTM C125 – 20. Standard terminology relating to
concrete and concrete aggregates
55 Explain the main goal of a jaw crusher.
ASTM C1252 – 17. Standard test methods for uncom-
55 What does Sonnenbrand alteration mean? pacted void content of fine aggregate (as influenced
55 List the main environmental concerns by particle shape, surface texture, and grading)
about sand, gravel, and crushed stone pro- ASTM C1260 – 14. Standard test method for potential
duction. alkali reactivity of aggregates (mortar-bar method)
ASTM C127 – 15. Standard test method for density,
55 What is the main goal of an aggregate
relative density (specific gravity), and absorption of
superquarry? coarse aggregate
ASTM C128 – 15. Standard test method for density,
relative density (specific gravity), and absorption of
??Long Questions fine aggregate
55 Explain in summary form the sand and ASTM C131/131M – 14. Test method for resistance to
gravel processing techniques. degradation of small size coarse aggregate by abra-
55 Explain the Los Angeles abrasion test. sion and impact in the los angeles machine
ASTM C136/136M – 19. Test method for sieve analysis
of fine and coarse aggregates
ASTM C142/C142M – 17. Standard test method for
References clay lumps and friable particles in aggregates
ASTM C1777 – 15. Standard test method for rapid
BGS (2013) Construction aggregates. British Geological determination of the methylene blue value for fine
Survey, Mineral Planning Factsheet 31 p aggregate or mineral filler using a colorimeter
Bustillo M (2018) Mineral resources – from exploration ASTM C289 – 07. Standard test method for potential
to sustainability assessment. In: Springer textbooks alkali-silica reactivity of aggregates (chemical
in earth sciences, geography and environmental sci- method) (withdrawn 2016)
ences. Springer International Publishing AG, Cham, ASTM C29/C29M – 17a. Test method for bulk density
653 p (“unit weight”) and voids in aggregate
Langer W (2006a) Crushed stone. In: Kogel JE, Trivedi ASTM C295/295M – 19. Standard guide for petro-
NC, Barker JM, Krukowski ST (eds) Industrial graphic examination of aggregates for concrete
minerals & rocks. Commodities, markets and uses. ASTM C535 –16. Test method for resistance to degrada-
Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration, tion of large size coarse aggregate by abrasion and
Inc., Colorado, pp 171–180 impact in the Los Angeles machine
Langer W (2006b) Construction sand and gravel. In: ASTM C566 – 19. Standard test method for total evapo-
Kogel JE, Trivedi NC, Barker JM, Krukowski ST rable moisture content of aggregate by drying
(eds) Industrial minerals & rocks. Commodities, ASTM C666/C666M – 15. Test method for resistance of
markets and uses. Society for Mining, Metallurgy concrete to rapid freezing and thawing
and Exploration, Inc., Colorado, pp 159–168 ASTM C671 – 94. Standard test method for critical dila-
Langer WH, Knepper DH Jr (1998) Geologic character- tion of concrete specimens subjected to freezing
ization of natural aggregate—a field geologist’s (withdrawn 2003)
guide to natural aggregate resource assessment. In: ASTM C672/C672M – 12. Standard test method for
Bobrowsky PT (ed) Aggregate resources—a global scaling resistance of concrete surfaces exposed to
perspective. A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp 275–293 deicing chemicals
Langer WH, Drew LJ, Sachs JS (2004) Aggregate and ASTM C702/C702M – 18. Standard practice for reduc-
the environment. American Geological Institute, ing samples of aggregate to testing size
ASTM C88/C88M – 18. Standard test method for properties of aggregates—part 6: determination of
soundness of aggregates by use of sodium sulfate or particle density and water absorption
magnesium sulfate EN 1097-7: 2008. Tests for mechanical and physical
ASTM D1217 – 15. Standard test method for density properties of aggregates—part 7: determination of
2 and relative density (specific gravity) of liquids by the particle density of filler—pycnometer method
bingham pycnometer EN 1097-8: 2009. Tests for mechanical and physical
ASTM D2419 – 14. Standard test method for sand properties of aggregates—part 8: determination of
equivalent value of soils and fine aggregate the polished stone value
ASTM D2419 – 14. Test method for sand equivalent EN 1097-9: 2014. Tests for mechanical and physical
value of soils and fine aggregate properties of aggregates—part 9: determination of
ASTM D3319 – 11(2019). Standard test method for the resistance to wear by abrasion from studded
accelerated polishing of aggregates using the British tyres—Nordic test.
Wheel EN 12620: 2013. Aggregates for concrete
ASTM D3398 – 00(2006). Standard test method for EN 13383-1: 2013. Armourstone—part 1: specification
index of aggregate particle shape and texture EN 13450: 2013. Aggregates for railway ballast
ASTM D3744/D3744M – 18. Standard test method for EN 1367-1: 2007. Tests for thermal and weathering
aggregate durability index properties of aggregates—part 1: determination of
ASTM D4791 – 19. Standard test method for flat parti- resistance to freezing and thawing
cles, elongated particles, or flat and elongated parti- EN 1367-2: 2010. Tests for thermal and weathering
cles in coarse aggregate properties of aggregates—part 2: magnesium sulfate
ASTM D5821 – 13(2017). Standard test method for test
determining the percentage of fractured particles in EN 1367-3: 2001. Tests for thermal and weathering
coarse aggregate properties of aggregates—part 3: boiling test for
ASTM D6928 – 17. Standard test method for resistance “Sonnenbrand basalt”
of coarse aggregate to degradation by abrasion in EN 1367-4: 2008. Tests for thermal and weathering
the Micro-Deval apparatus properties of aggregates—part 4: determination of
ASTM D7428 – 15. Standard test method for resistance drying shrinkage
of fine aggregate to degradation by abrasion in the EN 1367-5: 2011. Tests for thermal and weathering
Micro-Deval Apparatus properties of aggregates—part 5: determination of
ASTM D75/D75M – 19. Standard practice for sampling resistance to thermal shock
aggregates EN 1367-6: 2008. Tests for thermal and weathering
ASTM D7698 – 19. Standard test method for in-place properties of aggregates—part 6: determination of
estimation of density and water content of soil and resistance to freezing and thawing in the presence of
aggregate by correlation with complex impedance salt (NaCl)
method EN 1367-7: 2014. Tests for thermal and weathering
ASTM D8 – 19. Standard terminology relating to mate- properties of aggregates—part 7: determination of
rials for roads and pavements resistance to freezing and thawing of Lightweight
EN 1097-1: 2011. Tests for mechanical and physical aggregates)
properties of aggregates—part 1: determination of EN 1367-8: 2014. Tests for thermal and weathering
the resistance to wear (micro-Deval) properties of aggregates—part 8: determination of
EN 1097-10: 2014. Tests for mechanical and physical resistance to disintegration of lightweight aggre-
properties of aggregates—part 10: determination of gates
water suction height EN 1744-1: 2009+A1: 2012. Tests for chemical proper-
EN 1097-11: 2013. Tests for mechanical and physical ties of aggregates—part 1: chemical analysis
properties of aggregates—part 11: determination of EN 1744-3: 2002. Tests for chemical properties of aggre-
compressibility and confined compressive strength gates–part 3: preparation of eluates by leaching of
of lightweight aggregates aggregates
EN 1097-2: 2010. Tests for mechanical and physical EN 1744-4: 2005. Tests for chemical properties of aggre-
properties of aggregates—part 2: methods for the gates—part 4: determination of water susceptibility
determination of resistance to fragmentation of fillers for bituminous mixtures
EN 1097-3: 1998. Tests for mechanical and physical EN 1744-5: 2006. Tests for chemical properties of aggre-
properties of aggregates—part 3: determination of gates—part 5: determination of acid soluble chlo-
loose bulk density and voids ride salts
EN 1097-4: 2008. Tests for mechanical and physical EN 932-1: 1997. Tests for general properties of aggre-
properties of aggregates—part 4: determination of gates—part 1: methods for sampling
the voids of dry compacted filler EN 932-2: 2012. Tests for general properties of aggregates—
EN 1097-5: 2008. Tests for mechanical and physical part 2: methods for reducing laboratory samples
properties of aggregates—part 5: determination of EN 932-3: 1997+A1: 2004. Tests for general properties
the water content by drying in a ventilated oven. EN of aggregates—part 3: procedure and terminology
1097-6:2013. Tests for mechanical and physical for simplified petrographic description
References
53 2
EN 932-5: 2012. Tests for general properties of aggre- ISO 6274: 1982. Concrete – sieve analysis of aggregates
gates—part 5: common equipment and calibration ISO 6707-1: 2017. Building and civil engineering works –
EN 932-6: 1999. Tests for general properties of aggre- vocabulary – part 1: general terms
gates—part 6: definitions of repeatability and repro- ISO 6782: 1982. Aggregates for concrete – determina-
ducibility tion of bulk density
EN 933-1: 2012. Tests for geometrical properties of ISO 6783: 1982. Coarse aggregates for concrete – deter-
aggregates—part 1: determination of particle size mination of particle density and water absorption –
distribution-sieving method hydrostatic balance method
EN 933-10: 2001. Tests for geometrical properties of ISO 7033: 1987. Fine and coarse aggregate for con-
aggregates—part 10: assessment of fines—grading crete – determination of the particle mass-per-
of filler aggregates (air jet sieving) volume and water absorption – pycnometer method
EN 933-11: 2009. Tests for geometrical properties of
aggregates—part 11: classification test for the con- Further Reading
stituents of coarse recycled aggregate
Antony SJ, Hoyle W, Ding Y (eds) (2004) Granular
materials, fundamentals & applications. The Royal
aggregates—part 2: determination of particle size
Society of Chemistry, Cambridge, 380 p
distribution—test sieves, nominal size of apertures
Gambhir ML, Jamwal N (2014) Building and construc-
tion materials – testing and quality control. McGraw
aggregates—part 3: determination of particle
Hill Education (India) Private Limited, New Delhi,
shape—flakiness index
566 p
National Stone, Sand and Gravel Association (2013)
aggregates—part 4: determination of particle
The Aggregates handbook 2nd edition
shape—shape index
Primel L, Tourenq C (eds) (2000) Aggregates: geology,
prospection, environment, testing, extraction, speci-
aggregates—part 5: determination of percentage of
fications, processing plants, equipment, quality.
crushed and broken surfaces in coarse aggregate
AABalkema, Rotterdam, 590 p
particle
Sahu GC, Jena J (2015) Building materials and con-
struction. McGraw Hill Education India Pvt Ltd,
aggregates—part 6: assessment of surface charac-
900 p
teristics—flow coefficient of aggregates
Smith MR, Collins PG (2001) Aggregates: sand, gravel
and crushed rock aggregates for construction pur-
aggregates—part 7: determination of shell con-
poses, Geological Society Engineering Geology
tent—percentage of shells in coarse aggregates
Special Publication no. 17. The Geological Society,
EN 933-8: 2012+A1: 2015. Tests for geometrical proper-
London, 339 p
ties of aggregates—part 8: assessment of fines—
Varghese PC (2015) Building materials, 2nd edn. PHI
sand equivalent test
Learning Private Limited, New Delhi, 308 p
EN 933-9: 2009+A1: 2013. Tests for geometrical proper-
ties of aggregates—part 9: assessment of fines—
methylene blue test
ISO 5725-1:1994. Accuracy (trueness and precision) of Useful Links
measurement methods and results—part 1: general
principles and definitions British Marine Aggregate Producers Association. www.
ISO 5725-2:2019. Accuracy (trueness and precision) of bmapa.org
measurement methods and results—part 2: basic European Aggregate Association. www.uepg.eu
method for the determination of repeatability and LafargeHolcim. www.lafargeholcim.com
reproducibility of a standard measurement method Martin Marietta. www.martinmarietta.com
ISO 5725-3:1994/COR 1:2001. Accuracy (trueness and Mineral Products Association. www.mineralproducts.
precision) of measurement methods and results— org
part 3: intermediate measures of the precision of a Tarmac. www.tarmac.com
standard measurement method The National Stone, Sand and Gravel Association.
ISO 5725-4:1994.Accuracy (trueness and precision) of www.nssga.org
measurement methods and results—part 4: basic Vulcan Materials Company. www.vulcanmaterials.com
methods for the determination of the trueness of a
standard measurement method
55 3
Dimension Stone
Contents
3.3 Dimension Stone Types and Geology – 62

3.3.1 ranite – 63
G
3.3.2 Marble – 64
3.3.3 Slate – 67
3.3.4 Other Stones – 67
3.4 Quarrying Methods – 68

3.4.1 F lame-Cutting – 69
3.4.2 Careful Blasting – 70
3.4.3 Wedging – 71
3.4.4 Sawing – 71
3.4.5 Other Techniques – 73
3.4.6 Finnish Method – 74
3.5 Processing Operations – 75

3.5.1 ranite and Marble – 75
G
3.5.2 Slate – 76
3.5.3 Surface Finish – 76
3.8.1 avements – 85
P
3.8.2 Masonry – 86
3.8.3 Walls – 86
3.8.4 Slate Roofing – 87
References – 89

56 Chapter 3 · Dimension Stone
made of stone have survived from ancient

Summary times. Natural stone is a construction mate-
This chapter introduces stone as rial with a favorable ecological rating com-
construction material. First of all, a pared to other manufactured materials such
state-of-the-art information about as concrete and steel. . Figure 3.1 shows

terminology used in the stone sector is the carbon footprints of the different dimen-
3 presented, incorporating ASTM, ISO, and sion stone types compared to other common
EN definitions. Dimension stone types are construction materials. Shadmon (1989)
then discussed according to several of the states that “stone is the building material of
existing classes (granite, marble, and slate), the future… the resources are limitless and
including commercial and geological evenly spread over the whole globe; extrac-
definitions. A further section is devoted to tion does not require a lot of energy and
quarrying methods, covering the types of does not pollute and most important of all is
quarries, and the techniques used to cut and that the material is durable.” Stone is still
extract the rocks. At the end of the heading, widely considered the most aesthetically
the Finnish method to mine granite and pleasing, prestigious, and durable building
marble rocks is described. Following the material, thus being by many the premium
chapter, dimension stone processing material in all kinds of construction
operations at the factory are shown; slate is (. Fig. 3.2).

specially considered because its processing Man used stone since the Prehistoric Age,
operations are quite different to those used although the earliest buildings, e.g., habit-
in granite and marble processing. The able shelters, were certainly not built of
description also includes the several stone. Rather the earliest utilization of stone
finishing surface methods applied to the in construction was for barrier walls. Field
exposed surfaces of dimension stone in stones were used for building low barrier and
order to achieve the desired aesthetic and/ enclosure walls in Mesolithic times (from
or performance characteristics of the stone. 20,000 to 1000 BC) but rock was not quar-
A next section describes the physical and ried extensively as building stone until the
mechanical properties, test methods, test discovery of metals in about 3000 BC. Flint
standards, and main regulations for the implements however were used earlier to
different stone construction products. trim loose rock blocks (. Fig. 3.3). Thus,

Durability of stone is briefly considered, the prehistoric monument of Stonehenge in

and the content of the last heading is England, consisting of a ring of granite
devoted to the description of the main standing stones, and the pyramids in Egypt,
characteristics and uses of these built with finely dressed regularly shaped
construction materials. block, are two examples of stone utilization
around 3000 BC. The Cheops Pyramid is the
biggest accumulation of stone made by men
3.1 Introduction and includes more than two millions of stone
blocks, each of them weighing about 2.5 tons
Stone is one of the oldest building materials (7 Box 3.1: The Great Pyramid of Giza).

used by man because it is hard, secure, solid, Since then, stone has been used continuously
and durable. In fact, only constructions during millennia.
3.1 · Introduction
57 3
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
kgCO2e/tonne
800
600
400
200
e h) te be
r
ee
l
on gt
ite
t
Sla St
ick
en
t
ds n Tim
an
re
m
Br
n st
Gr
Ce
Sa gh
g
hi
in
e ( ld
et
ui
cr
lB
n
ra
Co
ne
Ge
.. Fig. 3.1 Carbon footprints of stone and other common construction materials (SFGB 2011)
.. Fig. 3.3 Neolithic shaft (about 4000 BC) cutting a

silica level to obtain flint for tool making in Madrid,
Spain. (Image courtesy of María Ángeles Bustillo)
.. Fig. 3.2 Dimension stone (limestone and slate) in a
historical building. (Image courtesy of María Ángeles
Morán)
Box 3.1
The Great Pyramid of Giza ferent sizes and shapes. Regarding the volume
The Great Pyramid of Giza (. Fig. 3.4) in

of the pyramid, it was initially 2,592,350 m3 in a
Cairo, Egypt (also known as the Pyramid of surface area of 53,055 m2. The pyramid uses
three different materials coming from several
3 Khufu or the Pyramid of Cheops), is one of the
quarries: two types of limestones and a granite,
Seven Wonders of the Ancient World and served
as a tomb for Pharaoh Khufu, also known by its so everything is made of stone. The building
Greek name, Cheops (Dynasty IV). This reli- blocks are limestone and come from a local
gious monument was built by the architect quarry on the Giza plateau, right next to the
Hemiunu and remains largely intact. The pyra- site, obviously for transportation reasons. The
mid is the largest of all the pyramids ever built on white limestone used for the cladding came
Earth, regardless of civilization and time. from Tourah quarries, a city near Cairo with a
Egyptologists believe that it was built over a finer and brilliant limestone. The base of the
period of 10–20 years (Herodotus visited the site pyramid is in pink granite of Aswan quarries as
in 450 BC and wrote that its construction lasted well as the blocks of internal masonry that
20 years), concluding around 2560 BC. The forms the funerary chambers and the large inte-
Great Pyramid was the highest man-made struc- rior gallery. Smaller amounts of basalt and
ture in the world for more than 3800 years (ini- graywacke were also used. The King’s Chamber
tially at 146.6 m and today 137 m). It was covered is probably the most famous chamber in the
by limestone casing stones (about 25,000 pol- pyramid. It is a rectangular slab of granite with
ished limestone blocks) forming a smooth outer walls formed by five rows of stone and flat roofs,
surface but what is seen actually is the underlying without decoration, and contains a red granite
core structure. Some of these original casing sarcophagus empty. The roof is composed of
stones are still present around the base. The most nine huge granite blocks that weigh about 400
accepted construction theory is based on the tons and hurry away with five compartments of
hypothesis that the Great Pyramid was built by support, topped by a pointed roof.
moving huge stones from quarries and dragging The main building block is a gray-yellow
and lifting them into place. It is estimated that colored limestone with well visible fossils (num-
the pyramid consists of 2.3 million individual mulites). Because the Giza quarries only lie a
stone blocks, about each of them with a weight couple hundred meters south from the pyra-
between 2 and 60 tons. Thus, about 5.5 million mid, the plateau itself where the pyramid lies
tons of limestone and 8000 tons of granite were was also used for quarrying stones. The stones
quarried for the pyramid construction. used in the pyramid display different size and
The monument was made mainly of lime- height depending on the layers. The stone
stone blocks, each block slightly set back from blocks are very large in the lower layers
that of the previous row, being the blocks of dif- (1 m × 2.5 m and 1–1.5 m high, 6.5–10 tons)
while smaller blocks (1 m × 1 m and 0.5 m high,
1.3 tons) were used for the layers higher up.
The Tura quarries (or Maasara quarries) lie
south of Cairo on the eastern shore of the Nile,
around 13–17 km from Giza. These quarries
offer high-quality limestone (white, very fine
grained, not very porous, and harder than that
from Giza). Tura limestones can easily be cut
and shaped and they were extracted already dur-
ing the time of building the pyramids from layers
deep down, and even probably from under-
ground, since the stones altered to a slightly yel-
.. Fig. 3.4 The Great Pyramid of Giza. (Source:
Wikipedia) lowish tone. The whole area of the quarries is
3.1 · Introduction
59 3
almost entirely horizontally stratified; thus, the stone. The granite quarries in Aswan lie south
limestones were moderately easily extracted. and southeast of the city, on the right side of
The Aswan Granite was the third most the Nile, and cover an area of about 20 km2.
important stone used in Egyptian civilization, The granite for the pyramids probably came
after sandstone and limestone. The stone was from the northern part and has remarkably
also extensively used in the Graeco–Roman nice pink color (light pink to dark pink) and
times, and even actually several companies are essentially coarse to very coarse- grained
exploiting different granite types as dimension texture.
An example of stone megalithic constructions most famous defensive construction is

in Europe is the Naveta Des Tudons, a cham- undoubtedly the Great Wall in China
ber tomb in the island of Menorca (Spain). It (. Fig. 3.6), a series of fortifications made of

served as collective ossuary between 1200 and stone and other materials built to protect the
750 BC and was built with huge rectangular China Empire against the invasions of the
or square limestone blocks. Greeks and subse- nomadic groups (several walls were built as
quently Romans used preferably stone in con- early as the seventh century BC). Gothic
structions such as aqueducts, bridges, theaters, cathedrals were probably the most character-
amphitheaters (. Fig. 3.5), temples, and
istic religious buildings constructed using
monuments. Stonework became increasingly dimension stone. The elongated structures in
important in the construction of defensive these cathedrals go to the limits of the
and religious buildings early in history. The mechanical properties of stone.
.. Fig. 3.5 Roman Coliseum at Roma (Italy). (Image courtesy of Manuel Jorge Bustillo)
.. Fig. 3.6 The Great Wall of China. (Image courtesy of Carolina Bustillo)
The most extensive utilization of stone in umental applications. According to EN 12670

buildings was perhaps in the late nineteenth standard, natural stone is “a rock of natural
century, when the wealth of Europe and origin” and ISO 6707-1 standard defines natu-
North America expressed itself in grandiose ral stone as “a rock used in construction and
public buildings, great houses, and mansions for monuments” and stone “as individual
of stone. Thus, stone has been a constant blocks, masses, or fragments that have been
material both in historical and in contempo- taken from their original places in the earth
raneous buildings. Granite and marble, par- for commercial use.” As defined in ASTM
ticularly white marble, are the preferred stones C119 standard, dimension stone is “natural
for monumental use. Although some small- stone that has been selected and fabricated to
scale production was likely in many countries, specific sizes or shapes with or without one or
dimension granite and marble were produced more mechanically dressed or finished sur-
and officially reported in 27 countries. The faces for use as building facing, curbing, pav-
“top five producing countries in 2018 were, in ing stone, monuments, memorials, and various
descending order by tonnage, China, India, industrial products.” ASTM C119 standard
Turkey, Iran, and Italy” (Dolley 2018). also states that “the term dimension stone is
in contradistinction to crushed and broken
stone, such as is used for aggregate, roadstone,
3.2 Definitions fill, or chemical raw materials. In common
practice, some dimension stones are rein-
Dimension stone is a collective term for forced, filled, or surface treated.” The dressing
various natural stones used for structural or of stone can be defined as the process of giv-
decorative purposes in construction and mon- ing a proper size, shape, and finish to the stone
3.2 · Definitions
61 3
stone terms used in the market because most
stone is multipurpose. Thus, “field stone,
quarried stone, dressed stone, building stone,
ornamental stone or rock, decorative stone,
and sculptural stone are all products obtained
after a rock is selected and cut to a specific size
or shape (including or not surface finish)”
(Austin et al. 2006). For instance, Shipley
(1945) used the term decorative stone inter-
changeably with ornamental stone but geolo-
gists commonly define decorative stone,
including ornamental stone, more broadly as
“any stone used primarily for its color, tex-
.. Fig. 3.7 Blocks of granite extracted from the quarry. ture, and general appearance.”
(Image courtesy of Grupo DGF) To simplify terminology, in this chapter
dimension stone will cover two main groups:
obtained from the quarry. This is because the construction or building stone and ornamen-
stones obtained after quarrying have a rough tal rock. The first is devoted mainly to struc-
surface and are irregular in shape. The process tural uses, e.g., dressed block in a bridge or
is carried out manually or mechanically and monument, while the second is used in deco-
the dressed block is fit for use in a particular rative purposes, e.g., polished granite in a
position of a construction. Finally, Mineral façade. On the contrary, ornamental rock is
Product Association provides the following not load-bearing to any great extent. Most of
definition for dimension stone: “any rock that the literature of this chapter is focused to
is extracted for use largely in its natural state ornamental rocks, the most important and
without crushing, screening, washing or simi- valuable segment of the dimension stone
lar treatment. It covers building, walling, market.
flooring and paving stone as well as a range of In architecture, the term ashlar is com-
materials used for roofing purposes. It includes monly used. Ashlar is the finest stone masonry
monumental stone and material worked for unit mentioned by Vitruvius as opus isod-
high end architectural uses such as cladding omum in his Architectura books, written prob-
buildings. Natural stone is back in fashion for ably between 30 and 15 BC. The Opus
interior features such as staircases, fireplaces, isodomum technique uses ashlars in wall con-
kitchens, and bathrooms.” struction (perfectly cut, completely regular
Dimension stone is generally quarried in square stone blocks of equal height, and
large blocks (. Fig. 3.7) that are often sawed
sometimes of the same length). Therefore,
into slabs for further finishing. It is largely ashlar consists of rectangular pieces of stone
used as building stone either as structural ele- of nonuniform size that are set randomly in a
ments (columns and pillars) or as vertical wall. The exposed surface of each piece is gen-
(walls and façades) and horizontal (pavements erally less than 0.4 m2 and the surface finish
and floors) coverings of interiors and exteri- can be sawed or rough. Ashlar can be obtained
ors of buildings. The main feature in market- from quarry blocks not suitable for finishing
ing a natural stone as dimension stone is the or it can be made from rocks that break natu-
possibility of producing rectangular blocks of rally into rectangular pieces.
suitable dimensions (hence the term dimen- It is important to bear in mind that market
sion stone) to allow the production of compo- for stone products, especially for ornamental
nents in the required sizes. Very often the term rocks, depends more on the consumer’s per-
ornamental stone or rock is considered, sonal taste and on fashion trends than in
emphasizing the decorative aspect of some other important features such as the chemical
stone applications. No classification can com- and physical quality of the material used.
pletely eliminate an overlap between different Thus, the aesthetic aspect (color and texture)
is more important in the pricing of stone than

physical and chemical properties. “Rare col-
ors such as blue, yellow, pure white, and deep
black are highly priced, while rocks of more
common colors obtain lower prices; for raw
blocks, the most select types of rocks may be
3 twenty times more expensive than the cheap-
est” (Heldal and Neeb 2000).
Many different types of igneous, meta-
morphic, and sedimentary rocks are used as
structural and decorative dimension stone. It
is mainly classified lithologically, which can
create great confusing among geologist, engi-
neers, and market because the definitions are
clearly different, as shown below. For instance,
marble in Italy covers all types of hard stone
that are capable of taking a polish, including
therefore many igneous and metamorphic
rocks.
3.3 Dimension Stone Types

and Geology .. Fig. 3.8 Granite Gris Perla (Marcelino Martínez)
used in the construction of promenade in Santander,
northern Spain
The first concern in stone construction is the
selection of the proper material since the vari-
ety of stones is numerous. Almost every vari- Scientific and commercial descriptions of
ety of rock can or has been used as dimension many dimension stone types overlap. For
stone, being governed the suitability of a instance, the trade granite commonly encom-
particular stone mainly by physical properties passes nearly all crystalline igneous and meta-
and aesthetic appeal. In general, the most morphic rocks despite their origin and
common rock types used for dimension stone includes varieties such as gabbro, diorite,
are granite (. Fig. 3.8) and related intrusive

syenite, and gneiss. Even basalt, a common
igneous rocks, limestone and its metamor- dark and noncrystalline volcanic rock, is con-
phosed equivalent marble, and slate, a meta- sidered a granite in the dimension stone mar-
morphosed shale that splits into thin sheets. ket. Another example of overlapping is marble
Very often, stone is divided into soft varieties because, in the building trade, many marbles
such as calcareous materials and hard variet- are also dense limestones capable of taking a
ies, essentially siliceous rocks. In general, the polish. Sometimes, identical stones are sold
three basic types of rocks present in the earth’s under different trade names.
crust are used as dimension stone: igneous, Petrographic examination of rocks using
metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. Igneous optical microscopy and visual examination to
rocks are formed by the solidification of a describe and characterize the material is
magma. Metamorphic rocks are formed by essential to a good characterization of the
the recrystallization of older rocks when sub- type of dimension stone. ASTM 1721 stan-
jected to intense heat and pressure or both dard lists the following purposes of petro-
within the earth’s crust. Sedimentary rocks graphic examinations: “(a) determine the
are a result of accumulation of fragments physical and chemical characteristics (miner-
from preexisting rocks or precipitation under alogy, texture, and composition) of the stone
conditions of oversaturation. specimen that may be observed by petro-
3.3 · D
imension Stone Types and Geology
63 3
.. Fig. 3.9 Belgian Granite or Belgian Bluestone (calcareous rock). (Image courtesy of Pierre Bleue de Wallonie
S.A.)
graphic methods and that have a bearing on ing granite family rocks as defined scientifi-
the performance of the material in its intended cally and syenite, gabbro, anorthosite, or other
use, (b) describe and classify the minerals of plutonic igneous rocks. As discussed above, in
the specimen, (c) classify the stone both com- commercial usage fine-grained igneous rocks
mercially and geologically, recognizing the such as diabase or basalt are sometimes
differences in nomenclature, (d) determine the termed black granite. Commercial granites are
relative amounts of the minerals of the speci- generally termed for the quarry or location
men and constituents that have a bearing on where they are extracted, with additions to the
the performance of the material in its intended names by adjectives giving color, texture, or
use, and (e) compare characteristics of the some exotic description. Granite shows a wide
stone with specimens from one or more variety of tonalities, e.g., white, gray, blue,
sources, for which test data or performance pink, or red, and a granular texture ranging
records are available.” From the petrographic from fine (some tens of microns) to coarse (a
examination and knowledge of the origin of few of centimeters). In general, the other
the stone, denomination criteria can be types or rock named as granite show some
assigned (e.g., EN 12440 standard). Guidelines common traces (Amaral et al. 2015): “(1) hav-
for petrographic description of the main rock ing similar chemical-mineralogical composi-
types are referred in EN 12407 and ASTM tions, (2) being silicate rocks, and (3)
1721 standards, which enables a more specific implicating a similar production process.”
characterization procedure. According to EN 12670 standard, granite
ASTM C119 and EN 12670 standards is “a compact natural stone capable of taking
have adopted standard definitions for granite, a polish used in decorative and construction
limestone, marble, sandstone, slate, and many purposes; it consists mainly of minerals rang-
subdivisions and varieties of each main rock ing from 5 to 7 in Mohs scale.” The standard
type. The following sections comment both remarks that many igneous and metamorphic
scientific and commercial definitions of the rocks (and even some limestones—the well-
main groups of dimension stone. known Belgium carbonate rock (. Fig. 3.9)
utilizes the trade name of Belgian Granite)

meet these requirements. ASTM C119 stan-
3.3.1 Granite dard defines granite (commercial definition)
as “a visibly granular, igneous rock generally
3.3.1.1 Commercial Definition ranging in color from pink to light or dark
Commercial granite (from the Latin granum gray and consisting mostly of quartz and feld-
meaning grain) includes all feldspathic rocks spars, accompanied by one or more dark min-
of visibly granular or gneissic texture, includ- erals. The texture is typically homogeneous
but may be gneissic or porphyritic. Some dark 3.3.2 Marble

granular igneous rocks, though not geologi-
cally granite, are included in the definition.” 3.3.2.1 Commercial Definition
Commercial marble (from the Latin marmore
3.3.1.2 Geological Definition
and the Greek marmaros meaning shining
Granites are described as plutonic crystalline stone) is “any crystalline rock composed pre-
3 rocks (formed deep within the earth’s crust) dominantly of calcite, dolomite, or serpentine
with interlocking texture, comprising basi- that is capable of taking a polish” (ASTM
cally feldspar (potassium and plagioclase) and C119 standard). This standard also considers
quartz. The granite family is subdivided into the so-called limestone marble, which is “a
specific members such as granite (proper) and compact, dense limestone that will take a pol-
granodiorite on the basis of the kind and pro- ish is classified as marble in trade practice;
portion of the three major feldspar varieties limestone marble may be sold as limestone or
in the rock. All members of the family contain as marble.” According to EN 12670 standard,
quartz, and most contain minor accessory marble is “a compact natural stone capable of
minerals (less 10%wt) such as mica (biotite taking a polish used in decorative and con-
and muscovite), hornblende, and pyroxene. struction purposes; it consists mainly of min-
Granite family rocks can occur as dikes, sills, erals ranging from 3 to 4 in Mohs scale.” Thus,
or large subjacent masses of irregular or glob- limestone and serpentine can be classified
ular shape. from commercial viewpoint as marble.
Optical properties are primarily deter- Recrystallized limestone, compact microcrys-
mined by feldspars and the quantitative distri- talline limestone, and travertine (. Fig. 3.10)
bution and characterization of the mineral that are capable of taking a polish are also
components can help in the identification of included in the category commercial marble
the various granites. Granites with 20 to 40% and may be sold as either limestone or marble.
quartz often show greasy luster, are mostly Thus, the industry frequently fails to distin-
colorless to transparent, seldom gray, blue- guish the limestones (wholly sedimentary in
gray, or pink. Higher amounts of mafic con- origin) from their metamorphic equivalents,
stituents that form interspersed black flakes, marketing them both as marbles.
like biotite, can impart a darker contrast to The limestone sector has a strategic
lighter colored granites. importance in some markets such as Spain or
Granitoid rocks containing mostly feld- Portugal. In fact, the most sold marble in Spain
spar but no quartz are called syenite if alkali
feldspar predominates; diorite if calcium
feldspar predominates; or monzonite if the
two feldspars are about equal in abundance.
These rocks typically contain considerable
amount of ferromagnesian minerals such as
biotite, hornblende, and pyroxene as accesso-
ries. Rocks with approximately equal propor-
tion of calcium feldspar and pyroxene are
classed as gabbro or norite and are included in
the typical black granites of commercial
usage. Another important classification of
granite is made by calculating its chemical
composition since the results from chemical
analysis can help to estimate the mineralogi-
.. Fig. 3.10 Travertine used in façades. (Image cour-
cal composition. tesy of María Ángeles Morán)
3.3 · D
65 3
is a limestone termed Crema Marfil, which is
extracted in Monte Coto Pinoso (Alicante),
one of the biggest dimension stone quarry in
the world (. Fig. 3.11). Marble is probably the

oldest term used for dimension stone and was

used in ancient Rome for all hard stones that
could be polished. Some of the most impressive
monuments worldwide were built using marble
(e.g., Taj Mahal in India or Parthenon in
Greece—7 Box 3.2: Marble in Taj Mahal

(India) and Parthenon (Greece)). The most

famous marble is the so-called Carrara marble,
quarried in northern Italy and exported
throughout the world. This marble has a uni- .. Fig. 3.11 Monte Coto Pinoso quarry (Alicante,
form texture and has been used in some of the Spain). (Image courtesy of Levantina)
most famous sculptures throughout history.
Box 3.2
Marble in Taj Mahal (India) and Parthenon mounts the tomb. The mausoleum was built
(Greece) using Makrana marble, a white marble of high
The Taj Mahal is a white marble mausoleum in quality, popular for utilization in sculpture and
the Indian city of Agra (. Fig. 3.12). Shah

building. It is quarried in the town of Makrana,
Jahan, a Mughal Emperor, commissioned the in Rajasthan (India), and was used in the con-
mausoleum in 1632 to house the tomb of his struction of several famous monuments in India
favorite wife, Mumtaz Mahal. Construction of such as the cited Taj Mahal and the Victoria
the Taj Mahal was completed in 1643 although Memorial in Kolkata. The architectures of the
work continued on other phases of the project Taj Mahal decided to use this marble as the main
during 10 years. The tomb is the main compo- building material of the construction due to its
nent of complex, being a large, white marble already earned fame. In the Makrana area, mar-
structure standing on a square plinth. The most ble is found in different steeply dipping bands,
spectacular feature is the marble dome that sur- being regarded as the oldest place in India with a
marble quarry. The different types of Makrana
marble are pure white, white with gray shades,
and white with pink shades, depending on the
level of impurities. The close interlocking prop-
erty of the marble makes it strong, hard, and
translucent.
The Parthenon is the most beautiful temple
in the Acropolis of Athens (Greece) (. Fig. 3.13).

The temple dominates the modern city of

Athens, a magnificent testimony to the glory and
renowned the city enjoyed throughout antiquity.
It was built between 447 and 432 BC, in the Age
of Pericles, and dedicated to the city’s patron
deity Athena. The Parthenon was built on the
.. Fig. 3.12 Taj Mahal mausoleum. (Image cour- foundations of the previous church built by
tesy of Eumenio Ancochea) Peisistratus and destroyed by the Persians, being
the nearby Penteli was known since ancient times

was precisely its marble. Pentelic marble, quar-
ried at Mount Pentelikon, northern Attica, was
used for many of the major monuments of
Classical Athens, especially from the fifth cen-
3 tury BC onwards. It was also the first white mar-
ble used in significant amounts at Rome, in the
second century BC. In the Roman period,
Pentelic marbles were used for architectural ele-
ments, statuary, and sarcophagi. The demand for
Pentelic marble is evidenced by its widespread
distribution throughout the central and eastern
Mediterranean. Its main features were the white
.. Fig. 3.13 Parthenon (Athens, Greece) (source: appearance, purity, clarity, and transparency. In
Wikipedia) ancient times, the Pentelic marble was an impor-
tant export product of Athens. Thus, many great
the project overseen by the sculptor Pheidias. monuments found scattered in various parts of
The material used in the construction was Greece made of Pentelic marble. It contains
Pentelic marble, except the raised floor, where traces of iron, which over time has oxidized giv-
limestone was used. The main reason for which ing the marble a soft brown color.
In summary, the term marble is extraordi-

narily confusing. Some other types or marble
are travertine, onyx marble (a dense, crystalline
form of limestone, deposited from cold water
solutions and commonly found in caves), and
Verde Antique (a massive serpentine—most ser-
pentine results from metamorphism of perido-
tite and related rock—commonly crisscrossed
by veinlets of calcite) (. Fig. 3.14). ASTM

C119 standard defines commercial serpentine

as “a rock consisting mostly or entirely of ser-
pentine (hydrated magnesium silicate), com-
monly greenish but can be black, red, or other
colors; commonly veined with calcite, dolomite,
or magnesite (magnesium carbonate) or a com-
bination.” Travertine is (ASTM C119 standard)
“a porous or cellularly layered partly crystalline
calcite rock of chemical origin. It is formed by
precipitation of calcite from generally hot or
warm solutions of carbonated water, usually at
the bottom of shallow pools. Pores and cavities
commonly are concentrated in some of the lay-
ers, giving rise to an open texture. Travertine is
sometimes classified for commercial purposes
as limestone because it is composed principally
of calcium carbonate and is sometimes classi- .. Fig. 3.14 Verde Antique quarry in Vermont, USA.
fied for commercial purposes as marble if it is (Image courtesy of Vermont Verde Antique LLC)
capable of taking a polish.”
3.3 · D
67 3
3.3.2.2 Geological Definition
From a geological point of view, marble is a
carbonate rock that acquired a distinctive
crystalline texture by recrystallization, most
commonly by heat and pressure during meta-
morphism. This derived in a new material that
shows high variability in its properties when
compared to granite. Marble is composed
mainly of calcite and dolomite, singly or in
combination. During the recrystallization .. Fig. 3.15 Roofing slate in La Almudena Cathedral
process, much or all of the sedimentary and (Madrid, Spain). (Image courtesy of CUPA)
biologic textures are obliterated. Bedding can
be partially preserved in the form of composi- Most slates include pyrite or iron oxide in
tional layering or banding. Common acces- their composition and many also contain
sory minerals are talc, chlorite, amphibole, graphite. In general, the most important clay
and pyroxene. Pure calcite marble is white mineral group for a good roofing slate is the
although small quantities of impurities will phyllosilicate group, which can account gener-
color it substantially. As an example, graphite ally for up to 80% of the bulk of the slate. The
and pyrite commonly color marble gray. color of slate is determined mainly by the oxi-
Finely disseminated hematite will color mar- dation state of the iron and the amount of
ble pink. graphite or other coloring material present.
Graphite and pyrite impart dark gray or black
color to the slate; ferric iron oxides color the
slate red. Presence of pyrite or calcite crystals
3.3.3 Slate in slate is very negative from an economic
viewpoint because red or white staining colors
3.3.3.1 Commercial and Geological develop over time, influencing and commonly
Definition reducing the quality and price of the material.
For both commercial and scientific purposes,
commercial slate is defined as a microgranular
metamorphic rock derived from argillaceous 3.3.4 Other Stones
sediments. According to ASTM C119 stan-
dard, slate is “a microcrystalline metamorphic Other stones such as sandstone or alabaster
rock most commonly derived from shale and are quarried as dimension stone. Commercial
composed mostly of micas, chlorite, and sandstone is a lithified sand that comprises
quartz. The micaceous minerals have a sub- mainly quartz or quartz and feldspar with a
parallel orientation and thus impart strong clastic texture. Sandstone contains interstitial
cleavage to the rock which allows the latter to cementing materials such as calcite, clay, or
be split into thin but tough sheets.” A similar iron oxides. With respect to alabaster, it is nat-
definition is included in EN 12670 standard. urally occurring gypsum or calcium sulfate.
The possibility to be split in thin sheets gener- Historically, it has been used for building,
ates the most important and valuable market being the purest form white in color and
for slate as dimension stone: roofing translucent although traces or iron oxide
(. Fig. 3.15).
imparts light brown, orange, or red color-
Although quartz mineral is abundant in ations. The Cathedral of Our Lady of the
slate, extremely fine-grained mica and other Angels (USA) has magnificent alabaster win-
platy minerals are always present. The platy dows (. Fig. 3.16); the alabaster selected for

minerals tend to be aligned with the slaty the Cathedral shows veins of different colors
cleavage and impart sheen to the surface. and was imported from Spain.
.. Fig. 3.17 Granite aggregate processing plant located

near the dimension stone quarry. (Image courtesy of
Marcelino Martínez)
.. Fig. 3.16 Alabaster windows in The Cathedral of and microdiscontinuities, inclusions and
Our Lady of the Angels (USA). (Image courtesy of accessory minerals, and alteration zones.
Martin Schwartz) The need for big blocks generates an
important waste issue in dimension stone
quarries because the percentage of waste can
3.4 Quarrying Methods be as high as 95%. In this sense, the natural
stone industry is unique in that the majority
In selecting a quarry site, the points to be of its solid waste stream is its raw material,
borne in mind are availability of enough commonly in unadulterated form, that is,
quantity of the rock of desired quality, trans- waste can be here defined as leftover stone in
portation facilities, possible troubles associ- ornamental stone production, possibly usable
ated to rainwater drainage, and location of for other purposes. Technically, there is a wide
dumping refuse. The extraction process is rel- range of by-products that can be produced
atively simple: create minimal breaks in the from quarry waste, aggregate being the most
stone, remove the blocks (commercial important by-product in volume from orna-
blocks—. Fig. 3.7) utilizing heavy machin-
mental stone quarrying (. Fig. 3.17).
ery, secure the blocks on a vehicle, and trans- Crushed rock for terrazzo tiles (see 7 Chap.
port them to storage and further processing at 5) and agglomerated stone (see 7 Chap. 4) is
the factory. It is necessary subsequently to cut another important by-product, especially

the rock into successively smaller pieces until regarding marble and limestone.
the final desired size. Previous to extraction, From a geological viewpoint, the main cri-
the rock is inspected and samples are taken teria that are considered for quarrying are:
and tested for water absorption, strength, etc. “(a) geometry, size, and depth of occurrence,
The surface of the rock is then cleared of veg- (b) presence of veins, dykes, inclusions, and
etation and weathered material (collectively foliation, which influence the uniformity of
referred to as overburden). The organic earth rock, (c) mineralogy, porosity, and texture,
must be transferred to onsite storage for fur- which influence the quality of the rocks, (d)
ther utilization in reclamation works. After fracture density, folds, foliations, remnant
that, the extraction process can begin. The fol- stress fields, and weathering, which influence
lowing defects can affect the quality and the block and slab size, and (e) preferred orien-
exploitability of a dimension stone quarry: tation of minerals and microfractures, which
changes in color, textural variations, macro- influence the workability of the rocks” (Heldal
3.4 · Quarrying Methods
69 3
better overall recovery, (d) possibility of work-
ing all year round in a friendly ambient, and
(d) economic utilization of left-out rooms,
e.g., to place waste materials.
In the quarrying process, the main goal is
to produce large rectangular blocks as free of
imperfections as possible. Large-scale quarry-
ing operations in dimension stone are carried
out generally in limestone and marble as well
as granitic rocks. The methods used to pro-
duce the commercial blocks can vary because
hardness of marble and granite is very differ-
ent. Calcite is a relatively soft mineral so that
the cost of extraction in the quarry is rela-
tively low. On the opposite, granite has a large
proportion of quartz, being comparatively
hard and expensive to extract. In some quar-
ries, commercial blocks are directly cut from
the rock body, e.g., in the production of sand-
stone, where blocks are often extracted from
relatively thin layers or between bedding
planes.
.. Fig. 3.18 Slate underground quarry. (Image cour- Several techniques or methods to cut rock
tesy of CAFERSA) in the quarry can be used, although the last
30 years or so have seen the development of
diamond wire, to the extent that sawing with
and Neeb 2000). For instance, the depth of diamond wire is the main method of both pri-
occurrence of the rock has a profound signifi- mary and secondary cutting as well as block
cance on the technical and economic feasibil- squaring in granite and marble quarries today.
ity of the dimension stone quarry. In general, block extraction is carried out by
Most dimension stone quarries are open flame-cutting, careful blasting, wedging, and
pit but underground operations are also com- sawing, or a combination of these methods.
mon (. Fig. 3.18). Open pit quarries have
Sawing is commonly used in limestone and
several advantageous characteristics: “(a) marble whereas wedging, flame-cutting, and
they can be located on outcrops or where careful blasting are still common extraction
overburden is thin, (b) they are within reach techniques in granites and other hard sili-
of fixed derricks with movable booms, and (c) ceous rocks. Some of these rock types have
electric service, air compressors, loading excellent natural splitting properties due to
docks, and other service facilities can be more the presence of anisotropic characteristics
or less permanently fixed near the working such as directionally arranged minerals or
area” (Mead and Austin 2006). Underground microfractures.
quarries are generally room-and-pillar mines
(Bustillo 2018) and commonly as little as 15%
of the rock is left for roof support. On the 3.4.1 Flame-Cutting
contrary, underground excavation is expected
to gain increasing popularity for several rea- Flame-cutting or jet channeling was the most
sons: (a) less impact on the environment, (b) common method of cutting granite but it has
no requirement of overburden removal, (c) currently fallen in disuse due to environmen-
.. Fig. 3.20 Detonating cord. (Image courtesy of Mar-

celino Martínez)
3.4.2 Careful Blasting
Successful blasting operations to separate

blocks from the entire rock mass need the uti-
lization of such blasting materials that will
provide minimum damages of the rock mass.
.. Fig. 3.19 Channel formed using the flame-cutting This method of block extraction is generally
method used in hard and abrasive dimension stone,
e.g., granite. In that regard, the earliest explo-
sive used was black powder (deflagrating
tal issues. The method consists in disintegrat- explosive) while high velocities explosives
ing the rock with intense heat (around (detonating explosives) such as detonating
2700 °C) from the combustion of fuel oil and cord have become prevalent in more recent
oxygen, thermal shock causing the rock to times. Detonating cord (. Fig. 3.20) is a flex-
spall. The high temperature makes quartz- ible linear explosive formed by a core of pen-
grains expand, producing the pulverization of trite explosive (around 10 g/m) encased in a
the rock. As a consequence, this method only textile outer jacket. The use of black powder
works properly for quartz-rich rocks. to successfully split granite is an extremely
The torch, which is passed back and forth specialized task relying on the experience of
over the rock, is generally attached to a frame the quarryman.
in order to keep the cut true. The two main In the first step of the operation, vertical
disadvantages of this method are the noise drill holes are drilled at a distance of 20–40 cm,
level, which is high enough to produce a seri- depending on the characteristics of the block.
ous health hazard, and the wasting stone gen- Detonating cord is then introduced in the
erated because the cut is wide (about 20 cm) holes, which are stemmed with a suitable
and irregular (. Fig. 3.19). For these reasons, shock-absorbing material like water, and det-

flame-cutting is being replaced by other tech- onated by a master cord. When using black
niques unless its use is absolutely necessary, powder, 50–70 g of powder is charged per
(e.g., in areas difficult to access. hole. The lower detonation pressure and
71 3
velocity of detonating cord allow to reduce
crack generation between closely spaced
holes, resulting in reduced radial cracking as
well as improved rock displacement.
3.4.3 Wedging
Wedging employing plugs and feathers

(. Fig. 3.21) as a method of splitting rocks

was introduced in the Antiquity. The method

includes drilling of a line of holes in the
stone (. Fig. 3.22) and introducing into

these two shaped steel feathers (flat wedges)

with a steel plug or wedge in between them.
These are located along the direction of the
required split, and the wedges are driven with
a hammer causing a lateral force in the holes,
which generates splitting of the stone.
Spacing of the holes can vary based on the .. Fig. 3.22 Line of holes for plugs and feathers.
characteristics of the rock but it ranges (Image courtesy of Marcelino Martínez)
between 10 cm in hard stone to 25 cm in
stone with well-developed planes. In this
case, it is exclusively necessary to drill every holes can be drilled just deep enough to
fifth hole to the full depth while the rest of accommodate the plug and feathers. The best
split is obtained when all of the plugs are
tensioned slowly and evenly, rather than hit-
ting too hard and fast.
Wedging in modern quarries is basically
limited to the squaring of blocks, i.e., the sub-
division of primary blocks extracted by blast-
ing or sawing. Although manual wedging is
widespread in modern quarries and probably
will be also in the future, hydraulic wedging
(or rock splitters) is in daily use in some large
quarries in the form of plugs and feathers
placed in premade drill holes.
3.4.4 Sawing
Sawing is a common method to cut the blocks

in the quarries, being diamond wire sawing
.. Fig. 3.21 Plug and feathers. (Image courtesy of the almost universal technique used in all
Levantina) types of dimensional stone (granite, marble,
and slate) (7 Box 3.3: Diamond Wire

Cutting). Other tools are chain saw and disk

saw. Chain saw machines (. Fig. 3.23) are

used for cutting low- to medium-abrasive and

soft- to medium-strength natural stones such
as travertine and marble, in both underground
3 and surface quarrying operations. They can
perform vertical and horizontal thin cuts,
being commonly used together with diamond
wire cutting machines. The basic limitation of
this method is that it cannot cut hard, abra-
sive, and fracture stone deposits. Chain saw
performance depends on geological condi-
tions of the quarry, chain saw (mechanical)
features/specifications, and operational
parameters. The chain saw machine moves
along a rail system and its arm length vary
from 2 m to up to around 8 m. Cutting tools
(tungsten carbide) commonly with rectangu-
lar prism geometry are bolted to tool holders
mounted on sockets, which are connected to
each other, making and endless chain sliding
over the arm. Cutting speeds of up to 10 m2 .. Fig. 3.23 Chain saw machine in a marble quarry.
per hour can be achieved in marbles. (Image courtesy of Levantina)
Box 3.3
Diamond Wire Cutting

Diamond wire cutting was invented in England
in the 1950s. During the 1980s, granite quar-
ries were the first to introduce this cutting
technique. The diamond wire can be consid-
ered an advance or evolution of the helical
wire, normally used for the attainment of
blocks in softer rocks such as marble.
Nowadays, diamond wire saw is one of the
most important cutting tools used in the stone
quarries, being commonly used due to (a) the
investment in a wire machine is relatively low,
(b) it is more productive than competing tech- .. Fig. 3.24 Diamond wire
niques, (c) noise nuisance is significantly less
than that generated by other sawing tech- single layer of coarse diamonds is fastened to
niques, and (d) the cut is thin (about 1 cm) and the bead by electrolytically deposed metal) and
very regular. impregnated bead (a fine diamond/metal sin-
Diamond wire (. Fig. 3.24) is a steel cable
tered layer is applied to the bead). The former
8–11 mm in diameter on which small cylindri- is more productive and cheaper but is less dura-
cal beads are mounted. Wire saw beads fall into ble, being generally used with marbles, while
two basic categories: (a) electrolytic beds (a the latter is slower in action but longer lasting,
73 3
being commonly used with hard rocks. The

beads are separated by either wire springs for
soft and nonabrasive rock or plastic or rubber
for hard and abrasive material.
Using this method, two holes are drilled to
intersect each other at a 90° angle, generally
over distances of up to 25 m and vertical height
of 6–12 m. The wire is looped through the drill
holes and run by a motor-driven drive wheel
mounted on tracks (. Fig. 3.25). Tension is

provided by pulling the drive wheel assembly

away from the cut on the tracks. With this
method, cuts in the stone can be either vertical
or horizontal. Diamond wire technique needs
precise drilling of the intersecting holes. In
order to loop the wire, a nylon line is attached
to a ball or other material that is forced through
the holes hydraulically or with compressed air.
The diamond wire can then be pulled through
the intersecting holes with the nylon line. Water .. Fig. 3.25 Diamond wire cutting the rock.
is supplied during the diamond wire cutting (Image courtesy of Levantina)
operation both as a coolant and as a means of
removing waste particles. Diamond wire square meters per linear meter of wire is
machines can be fitted with an inverter for vari- achieved in hard granites, ranging to between 15
able wire speed from zero to 40 m/s, so that any and 30 square meters in relatively soft granites
type of stone can be cut. and over 60 square meters in some marbles.
Current sawing rates achieved are about 4–6 Because of the improved economies of diamond
square meters per hour in granites and up to 12 wire sawing, it has replaced other methods such
square meters in marbles. A wire life of 6 to 8 as jet flame or blasting in many quarries.
With respect to the disk saw technique, it is

preferably used in small, little mechanization,
artisanal hewn stone quarries. Thin beds of
limestone or sandstone are often highly frac-
tured, and the contacts between the beds act
as planes of weakness. In such deposits, disk
saws are generally used (. Fig. 3.26). This

type of quarry is commonly devoted to

regional markets and many times working
only to order, being the number of workers
comparatively small.
3.4.5 Other Techniques .. Fig. 3.26 Disk saw in a sandstone quarry. (Image
courtesy of María José Varas)
Other splitting methods are occasionally used

in dimension stone quarries. The most famous to surface finish. In the quarry, the interest of
is probably the high-pressure (up to 350 MPa) this method is limited to particular situations
water jet method, which is well implemented like underground extraction of granite blocks
or in sandstone operations, the latter due to

the favorable textural and structural features
of this kind of rock. Concerning marble, there
is no interest in water jet since diamond tools
(diamond wire) are by far superior to any
competitor on both technical and economic
3 grounds.
3.4.6 Finnish Method
The Finnish method is commonly used as an

extraction methodology in most granite and
marble quarries. In this method of dimension .. Fig. 3.28 Tilted block. (Image courtesy of Levan-
stone quarrying, every stage of the process is tina)
highly mechanized and rationalized, and spe-
cial machinery is developed for each stage.
The quarrying process begins with the genera-
tion of large volumes of rocks (commonly in
the thousands of cubic meters range), which
are separated by means of primary cuts. This
first stage in the method is the definition of
the termed primary block. Hydraulic drills are
used in the vertical and horizontal drilling of
the primary block (. Fig. 3.27) although dia-

mond wire or blasting is also used. The sec-

ond stage, using mainly blasting or diamond
wire, divides the primary block in three to five
smaller blocks (100 s of m3 range). These
smaller blocks are then individually tilted
(. Fig. 3.28) and dumped using jacking

equipment and heavy machinery, e.g., a

hydraulic pusher arm—. Fig. 3.29—
attached to the quick coupler of the front end

loader. The third, final stage is the subdivision
.. Fig. 3.29 Hydraulic pusher arm. (Image courtesy of

Levantina)
by wedging of the dumped block in the so-

called semi-finished or commercial blocks
(about 8–10 tons = block size of
2.4 m × 1.2 m × 1.2 m). These blocks are then
.. Fig. 3.27 Hydraulic drills for primary block defini- transported to the plant for further processing
tion. (Image courtesy of Marcelino Martínez) using front end loaders or trucks.
3.5 · Processing Operations
75 3
3.5 Processing Operations most gang saws, the blade is horizontal and the
frame is pressed downward through the block.
3.5.1 Granite and Marble Thus, the size of the block that can be sawed is
limited by the size of the frame and blades.
The commercial blocks of granite and marble Wire saws are usually used to carry out
obtained at the quarry are sent to the factory secondary cuts in granite and marble blocks.
for processing operations. Most stone is sold Sometimes, these can be grouped into multiple
as blocks, slabs, or finished products. The or ganged wire saws (. Fig. 3.32). The wire

slabs are typically 2–3 cm thick in lengths of saws can be either twisted wire using abrasive
approximately 3 m and widths around 1 m, or diamond wire saw. Depending on the mate-
although any size is possible. Thus, the pro- rial that is being cut, the speed of cutting is
cessing operations involve cutting blocks into
slabs, followed by application of a finish pro-
cess, and then cutting the slabs into user-
defined sizes and shapes (. Fig. 3.30). The

second and/or third steps may be removed, for

instance if the product is specified to have a
natural appearance such as veneer or flooring.
The route that the stone takes through the
plant depends on its physical state upon
arrival as well as the product to be produced.
The first step of the process is primary cut-
ting of the block. It can be made with a gang
saw, wire saw, or circular saw. When utilizing
these machines, a continuous water stream
over the saw is needed with the aim to dissipate
heat generated in the process. The gang saw
with automatic connecting rod and rectilinear
motion (including steel abrasives), specifically
used to cut granite and marble blocks into
slabs, consists of a flat steel set in a frame that
moves with a reciprocating motion. A sand-
water mixture can be added into the saw for
cutting soft stone whereas steel shot
(. Fig. 3.31) is fed for cutting harder stone. In
.. Fig. 3.31 Steel shot used in a gang saw
.. Fig. 3.30 Cutting the slabs into user-defined sizes .. Fig. 3.32 Multiple wire saws. (Image courtesy of
and shapes. (Image courtesy of Marcelino Martínez) Marcelino Martínez)
.. Fig. 3.33 Multiple circular saw. (Image courtesy of

Levantina)
similar to or faster than gang saws, but because

the multiwire saw is cutting several slabs at the
same time, the amount of slabs being pro-
duced increases. Finally, circular saws
(. Fig. 3.33) can be also used to cut dimen-

sion stone in the factory, being diameter of the

saw very variable. The saw makes repeated .. Fig. 3.34 Handcrafted slate exfoliation using a ham-
passes across the block, cutting 5–10 mm at mer and a chisel. (Image courtesy of Cluster da Pizarra
each pass. The largest circular saw in opera- de Galicia)
tion is reported to be about 5 m in diameter
and capable of near 2 m total depth of cut. thin sheets (3 to 10 mm) with a hammer and a
Prior to surface finish, slabs can com- chisel (. Fig. 3.34), taking advantage the

monly subject to improvement mechanisms in cleavage of the rock. It is actually a hand-

order to increase the durability of the prod- crafted and meticulous technique, which
uct. The main improvement mechanisms are allows to obtain a high-quality finished prod-
as follows: (a) slab reinforcement with nylon uct. Finally, the separate slate sheets are pro-
mesh and resins, (b) filling of holes and hol- cessed and shaped with cutting machines. The
lows with special fillers, and (c) priming with cutting machine bevels the edges of each
fluid resins to seal the open pores of the stone. piece in order to make them into the exact
When a product is finished, it is packaged and size and shape that has been required for the
stored for shipment or direct sale. customer.
3.5.2 Slate 3.5.3 Surface Finish
Processing operations in slate are entirely dif- Finish is a process applied to the exposed sur-
ferent compared to those used in marble and faces of dimension stone to achieve the desired
granite. Thus, slate is extracted in huge blocks aesthetic and/or performance characteristics
in open pit and underground quarries and of the stone. Aesthetic characteristics are very
transported by trucks to the transformation important when rocks are used as construc-
warehouse factory located near the quarry. In tion and/or ornamental materials, and there-
the factory, these blocks are later diamond fore, surface finishing processes are considered
wire sawed into smaller blocks, which are essential by the stone processing industry. For
then sawed into different sizes based on the instance, the surface finish of the stone char-
dimensions of the slate to be produced. Then, acterizes its tonality. Choosing the manner in
skilled splitter workers exfoliate the slate into which stone will be finished is an essential part
77 3
.. Fig. 3.35 Different types of surface finishes
of the selection process and is determined by ties of the stone. For instance, a honed surface
how the stone is to be used. The finish may be displays a higher slip resistance than a polished
applied early or late in the fabrication one; the thermal finish on granite reduces the
sequence. Dual finish or multiple contrasting strength of the stone by up to 30% due to the
finishes, such as thermal and polished, is formation of microcracking in the surface,
sometimes carried out on one piece of stone. increasing also the porosity of the material.
A broad typology of methods is used for The most common finishes available in the
finishing the stone and each uses specific types market are polished, honed, flamed or ther-
of equipment to accomplish the resulting mal, bush hammered, sawn, natural cleft,
appearance. Finish can be anything from saw planed, sliced, chipped, and antique-style
cut to high polish. For structural use and foun- (acid washed or mechanical) (. Fig. 3.35).

dations, stone does not need much working and Polished is a glossy and highly reflective sur-
the surface can be evened out with a hammer face finish (7 Box 3.4: Polished Finish).

whereas for cladding panels and tiles the stone Honed is a satin-smooth surface finish with
can be polished. In general, a high polish will little or no gloss coming out by using polishing
bring out the color of stone to its fullest since it pads but with a less time of application and
will adequately reflect the light. Conversely, a abrasive of grain size greater than 120. Both
textured finish will always appear lighter. It is types of finish are very common in marble and
important to bear in mind that the different granite and are probably the most characteris-
surface textural finishes can affect the proper- tic surface finish in ornamental rocks.
Box 3.4
Polished Finish
Among the different types of surface finishes,
the polished one is perhaps the one that best
3 enhances the rock attractiveness. Polished fin-
ish brings out the full color and character of
the stone. The ancient Greeks and Romans
used crushed salt, sand, and fibers to polish
stone. In industry, polishing is a finishing sur-
face process constituted by several successive
operations aiming to reduce the roughness of
the surface and to increase its gloss intensity.
This technique utilizes friction movements of
abrasive elements over the rock to generate the .. Fig. 3.36 Bricks of silicone carbide. (Image
required polishing degree. courtesy of Levantina)
Polished finish uses abrasives in combina-
tion with specific polishing powders and/or
chemicals. The two primary types of grit used
in the stone industry are silicone carbide
(. Fig. 3.36) or carborundum and diamond

(grit is any of various hard, sharp particles used

as abrasives, being grit size the number value
designated for the size of these particles).
Silicon carbide is the hardest of the conven-
tional abrasives whereas diamond is the hardest
material known and can be used to polish very
hard materials, including the hardest rocks.
Brick abrasives are formed by silicon car-
bide as the abrasive and magnesite or polyester .. Fig. 3.37 Polishing machine. (Image courtesy
as the bonding agent. The abrasive and the of Levantina)
bonding agent are mixed together and poured
into a mold, which is then cooled and forms a flexible disks with embedded abrasives. The
solid brick of the abrasive material. Modern abrasive elements installed at each polishing
diamond abrasives are generally resin bonded head, in contact with the stone slab, perform
for polishing. Thus, diamonds are impregnated the polishing process under well- established
throughout the entire depth of the tool and operating parameters (. Fig. 3.37). The pol-

new diamond cutting points are continually ishing quality depends from the type of abra-
exposed throughout the entire tool life. sives used and on the optimal abrasive sequence
The process is applied mainly mechanically used for a specific type of stone material
with polishing pads, which are small diameter (marble, granite, or even engineered stone).
Textured finish is any of the rough surface finite, sometimes using a robot (. Fig. 3.38).

ishes used in dimension stone, selected for aes- This finish is applied by brief exposure of the
thetic reasons or as friction performance for rock to intense heat using a flame or blow-
walking surfaces (e.g., flamed finish or bush torch apparatus. Bush hammered is another
hammered). Flamed or thermal finish is a tex- typical textured finish formed by small evenly
tured surface treatment very common in gran- spaced pits produced by hand or pneumatic
79 3
.. Fig. 3.38 Flamed or thermal finish using a robot. .. Fig. 3.39 Splitting the piece with a press. (Image
(Image courtesy of Marcelino Martínez) courtesy of Marcelino Martínez)
hammer. Chipped is also a textured finish

obtained chipping the stone by hand and
using a suitable hammer.
Sawn is a finish obtained through the same
process used in the cutting of the blocks, slabs,
or other units of building stone without fur-
ther embellishment. It varies in texture from
smooth to rough and is typically named for
the type of material used in sawing (e.g., dia-
mond sawn, sand sawn, etc.). If steel shot
abrasive is used in the gang sawing process, a
shot sawed finish is generated. The surface
will usually have random linear markings for
a rough surface texture. .. Fig. 3.40 Water jet cutting machine. (Image cour-
Natural cleft finish is carried out in rough- tesy of Lozano Piedras Naturales, S.L.)
surfaced stones such as slates or sandstones
that are cleaved or separated along a natural searches to simulate the naturally occurring
seam. Planed finish generally refers to slate, effects of the aging process. Acid wash is a
where a metallic scraper peels a thin layer of treatment applied to the face of a stone to
stone, making it flat and smoother. Sliced is a achieve a texture or finish that is distressed.
rough finish achieved by splitting the piece Most acidic chemical treatments are effective
with a press that breaks the stone and gener- only when applied to calcareous stone variet-
ates a rough surface (. Fig. 3.39).
ies. Other finishes include water jet cutting
Antique finish replicates rustic or distressed with a highly pressurized water flow that passes
textures. Produced through mechanical or through a nozzle (. Fig. 3.40) and milling the

chemical (acid wash) action that procedure rock using milling machines (. Fig. 3.41).

Mechanical properties of dimension stone

control their limitations for structural appli-
cations where the material is generally
required to bear a certain load or deforma-
tion. Moreover, mechanical properties can be
also critical in nonstructural applications
3 (e.g., cladding). In this regard, it is clear that
one of the most important mechanical prop-
erties is compressive strength. The corre-
sponding test is used to evaluate stone
mechanical quality and to estimate the maxi-
mum allowable load before failure.
Dimension stone testing is used to estab-
lish the properties of the stone and their effect
on its behavior where subjected to loads,
moisture, abrasion, thermal cycles, etc., that
is, testing evaluates the suitability of a specific
stone for a particular application. Previously,
.. Fig. 3.41 Relief produced using a milling robot. a comprehensive petrographic analysis must
(Image courtesy of Lozano Piedras Naturales, S.L.)
be carried out because it will often help to
answer many behavioral questions (stone
3.6 Properties and Testing behavior is directly related to the behavior of
the minerals that make up the stone). The
Physical and mechanical properties are essen- number of ASTM and EN standards related
tial to determine the durability of the dimen- to tests performed to evaluate physical and
sional stone. Physical properties are commonly mechanical properties is impressive and only
used as performance indexes for possible the most important standards will be consid-
mechanical strength decay or alterations. ered in this heading.
Stone physical characterization can be carried Bulk density is important in calculating
out through the determination of density, the weight of the stone in a wall or construc-
porosity, and water absorption. Density and tional element, ranging the values for most
porosity are tested to design a support system types of rocks between 2.5 g/cm3 and 3.1 g/
able of carrying the weight of the stone. cm3. Apparent density is the quotient between
“Water is one of the main factors influencing the mass of the dry specimen and its apparent
weathering processes; these processes taking volume. Generally, a higher density stone is
place in structures and buildings are deter- probably harder, less porous, and stronger, but
mined by the presence of water, which has this is not always the case. The porosity of a
also a significant effect on the petrophysical rock is defined by the ratio of the pore volume
and mechanical properties of rocks” (e.g., pores and open cracks) to the volume of
(Siegesmund and Dürrast 2014). The move- the whole rock, being expressed as a percent.
ment of water through stone pore system is It can be calculated by applying the same vari-
very important for predicting stone behavior. ables used for the determination of the bulk
This is because porosity and permeability are density. Two different types of porosity can be
the main factors controlling water movement defined: effective porosity, often called open
inside the stone and the amount of water the porosity or accessible porosity, and total
stone will absorb will help estimate the resis- porosity. The former comprises all the pore
tance of the stone to staining and freezing. As spaces in a rock that fluids and gases can
a rule, . Fig. 3.42 can be referenced as a test
access while the latter one includes all pores.
regime that should be considered (MIA 2014) For rocks with large pore spaces values, the
for the main applications of dimension stone. effective porosity is assumed to be the domi-
81 3
.. Fig. 3.42 Test
regime for the main
applications of
dimension stone
Cubic Trim, Curbs, Coping, Etc.

(MIA 2014)
Exterior Walking Surfaces
Exterior Verhicular Traffic

Interior Walking Surfaces
Exterior Wall Cladding

Interior Wall Cladding
Indicates Required Testing
Indicates Testing to be Considered

pending Historical Knowledge
of the Stone Variety
Absorption
Density
Compressive Strength
Abrasion Resistance
Flexural Strength
Friction
Structural Performance
Modulus of Elasticity
Individual Anchorage
Petrographic Analysis
nating type and of primary interest in weath- standard estimates water absorption of slate.
ering processes. EN 13755 standard is the corresponding stan-
Water absorption is the proportion of dard for water absorption determination of
water able to be absorbed by stone under spe- natural stone at atmospheric pressure.
cific immersion conditions. Thus, a stone that The strength of materials is one of the
has greater water absorption values will also basic parameters used to classify the quality
tend to absorb liquid stains more readily. The of natural stones, being one of the most
values obtained provide information about important methods for classifying rocks and
the performance of the stone in service, espe- its application for construction purposes.
cially its strength, and durability. The water Therefore, strength values can be used for the
absorption value is also closely related to the structural needs considering an acceptable
apparent porosity. In general, with higher safety margin. It is important to note that
water absorption and porosity, and lower den- stone is not commonly isotropic and the
sity, the stone tends to be less durable. The strength can vary significantly due to the ori-
lowest water absorption is thus desirable. entation of the stone on the testing machine.
Bulk density and apparent density, and For instance, stones with a preferable orienta-
total and open porosity of natural stone test tion of its grain structure have strength values
procedure are described in EN 1936 standard parallel to the bedding plane clearly lower
whereas ASTM C97 standard establishes the from those obtained perpendicular to it.
tests for water absorption and bulk-specific Therefore, the number of samples tested
gravity of dimension stone, and ASTM C121 should be increased to allow for different
loading directions. There are several test 3.7 Durability

methods available for testing the strength of
stone depending on the selected application. According to ASTM C119 standard, durabil-
Compressive strength and flexural strength ity in dimension stone means “the measure of
are the most common strength tests carried the ability of dimension stone to endure and
out in dimension stone. to maintain its essential and distinctive char-
3 Compressive strength is a measure of the acteristics of strength, resistance to decay, and
resistance to crushing loads, and as such a appearance. Durability is based on the length
measure of the stone’s ability to support load- of time that a stone can maintain its innate
bearing structures. A higher compressive characteristics in use. This time will vary
strength means that the stone can withstand a depending on the environment, the use, and
higher crushing load. Strengths are expressed the finish of the stone in question (for exam-
as pascals (Pa), being 1 pascal a force of 1 ple, outdoor versus indoor use).”
newton per square meter. Compressive It is commonly assumed that stone is one
strength increases with decreasing grain size in of the most durable materials because it is
homogeneous rocks. For some applications of compared to weaker construction materials
dimension stone, minimal values for the com- such as wood or mud. Nonetheless, stone is
pressive strength are requested. For example, also susceptible to deterioration. For
the required values commonly range from instance, in the fifth century BC Herodotus
12 MPa for marble to 130 MPa for granite. mentioned that the stone of the pyramids in
Natural stone is usually strong in compres- Egypt was already deteriorated in those days.
sion, but it can vary widely and thus rocks are Because deterioration is a complex process,
classified according to their strength values in there are numerous terms used to describe it,
hard rocks (with more than 110 MPa), medium such as weathering, alteration, degradation,
hard rocks (70 to 110 Mpa), and weak rocks decay, damage, etc. In 2010, the International
(55 to 70 MPa). Compressive strength test is Scientific Committee for Stone (ISCS) of the
carried out using cubic samples according to International Council of Monuments and
ASTM C170 and EN 1926 standards. Sites (ICOMOS) published a glossary of the
Flexural strength of the stone is critical in following stone deterioration terms: “(a)
both the design and detailing of building alteration: modification of the material that
façades and for use as a flooring material. does not necessary imply a worsening of its
Failures due to flexural stresses are more com- characteristics from the point of view of use
mon than those generated by compressive of the stone, (b) damage: human perception
stress. A classical example of flexural strength of the loss of value due to decay of the stone,
is the effect of the wind in stone facades or the (c) decay: any chemical or physical modifica-
load of stone panels built in stairways. Stone tion of the intrinsic stone properties leading
with low flexural strength and large surface to a loss of value or to the impairment of
areas will commonly need thick cross sections. use, (d) degradation: decline in condition,
ASTM C880 standard, and EN 13161 and quality, or functional capacity, (e) deteriora-
EN 12372 standards establish the procedure tion: process of making or becoming worse
for flexural strength test of dimension stone. or lower in quality, value, character, etc., and
To supplement compressive and flexural (f) weathering: any chemical or mechanical
strength results, other mechanical tests such process by which stones exposed to the
as modulus of rupture, abrasion resistance, weather undergo changes in character and
coefficient of friction, or thermal expansion deteriorate.”
are also carried out in dimension stone. The stone nature is critical in determining
. Table 3.1 gives some typical physical and

its resistance to the deterioration factors. Thus,
mechanical test values for commonly used a specific chemical, physical, or mechanical
dimension stone. change can be understood as the result reac-
3.7 · Durability
.. Table 3.1 Some typical physical and mechanical test values for commonly used dimension stone
Stone type Absorption Bulk density Compressive Flexural Hardness Abrasion resistance Thermal expansion
(wt %) (g/cm3) strength (MPa, dry) strength (MPa, Mohs, H Knoop Taber CSIRO 10–6/°C (Ref 10)
dry) microhardness (kg/ index, Ha Capon index
mm2)
Granite 0.1–3.0 2.6–2.7 80–310 8–18 5–7 400–620 90–160 150–260 5–11
Gabbro 0.1–1.8 2.8–2.9 110–300 15–28 5–6.5 380–560 60–100 90–130 4–7
Basalt 0.3–4.0 2.7–2.9 50–280 11–16 4–6.5 360–480 50–90 100–140 2–5
Marble 0.1–1.5 2.6–2.7 40–190 7–19 2–4 80–220 8–35 35–45 3–7
Limestone 0.3–20.0 2.2–2.6 20–230 4–20 2–3 90–230 6–28 30–50 2–6
(medium-dense)
Sandstone 2.0–25.0 2.0–2.6 20–240 4–12 2–7 5–40 15–75 2–12
(medium-dense)
Quartzite 0.1–1.5 2.6–2.7 110–350 10–25 5–7 450–740 20–70 40–90 8–16
Slate 0.1–2.5 2.6–2.7 50–300 35–55 3–5 8–20 22–28 3–9
3 83
tion to new imposed natural or human condi- mechanical stresses that lead to deterioration
tions. As a consequence, stone durability of mortar masonry. Fire is another event that
changes depend commonly on climate, envi- can cause stresses since stone is not a good
ronmental, and human factors (e.g., architec- thermal conductor. Likewise, traffic produced
tural problems). It is obvious that stone by trains, airplanes, trucks, etc., can generate
durability is most affected in urban environ- vibrations that lead to tensile and compressive
3 ments due to the chemical attack by pollutants. stresses in buildings structures. The observed
The major processes of deterioration can damage in the stone is usually the result of a
be mechanical, chemical, or biochemical, combination of different mechanical pro-
although there is no question that the most cesses, e.g., thermal cycling in conjunction
critical deterioration mechanism for building with water.
materials is the presence of salts (. Fig. 3.43).
Chemical deterioration process refers basi-
In this regard, many studies have been devoted cally to the dissolution or alteration of the
to elucidating why and how salt crystalliza- mineral assemblage of a stone via chemical
tion causes stone deterioration; the salt mix- reaction, which are closely related to air pollu-
tures found in building stones are formed tion (. Fig. 3.44) and acid deposition.

mainly by chlorides, nitrates, sulfates, carbon- Mineral dissolution reaction in building stone
ates, and bicarbonates of sodium, potassium, involves the attack of water and its associated
magnesium, and calcium. It is essential to acidity. Acid attack commonly causes mobili-
bear in mind that the same results can be zation of metal cations and dissolved silica
obtained from different deterioration mecha- from the parent minerals. A typical example
nisms, while any one specific mechanisms may in stone deterioration is the dissolution of cal-
cause different types of deterioration patterns. cium carbonate, the main constituent of mar-
For instance, chemical attack, frost damage, ble and limestone.
and other processes cause granular disintegra- From a biological viewpoint, stone is
tion. Therefore, it is almost impossible to inhabited by microorganisms in all climate
deduce the main causes of damage simply by regions of the Earth, living on the rock sur-
observing deterioration patterns. face or within pores and fissures into the stone
Mechanical processes can result in damage (. Fig. 3.45). The microorganisms play a

when the stone is subjected to a load or stress very important roles in the weathering of rock
that exceeds its mechanical resistance, often (biodeterioration). Because the most decisive
generated by an inadequate design of the factor of microbial growth is the presence of
buildings. For example, differential soil settle- water, porous stones retaining large quantities
ment can produce cracks in structures and of water are easily colonized by bacteria and
grass roots growing in mortar joints originate fungi. They generate a wide variety of bio-
.. Fig. 3.43 Deterioration in a building by the action .. Fig. 3.44 Black crusts produced by air pollution.
of salts. (Image courtesy of María José Varas) (Image courtesy of María José Varas)
3.8 · Applications
85 3
nal paving—EN 1341 standard). For instance,
ASTM C615 standard states that: “this speci-
fication covers the material characteristics,
physical requirements, and sampling method
appropriate to the selection of granite dimen-
sion stone for general building and structural
purposes. Granite dimension stone shall
include stone that is sawed, cut, split, or other-
wise finished or shaped, and shall specifically
exclude molded, cast, or otherwise artificially
aggregated units composed of fragments,
crushed and broken stone.” However, EN
standards specifications for natural stone
.. Fig. 3.45 Biological colonization onto the rock. blocks and slabs are different (EN 1467 and
(Image courtesy of María José Varas) EN 1468 standards, respectively) and require-
ments for paving block and kerbs for external
chemical and biomechanical alterations such paving are also distinct (EN 1342 and EN
as mechanical stress of lichen thallus, lixivia- 1343 standards, respectively).
tion of many elements from the stone matrix,
formation of cavities, increasing of CO2 con-
tent due to the respiration activity, biogenic 3.8.1 Pavements
precipitation of calcium carbonate, etc. In
general, biological strain includes various The utilization of natural stone for indoor
bacteria, fungi, algae, lichen, moss, and plants and outdoor pavements (. Fig. 3.46) is prob-

all the way up to trees. ably the most important application of this
To prevent stone deterioration, a series of
durability tests are recommended in European
regulations, such as freeze thaw (EN 12371
standard) and thermal sock (EN 14066 stan-
dard) besides the common physical and
mechanical tests previously commented. On
the other hand, the utilization of conservation
materials, e.g., consolidants, water repellents,
and biocides, can be practiced to delay the dete-
rioration of stone buildings and monuments.
3.8 Applications
Stone product applications can be broadly

grouped into four main categories: (a) pave-
ments, (b) masonry, (c) walls, and (d) roofing.
The objectives of dimension stone specifica-
tions for the different applications in ASTM
standards and EN standards are clearly differ-
ent. ASTM defines specifications based on the
type of rock (e.g., standard specification for
granite dimension stone—ASTM C615 stan-
dard) while CE marking takes into account
the shape and size of the natural stone and its .. Fig. 3.46 Utilization of marble for outdoor pave-
final use (e.g., slabs of natural stone for exter- ments. (Image courtesy of María Ángeles Morán)
.. Fig. 3.48 The Aqueduct of Segovia (Spain), an

example of stone masonry construction
.. Fig. 3.47 Granite setts. (Image courtesy of Mar-
celino Martínez)
times involved only two major materials: brick
material. The most famous paving of road manufactured from sun-dried mud and natu-
using stone is the Roman Empire roads. The ral stone. Stone masonry units are bonded
network of public Roman roads covered over together mainly using lime or mixed lime and
120,000 km, assisting the free movement of cement mortars in the load-bearing walls,
armies, people, and goods across the Empire. arches, etc. Although the utilization of stone
Although this type of paving underwent a in masonry has been largely replaced by other
period of crisis, which led to destruction of materials (e.g., bricks or concrete), this mate-
many cobbled roads, Roman stone paving is rial remains as a symbol of wealth, durability,
nowadays being recuperated, especially in res- and comfort.
toration of monumental areas. Units for stone masonry construction can
Examples of natural stone pavement prod- be rectangular but variable in size, termed
ucts are slabs, setts (. Fig. 3.47), kerbs, and
ashlar, or irregular in shape, termed rubble.
modular tiles for outdoor pavements and Rubble masonry is made from stones whose
mainly slabs for floors used in indoor pave- sides are irregular, not at right angles to each
ments. Setts are cut blocks of hard stone laid other. In this masonry, the stone units can be
on edge in regular patterns to provide a sur- undressed or roughly dressed and the joints
face of higher load-bearing capacity than are not of uniform thickness. In ashlar
cobblestones while kerbs formed the edge of a masonry, the sides of the stones are com-
raised path nearest the road. Different rocks monly finely dressed square, at right angles to
can be used for pavements but siliceous rocks each other, being all the joints regular, thin,
(e.g., granite) are more appropriated because and have uniform thickness. This type of
some types of limestone can be problematic masonry is much costly because it requires
when used for paving as they develop a high dressing of stones and is generally used for
polish from continued use and tend to become heavy structures, architectural buildings, etc.
slippery.
3.8.3 Walls
3.8.2 Masonry
Sophisticated methods for joining stones have
Stone masonry construction has been used for resulted in increasingly use of dimensional
at least 5000 years in a great variety of struc- stone, e.g., granite, in building facades, being
tures such as homes, private and public build- this application considered separately from
ings, and historical monuments (. Fig. 3.48),
the construction of the load-bearing walls
being one of the oldest structural materials commented in previous heading. Thus,
known to man. In fact, the masonry of ancient “numerous systems and fixing configurations
3.8 · Applications
87 3
.. Fig. 3.49 Slate external wall cladding
are available for installing stone on the exte-

rior of buildings” (Amaral et al. 2015). These
stone units have replaced many times tradi-
tional masonry as the visible external elements
in building. However, it is essential to note
that facade veneering, unlike traditional
masonry, does not have a structural function,
acting only as an insulating and ornamental .. Fig. 3.50 Slate roof tiles
material. According to EN standards, slabs
for cladding can be described (EN 1469 stan- Slate tiles are best known and used in north-
dard) as “slabs cut to size which forms a wall ern areas and countries where its resistance
covering and ceiling finishes for outside or and waterproof properties made them the
inside use, fixed to a structure either mechani- perfect solution for the hardest weather con-
cally or by means of mortar or adhesives.” ditions.
With regard to the type of natural stone used Slate roof tiles (. Fig. 3.50) are generally

in slabs, igneous rock, e.g., granite, is the most fixed with nails or hooks. The fixing is com-
popular type due mainly to its durability monly carried out with double nails onto tim-
although slate is also relatively common as ber battens or nailed directly onto timber
external wall cladding (. Fig. 3.49). Other

boards. Traditionally, nails were made of cop-
dimension stones such as limestone and mar- per although nowadays there are stainless
ble display poor weather resistance properties. steel alternatives. There is a notable specializa-
tion in manufacturing this stone since almost
90% of European slate roofing originates
3.8.4 Slate Roofing from Spain. Moreover, the laying method for
these units is very complex and highly skilled
Slate roofing constitutes a very important labor is required. The size of the tiles can vary
application of natural stone. Slate has been greatly, but ranging from 20 cm × 15 cm to
used as a roofing material in Europe since the 70 cm × 50 cm. The thickness ranges from 3 to
middle Ages. However, the material was too 10 mm, existing up to 20 different formats or
expensive for most people and could usually more because a whole range of shapes are
only be found on castles or other militaristic involved in different countries (square, rectan-
structures. Natural slate has been always one gular, rhomboid, irregular, schuppen, etc.)
of the finest materials for roofing (. Fig. 3.15). (. Fig. 3.51).

.. Fig. 3.51 Different slate shapes used in roofing (rectangular shape is the most common type in many countries)
3.9 Questions 55 What are the main criteria for quarrying

dimension stone?
??Short Questions 55 Summarize the advantages of underground
55 Define natural stone and dimension stone. dimension stone quarries.
55 What is the difference between construction 55 Explain the flame-cutting method in granite
or building stone and ornamental rock? quarry.
55 Define ashlar. 55 Comment the use of detonating cord in
55 Define granite according to EN 12670 granite quarrying.
standard. Is it the same than geological 55 Explain the plugs and feathers technique as
definition? a method of splitting rocks.
55 Define slate according to EN 12670 55 What is the most universal technique used
standard. Is it the same than geological to cut the rock in all types of dimensional
definition? stone quarries? Explain in summary form
the methodology.
References
89 3
55 What is the most characteristic surface 2nd edn. Gemological Institute of America, Los
finish in ornamental rocks? Angeles
Siegesmund S, Dürrast H (2014) Physical and mechanical
55 What are the main tests to which a stone
properties of rocks. In: Siegesmund S, Snethlage R
should be subjected for building purposes? (eds) Stone in architecture. Springer, Berlin, pp 97–224
55 Complete the sentence: flexural strength of
the stone is critical in both the design and Standards
detailing of … (applications). ASTM C119 – 19. Standard terminology relating to
55 List the main stone product applications. dimension stone
ASTM C121/121M – 15. Standard test method for water
absorption of slate
ASTM C1526 – 19. Standard specification for serpen-
??Long Questions
tine dimension stone
55 Describe the dimension stone extraction ASTM C1527/1527M – 11(2018). Standard specification
method termed Finnish method. for travertine dimension stone
55 Explain in summary form the most ASTM C170/170M – 17. Standard test method for com-
common methods available in the market to pressive strength of dimension stone
ASTM C1721 – 15. Standard guide for petrographic
finishing stone.
examination of dimension stone
ASTM C503/503M – 15. Standard specification for mar-
ble dimension stone
References ASTM C568/5608M – 15. Standard specification for
limestone dimension stone
Amaral PM, Fernandes JC, Pires V, Guerra Rosa L ASTM C615/615M – 18e1. Standard specification for
(2015) Ornamental stones. In: Goncalves MC, granite dimension stone
Margarido F (eds) Materials for construction and ASTM C616/616M – 15. Standard specification for
civil engineering. Springer International Publishing, quartz-based dimension stone
Cham, pp 397–445 ASTM C629/629M – 15. Standard specification for slate
Austin GS, Barker JM, Lardner SC (2006) Decorative dimension stone
stone. In: Kogel JE, Trivedi NC, Barker JM, ASTM C880/880M – 18. Standard test method for flex-
Krukowski ST (eds) Industrial minerals & rocks. ural strength of dimension stone
Commodities, markets and uses. Society for Mining, ASTM C97/C97M – 18. Standard test method for
Metallurgy and Exploration, Inc., Colorado, absorption and bulk specific gravity of dimension
pp 893–906 stone
Bustillo M (2018) Mineral resources – from exploration EN 12057:2015. Natural stone products. Modular tiles.
to sustainability assessment, Springer textbooks in Requirements
earth sciences, geography and environmental sci- EN 12058:2015. Natural stone products. Slabs for floors
ences. Springer International Publishing AG, Cham, and stairs. Requirements
653 p EN 12059:2008+A1:2011. Natural stone products.
Dolley TP (2018) Stone (Dimension). U.S. Geological Dimensional stone work. Requirements
Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January EN 12326-1:2014. Slate and stone products for discon-
2018, 2p tinuous roofing and cladding. Product specification
Heldal T, Neeb PR (2000) Natural stone in Norway: EN 12371:2010. Natural stone test methods.
production, deposits and developments. Norges Determination of frost resistance
Geol Unders Bull 436:15–26 EN 12372:2006. Natural stone test methods.
Mead L, Austin GS (2006) Dimension stone. In: Kogel Determination of flexural strength under concen-
JE, Trivedi NC, Barker JM, Krukowski ST (eds) trated load
Industrial minerals & rocks. Commodities, markets EN 12407:2019. Natural stone test methods.
and uses. Society for Mining, Metallurgy and Petrographic examination
Exploration, Inc., Colorado, pp 907–923 EN 12440:2017. Natural stone. Denomination criteria
MIA (2014) Dimension Stone Test Methods, Guides, EN 12670:2019. Natural stone. Terminology
and Standards. Marble Institute of America, Ohio, EN 13161:2008. Natural stone test methods.
USA, 8 p Determination of flexural strength under constant
SFGB (2011) Natural Stone. The oldest sustainable moment
material. Stone Federation Great Britain, EN 1341:2012. Slabs of natural stone for external pav-
Publication Number SUS01/11. Kent, UK, 24 p ing. Requirements and test methods
Shadmon A (1989) Stone: and introduction. EN 1342:2012. Setts of natural stone for external pav-
Intermediate Technology Publications, London ing. Requirements and test methods
Shipley RM (1945) Dictionary of gems and gemology EN 1343:2012. Kerbs of natural stone for external pav-
including ornamental, decorative, and Curio stones, ing. Requirements and test methods
EN 13755:2008. Natural stone test methods. Siegesmund S, Snethlage R (2014) Stone in architec-
Determination of water absorption at atmospheric ture – properties, durability, fifth edn. Springer 550 p
pressure Smith MR (Ed) (1999) Stone: building stone, rock fill
EN 14066:2013. Natural stone test methods. Determination and armourstone in construction. Geological
of resistance to ageing by thermal shock Society Engineering Geology Special Publication
EN 1467:2012. Natural stone. Rough blocks. 16, London, 480 p
Requirements
3 EN 1468:2012. Natural stone. Rough slabs. Requirements
EN 1469:2015. Natural stone products. Slabs for clad-
ding. Requirements Further Links
EN 1926:2006. Natural stone test methods.
Determination of uniaxial compressive strength CupaPizarras. www.cupapizarras.com
EN 1936:2006. Natural stone test methods. European & International Federation of Natural Stone
Determination of real density and apparent density, Industries. www.euroroc.net
and of total and open porosity Grupo DFG. www.grupodfg.com
ISO 6707-1: 2017(en). Buildings and civil engineering Levantina y Asociados de Minerales, S.A. www.
works—vocabulary—part 1: general terms levantina.com
Marcelino Martínez. www.marma.es
Further Reading Natural Stone Institute. www.naturalstoneinstitute.org
World Natural Stone Association. www.wonasa.com
Gunn S (2012) Stone house construction. SCIRO
Publishing, Collingwood 232 p
91 4
Agglomerated Stone
Contents
4.2 Raw Materials – 93

4.2.1 Aggregates and Mineral Fillers – 93
4.2.2 Bonding Agents – 94
4.2.3 Coloring Agents and Additives – 95
4.3 Production Process – 95

4.3.1 Discontinuous Block Process – 95
4.3.2 Semi-continuous Slabs Process – 97
Standards – 102

92 Chapter 4 · Agglomerated Stone
Summary
This chapter explains the main charac-
teristics and the manufacturing process of
agglomerated stone, also termed engineered
stone. Important topics are definition of
this material according to EN standards,
raw materials used to manufacture the
4 product, and main production methods.
Stone aggregates and mineral fillers, bonding
agents, coloring agents, and additives are
mixed together to make aggregated stone. The
.. Fig. 4.1 Agglomerated stone block. (Image courtesy
two different production methods to man-
of RMC)
ufacture aggregated stone (discontinuous
block process and semi-continuous slabs
process) are outlined below. Properties and
testing are considered in the chapter and
applications of engineered stone constitute
the last heading. These applications include
kitchen and bathroom countertop, floating
floors, tiles for flooring, and indoor and
outdoor cladding.
4.1 Introduction
Breton company was founded in 1963 and, in

the early 1970, started developing the
Bretonstone system to produce solid surfaces, .. Fig. 4.2 Agglomerated stone slabs. (Image courtesy
similar to natural stone surfaces, by using nat- of Quartzforms)
ural stone aggregates. In general, most manu-
facturers of this type of engineered material stone, compound stone, composite stone,
employ the Bretonstone system, a patented artificial stone, etc. EN 14618 states that
technology also known as vibrocompression “agglomerated stone products are industrial
under vacuum. The product is commonly man- products mainly made of hydraulic cement,
ufactured using natural stone granulate mate- resin or mixture of both, stones and other
rial with a selected granulometry, a resin additions, being manufactured in geometri-
binder, and pigments and additives. The two cal shapes at fixed plants by molding tech-
common stones used in producing these prod- niques” (. Fig. 4.3). This standard specifies

ucts are marble and quartz. The material is the “terminology and classification of the
made in blocks (. Fig. 4.1) and slabs
agglomerated stone products in the form of
(. Fig. 4.2) and can be further worked as nat-
rough blocks, rough slabs, slabs, tiles, dimen-
ural stone. sional stone works, and any other cut to size
The common names of this material products.” EN 14618 establishes two main
are agglomerated stone (according to EN groups of agglomerated stone: (a) based on
14618 standard) and engineered stone (there the type of binder, and (b) based on the type
is an Engineered Stone Manufacturers of aggregate. The first includes the use of
Association), although the number of terms resin, cement, or mixture of both whereas the
used for this product is impressive: reconsti- second considers the utilization of carbonate
tuted stone, compressed stone, recomposed aggregates, siliceous aggregates, or mixture
4.2 · Raw Materials
93 4
.. Fig. 4.3 Molds for agglomerated stone processing.

(Image courtesy of RMC)
.. Fig. 4.5 Agglomerated stone for external cladding.

(Image courtesy of RMC)
4.2 Raw Materials

.. Fig. 4.4 Agglomerated stone kitchen countertops.
(Image courtesy of Quartforms) The raw materials used to manufacture engi-
neered stone are the following: (a) aggregates
of both. The standard takes into account the and mineral fillers, (b) bonding agents, and (c)
possibility to incorporate other types of mate- coloring agents and additives.
rials such as crushed ceramic or glass.
Agglomerated stone is one of the alterna-
tives to natural stone. Because a large part of 4.2.1 Aggregates and Mineral
agglomerated stone consists of natural stone Fillers
aggregates, this material possesses similar
characteristics of natural stone. In fact, man- Aggregates form the structure of engineered
ufactured blocks can be subsequently destined stone. Their size and granular distribution
for sawing and finishing operations like those (0.1–2 mm) are selected according to the
that the natural stone blocks extracted from appearance and physical and mechanical prop-
quarries (see Chap. 3). Aggregated stone is erties desired for the final product. Aggregates
used in a wide range of applications such as can be obtained, already dried, and divided
kitchen (. Fig. 4.4) and bath countertop,
into the various grain sizes required, directly
flooring, and indoor and outdoor cladding from the producer companies, e.g., ornamen-
(. Fig. 4.5). These products are available in a
tal rock companies—. Fig. 4.6—and/or from

wide range of sizes, shapes, colors, patterns, installations equipped with suitable crushing
and even textures. and screening systems next to the manufac-
.. Fig. 4.6 Nero Marquina aggregate (and final product) from an ornamental rock quarry. (Image courtesy of
RMC)
turing plant. Aggregates constitute up to 94%

of the weight of the finished product.
Various types of natural stone aggregates
can be used but marble and quartz/silica sand
are the most commonly used. In general, the
aggregates can be siliceous such as quartz,
granite, basalt, quartzite, or silica sand, or cal-
careous such as dolostone, limestone, or mar-
ble. It is also possible to add other stone-like
materials such as lapis lazuli, colored glass,
mirror chips, ceramic chips, or metal pieces to
generate desired unique effects.
With respect to mineral fillers, they occupy .. Fig. 4.7 Marble powder used as filler. (Image cour-
tesy of RMC)
the interstitial spaces and are mixed with the
bonding agent to form the paste. Mineral fill-
ers consist of several types of finely pulverized thermo-hardener plastic. This process takes
stone materials. For instance, micronized sil- place at room temperature in calcareous-
ica and/or feldspar is used with siliceous based engineered stone whereas it takes place
aggregates whereas micronized calcium car- with heat (about 120 °C) in quartz-based
bonate is used in combination with calcareous agglomerated stone. Many polyester resins
aggregates (. Fig. 4.7).
require post-curing operations, commonly a
heating-cooling cycle that increases the degree
of cure. The mix ratio varies depending on the
4.2.2 Bonding Agents manufacturer. A higher percentage of resin
will increase the coefficient of thermal expan-
Although EN standard accepts the use of sion and reduce abrasion resistance of the
resin, cement, or mixture of both, most aggre- agglomerated stone tiles.
gate manufacturers use resin as bonding It is important to note that some polyester
agent. It is an organic compound, being nor- resins are not completely ultraviolet (UV) sta-
mally an unsaturated polyester resin although ble and thus agglomerated stone cannot be
acrylic resins and epoxy resins can be also suitable for outdoor applications because con-
used. It is a viscous liquid made of polymeric tinuous exposure to UV electromagnetic radi-
unsaturated part and a reactive monomer, ation can generate discoloration of the stone
usually styrene. The monomer co-polymerizes and breakdown of the resin binder. Therefore,
with the reactive groups of the polymeric part, the quality of the product is much depending
building a three-dimensional solid termed on the characteristics of the resin binder used.
4.3 · Production Process
95 4
.. Fig. 4.8 Checking the pigments. (Image courtesy of .. Fig. 4.9 Ring homogenizer for multicolor. (Image
RMC) courtesy of Quartzforms)
4.2.3 Coloring Agents (cold curing) and the semi-continuous slabs

and Additives process (hot curing). The termed block process
is carried out at ambient temperature while
The mixture can be colored by the addition of slab process is a direct production of slabs
pigments (. Fig. 4.8), commonly metal oxide
executed at elevated temperature (curing in
pigments, although organic pigments can be ovens between 80 and 100 °C).
used, principally to obtain bright colors. In both methods, Bretonstone technology
These coloring agents play an important role is generally used to manufacture agglomer-
in the manufacturing process because they ated stone products. As a rule, an initial mix-
offer unlimited choices in the color and final ture is prepared, being formed by granulated
appearance. In order to obtain a consistent stone material, having a selected granulome-
coloration of the agglomerated material, the try (including very fine particles), and by a
coloring agents are dry mixed with the other resin-based bonding agent and additives. The
components prior to adding the bonding mixture, after homogenizing (. Fig. 4.9), is

agent. deposited on a mold and is subjected to a vac-

Several additives can be included in the uum compression step accompanied by a
mixture in small percentages to obtain specific vibratory motion at pre-established frequency,
aesthetic results. The additives can also the so-called vibrocompression under vacuum
improve or enhance chemical and perfor- process.
mance properties. Examples of these additives In general, the vacuum and vibration pro-
are UV absorbers, cross-linking agents, stabi- cess takes about 100–130 seconds at a pressure
lizers, or catalysts. Peroxides (catalyst) are of approximately 100 tons, which minimizes
probably one of the most important types of porosity and reduces water absorption. The
additives because it causes the mixture to vacuum compacting process prevents macro-
harden or cure reducing both the reaction porosity in the compacted mix and micropo-
times and the process temperatures. rosity in the bonding resins minimizing water
Bifunctional silanes may be added to siliceous absorption to 0.02% in weight. The resulting
aggregate mixes to increase mechanical product is then shifted to a hardening step,
strength. which results in the desired mechanical char-
acteristics.
4.3 Production Process

4.3.1 Discontinuous Block Process
When producing engineered or agglomerated
stone, two different production methods can 7 Box 4.1 shows an example of manufactur-

be described: the discontinuous block process ing a block of aggregated stone using a discon-
tinuous method. In this process, the aggregates

constitute up to 96% of the weight of the fin-
ished product and are commonly calcareous,
e.g., marble or limestone, although siliceous
aggregates can be used, with sizes ranging even
up to 60–90 mm. The block, after the vacuum
and vibration process and measuring from 2
up to 5 m3, e.g., 3 m × 1.25 m × 1 m, is kept
4 into a mold for several weeks to fully cure that
is needed to prevent post-shrinkage cracks.
Slabs can be further obtained using vertical
saws to cut the block (. Fig. 4.10). The slabs

.. Fig. 4.10 Vertical saws to cut the block. (Image

are then sent to the finishing line (e.g., polish, courtesy of RMC)
honed, etc.). Slab sizes commonly range from
125 cm × 310 cm up to 155 cm × 310 cm, with
a finished thickness of 10 mm up to 30 mm
(20 mm is the maximum thickness for tiles transformed into finished products to the size
according to EN 15285). The blocks and slabs required. The slabs are cut into tiles preferably
can be sold as they are or the slabs can be using a laser-guided cutting machine
Box 4.1
Manufacturing Aggregated Stone in Blocks: The process continues by filling the mold with
Courtesy of RMC—Eurosurfaces Portugal the mixture and compacting it in a press
S.A. machine (. Fig. 4.12). A vacuum system

Based in Oliveira do Bairro (Portugal), RMC removes all remaining air that eliminates the
Company manufactures blocks of engineered porosity in the final product. Once the pressing
marble stone using Bretonstone technology operation is completed, the block (with size
since 1980. The production process includes the 185 cm × 125 cm × 88 cm) is taken out of the
following steps: mold and stored for 7 days before the curing
55 Crushing process is finished.
55 Rectification
The main raw material of the process is marble
stone. The larger stones are crushed and then
further processed. Various sizes of stones and
marble granulates are produced and then
stored in the silos, before going to the mixer.
55 Mixing
The next step of the process consists mainly of

mixing dry raw materials with resin, pigments,
and additives in a mixing machine (. Fig. 4.11).

All the components are mixed under vacuum,

based on unique formula that is different for
every reference. .. Fig. 4.11 Mixing machine. (Image courtesy of
55 Pressing RMC)
4.3 · Production Process
97 4
.. Fig. 4.12 Transporting the mold to the vibro-

compression under vacuum press machine. (Image
courtesy of RMC)
During this step, the sides of the block are rec-

tified to prepare it for cutting into the slabs in
gang saw.
55 Gang Sawing
The gang saw (. Fig. 4.10) cuts the blocks into

slabs with the required thickness, usually in

standardized dimension of 12, 20, or 30 mm .. Fig. 4.13 Polishing line. (Image courtesy of
RMC)
with the flexibility from 10 to 880 mm.
55 Polishing
The surface of the slabs is finalized in the pol-

ishing line (. Fig. 4.13) that can produce a

broad range of finishes such as polished, honed,

aged, satin, and others. Every slab is then
inspected and stored.
55 Cutting Slabs to Tiles
After the slab is produced, it can be option-

ally cut into tiles (. Fig. 4.14) based on the

requested dimensions. The standard and most

common dimensions are 300 mm × 300 mm,
600 mm × 600 mm, and 300 mm × 600 mm.
.. Fig. 4.14 Cutting to tiles. (Image courtesy of
55 Packaging RMC)
At the final stage of the production process, the
slabs are packed into wooden bundles for house. Tiles are usually shipped in wooden
immediate shipment or stored in the ware- crates or optionally in carton boxes.
4.3.2 Semi-continuous Slabs (granite, quartz, quartzite, porphyry, sand,

Process etc.) or calcareous (marble, limestone, dolo-
mite, etc.), with sizes ranging 6–8 mm. After
The stone materials in semi-continuous slabs the vacuum and vibration process, the slabs
process constitute up to 94% of the weight of are cured in a kiln at a temperature of 85 °C
the finished product. They can be siliceous for a period of 30 minutes to attain the essen-
tial mechanical properties. In the kiln, every their respective molding sheets, are then driv-
slab, contained in its rubber sheath, is sand- ing out from the kiln and later stripped from
wiched between two heating levels for the time the molding sheets. 7 Box 4.2 shows and

required. The hardened slabs, contained in example of slabs manufacturing.
Box 4.2
Manufacturing Engineered Stone in Slabs: with EN ISO 9001 specifications; they are
4 Courtesy of Stone Italiana S.p.A. between 0 and 6 mm depending on the type of
Stone Italiana was established in Verona in inert. With respect to the polyester resin, which
1979 and is today a leading-edge manufacturer makes up to 8% of the global composition,
of recomposed quartz and marble surfaces. checks performed in the laboratory are: (a)
The production process of slabs, using its own reactivity of the resin: the reactivity time (time
technology, can be organized in four basic referred to the passing from a liquid nature to a
steps: (a) receipt of the raw materials and poly- gel/solid state) must be in conformance with
ester resin, (b) mixing of components into a Stone Italiana’s specifications, and (b) visual
mold, (c) pressing, catalysis, and cooling, and check about the color of the resin.
(d) finishing processes. . Figure 4.15 shows a

In the second step, all raw materials with
general overview of the processing plant. the polyester resin, additives, and pigments are
The raw materials used can be divided into mixed uniformly into the mixer. The different
quartz, silica sands, and/or marbles, account- granulometries of the raw materials are com-
ing for about 92% of the bulk composition bined together through the binding action of
(other components such as mirror chips or the resin and the compound is colored with the
glass fragments can be also incorporated into pigments following a specific recipe issued for
the mixture). The granulates arrive in big bags every material. After mixing, the mixture goes
or silos (. Fig. 4.16) and they are subject to

into the mold that is equipped with a sheet of
the following checks: (a) visual check about paper and it is spread to form the slab. Another
impurities: they must not contain any impurity sheet of paper is then positioned on the top of
that may affect the performance of the final the quartz substrate before entering into the
product, (b) visual check about the shade of press machine.
the raw materials: it must be in compliance with In the next step, the press machine has
the standards, (c) check about the humidity: it three essential functions: vibration, compres-
must be under 0.2% in weight, (d) control that sion, and vacuum. This is a crucial phase for
the received granulometries are in accordance the compliance of the materials because any
.. Fig. 4.15 General overview of the processing plant. (Image courtesy of Stone Italiana S.p.A.)
99 4
.. Fig. 4.16 Raw materials in big bag format. .. Fig. 4.17 Polishing area. (Image courtesy of
(Image courtesy of Stone Italiana S.p.A) Stone Italiana S.p.A)
inconvenience during this step may affect the slab is taken off by a calibrating system and the
good quality of the final product. Once the slab slab enters into a further calibration machine.
is pressed, it goes into the oven in which the Here, the other side of the slab is cleared from
catalysis (hardening process) is performed. the paper and the system provides that the
Catalysis process takes place normally at 80 °C; thickness of the slab is uniform in all its parts
when completed, the slabs are positioned in a (the slab is calibrated). After calibration, the
way to prevent the thermal excursion that slab passes into the finishing machine for its
could damage the characteristics of the quartz polishing/brushing, depending on the finish
slabs. required (. Fig. 4.17). The last phase regards

The slabs produced between two sheets of the final quality control of the slabs: (a) visual
paper are loaded automatically into a roller, check about any superficial defect, (b) check-
conveying them to a first calibration machine. ing on thickness, dimensions, planarity, and
In this machine, the paper on the back of the squareness, and (c) polishing degree (gloss).
Slabs can also be made using Portland cement industry. In this process, common polymers
as a binder agent. In this case, aggregates con- such as resin or polymeric latex, e.g., acrylic
stitute only up to 78% of the weight of the latex, are combined into the stone mixture
finished product; they can be siliceous (gran- enhancing the technical properties and fea-
ite, quartz, quartzite, porphyry, etc.) or calcar- tures of the finished product.
eous (marble, limestone, dolomite, etc.), with
sizes ranging from 6 to 8 mm. Slab sizes mea-
sure up to 140 cm × 309 cm, with finished 4.4 Properties and Testing
thickness ranging from 9.5 to 30 mm. These
slabs can be sold directly or can be trans- The properties of engineered stone are similar
formed into tiles products to the size required. to those of dimension stone because it is made
In general, tile sizes available range from substantially from the same material (stone
30 cm × 30 cm to 60 cm x 60 cm, with a fin- aggregates). Nevertheless, many aggregated
ished thickness from 9.5 mm up to 30 mm, stone manufacturers point out that this mate-
depending on the tile size. The bonding agent rial is better than natural stone. For instance,
is Portland cement, generally Class I, mixed siliceous-based engineered stone is highly
with water to a water/cement ratio usually resistant to abrasion, ideal for flooring and
lower than 0.30 and compounded with fluidi- countertops, including those subject to high
fying agents as those used in the concrete traffic or heavy use. It shows lower absorption
rates and is easier to maintain and more resis- lemon juice can damage this type of agglom-
tant to stains than other competitive material. erated stone. Moreover, giving sufficient time,
This material is not affected by solutions of liquid and moisture can penetrate the material
common acids and resists a wide range of and cause staining.
commercial and industrial solvents. The UV The tests used to characterize the physical,
resistance is probably the main disadvantage chemical, and mechanical properties of engi-
so that it is for indoor use only. Light colors neered stone are consequently very similar to
turn yellow and dark color will fade if the those used for dimension stone. EN standards
4 product is used outside. for these products are numerous and cover the
With regard to calcareous-based agglom- main types and requirements of aggregated
erated stone, the main disadvantage deals stone (EN 14617 series). For instance, EN
with its behavior against acidic substances. 15286 specifies “requirements and appropri-
The stone reacts with these substances on ate test methods for cladding slabs and tiles of
contact, leaving dull marks. Thus, stronger agglomerated stone of length or width up to
acids such as hydrochloric, nitric, and sulfuric 3,500 mm which are made for use as internal
acid can damage the material in seconds. and external wall finishes and are either fixed
Furthermore, the use of inappropriate prod- mechanically or glued by adhesive or mortar”
ucts for maintenance like acidic or alkalis and EN 14617-2 “measure flexural strength,
products can cause such etching. Even soft breaking resistance and bending of agglomer-
products such as cola, wine, vinegar, and ated stone flat products.” . Table 4.1 lists

.. Table 4.1 Typical values for some properties of agglomerated stone according to European standards
Property Test method Units Typical values
Reaction to fire Euroclasses UNE-EN-ISO 9239-1:2002 Euroclasses A2fl s1

(euro classes) and ISO 1716:2002
Thermal UNE EN 14617-11:2006 Agglomerated °C−l 14.8 – 26.4 × 10e−6
expansion stone test methods. Determination of
coefficient linear thermal expansion coefficient.
Resistance to UNE EN 14617-2:2016 Agglomerated MPa 24.3–30.1
deflection stone test methods. Determination of
flexural strength.
Resistance to UNE EN 14617-9:2005 Agglomerated J 3–6
impact stone test methods. Determination of
impact resistance.
Water UNE EN 14617-1: 2013 Agglomerated % 0.041–0.105
absorption stone test methods. Determination of
apparent density and water absorption.
Resistance to UNE EN 14617-15:2005 Agglomerated MPa 130.6–137.0
compression stone test methods. Determination of
compression resistance.
Apparent UNE EN 14617-1:2005 Agglomerated g/cm3 2.45–2.49
density stone test methods. Determination of
apparent density and water absorption.
Chemical UNE EN 14617-10: 2012 Cl Acids: C1 (Materials that maintain
resistance Agglomerated stone test methods. less than 60% of the reference
Determination of chemical resistance. reflection value after 8 hours)
C4 Alkalis: C4 (Materials maintain
at least 80% of the reference
reflection value after 8 hours)
4.5 · Applications
101 4
some common values for different properties
of agglomerated stone according to European
standards.
4.5 Applications
The applications of engineered stone are var-

ied and numerous, countertop being the first
and most popular application. Kitchen coun-
ters (. Fig. 4.4) and shelves can be produced

in any shape and size and they can be protected

.. Fig. 4.19 Stairs manufactured with agglomerated
against stains with special products. Likewise, stone. (Image courtesy of Quartzforms)
countertop for bathroom (. Fig. 4.18) can

be supplied in the desired thickness, with the

related cutting or faucet holes. Thanks to the
dimensions of the slabs, special washbasins
can be manufactured without joints up to a
length of 3 meters for utilization in the public
facilities.
In floors (e.g., stairs—. Fig. 4.19), aggre-

gated stone is appropriate for the realization

of raised access floors, either through the
manufacturing of panels by means of lamina-
tion with slabs of limited or by utilizing slabs
of higher thickness. Tiles for flooring are
available in many different sizes, with the .. Fig. 4.20 Agglomerated stone for doors. (Image
advantage of thin tiles (up to 6 mm in size for courtesy of Quartzforms)
a 300 × 300 mm tile).
Covering is also an interesting application can be produced in sizes and thickness as
of engineered stone. Thus, indoor coverings required, within the maximum size limits of
the slabs. The surface finish may be polished,
honed, sandblasted, etc. In outdoor coverings
(. Fig. 4.5), a chemical treatment is espe-

cially advisable to protect the surfaces from

atmospheric agents in critical applications. In
general, the engineered stone has given good
results for the realization of ventilated facades
with polished surfaces; the panels, also with
honed or sandblasted surfaces, are adapted to
the installation with all the modern anchoring
systems. Aggregated stone is also suitable for
other building components such as risers,
doors (. Fig. 4.20), windowsills, or steps,

and it has been used successfully in the field

.. Fig. 4.18 Cut to size bathroom countertop. (Image
of furnishing accessories (e.g., tabletops or
courtesy of RMC) benches).
4.6 Questions EN 14617-2: 2016. Agglomerated stone - Test methods -

Part 2: Determination of flexural strength (bending)
EN 14617-4: 2012. Agglomerated stone - Test methods -
??Short Questions Part 4: Determination of the abrasion resistance
55 Definition of agglomerated stone accord- EN 14617-5: 2012. Agglomerated stone - Test methods -
ing to EN standard. Part 5: Determination of freeze and thaw resistance
55 Explain the two main types of aggregates to EN 14617-6: 2012. Agglomerated stone - Test methods -
Part 6: Determination of thermal shock resistance
manufacture engineered stone.
EN 14617-8: 2009. Agglomerated stone - Test methods -
55 What amount of aggregates do the agglom- Part 8: Determination of resistance to fixing (dowel
4 erated stone include in its composition? hole)
55 What types of bonding agents can be used EN 14617-9: 2005. Agglomerated stone - Test methods -
in engineered stone? Part 9: Determination of impact resistance
EN 14617-10: 2012. Agglomerated stone - Test meth-
55 Comment the main bonding agent
ods - Part 10: Determination of chemical resistance
employed by aggregated stone manufactur- EN 14617-11: 2006. Agglomerated stone - Test
ers. methods - Part 11: Determination of linear thermal
55 List some additives used in manufacturing expansion coefficient
aggregated stone. EN 14617-12: 2012. Agglomerated stone - Test meth-
ods - Part 12: Determination of dimensional stabil-
55 Explain the difference in temperature for-
ity
mation between block and slab production. EN 14617-13: 2013. Agglomerated stone - Test meth-
55 What is the aggregated stone block size ods - Part 13: Determination of electrical resistivity
obtained in production process? EN 14617-15: 2006. Agglomerated stone - Test meth-
55 Explain the property differences between ods - Part 15: Determination of compressive
strength
agglomerated stone and dimension stone.
EN 14617-16: 2006. Agglomerated stone - Test meth-
55 List the main applications of aggregated ods - Part 16: Determination of dimensions, geo-
stone. metric characteristics and surface quality of
modular tiles
EN 14618: 2009. Agglomerated stone - Terminology
and classification
??Long Questions
EN 15285: 2009. Agglomerated stone - Modular tiles for
55 Explain in summary form the main pro- flooring and stairs (internal and external)
cesses in manufacturing engineered stone EN 15286: 2013. Agglomerated stone - Slabs and tiles
slabs. for wall finishes (internal and external)
55 Describe the raw materials used to manu- EN 15388: 2020. Agglomerated stone - Slabs and cut-to-
size products for vanity and kitchen tops
facture an aggregated stone.
Useful Links
Quartzforms. www.quartzforms.com
Standards RMC. https://rmc-marble.eu/
Stone Italiana S.p.A. www.stoneitaliana.com
EN 14617-1: 2013. Agglomerated stone - Test methods - World-wide Agglomerated Stone Manufacturers
Part 1: Determination of apparent density and Association. www.astaworldwide.com
water absorption
103 5
Terrazzo
Contents

5.3.1 ggregates and Mineral Fillers – 106
A
5.3.2 Bonding Agents – 106
5.3.3 Coloring Agents – 107
5.4 Terrazzo Systems – 107

5.4.1 S and Cushion – 107
5.4.2 Bonded – 107
5.4.3 Monolithic – 108
5.4.4 Thin-Set – 108
5.5 Types of Terrazzo – 110
5.6 Precast Terrazzo Tiles – 111

5.6.1 roduction Process – 111
P
5.6.2 Properties and Testing – 112
References – 114

104 Chapter 5 · Terrazzo
Summary
This chapter draws attention to terrazzo,
which has been a surfacing material for
hundreds of years. After definition of
terms, raw materials to manufacture
terrazzo are described, including type of
aggregate, bonding agents (mainly Portland
cement and resinous products) to hold the
aggregates in place, and coloring pigments
5 to obtain the desired final color. Later on,
terrazzo systems (sand cushion, bonded,
monolithic, and thin set) are outlined and
the four main terrazzo types (standard,
venetian, rustic, and palladiana) are
discussed. The main characteristics of
precast terrazzo tiles are then considered,
including the production process,
properties, and testing. The main
applications of terrazzo constitute the last
heading of the chapter.
.. Fig. 5.1 Poured in place terrazzo. (Image courtesy

5.1 Introduction of Terrazzco)
Terrazzo is a word derived from the Italian economy and the absence of installation
term terrace to designate any mosaic flooring issues. Traditional terrazzo surfaces are man-
made as a mixture of binder and crushed ufactured from a mixture of 70% or more
aggregate, typically marble, which has been marble granulates and 30% or less Portland
used as a surfacing material for hundreds of cement matrix. Nevertheless, polymer-based
years. The origin of terrazzo goes back to and epoxy terrazzo is nowadays common
ancient Egypt although archaeologists found because it allows wide selection of colors,
evidence of terrazzo-like floors in ruins in thinner material, faster installation, and less
Turkey dating back 10,000 years ago. susceptible to cracking. As a rule, terrazzo
Nevertheless, the form of terrazzo used nowa- made with synthetic binders is commonly
days was developed by builders in Venice referred to as thin-set terrazzo.
(Italy) as a low-cost flooring option and a way Precast terrazzo tiles are widely used as
of reusing marble waste. Terrazzo is related to flooring in the Mediterranean countries, the
the technique seminato (meaning seed) for Middle East, and many parts of America and
which workers would toss large marble chips Asia, where they are applied to residential,
into the wet cement that was later ground and commercial, and institutional buildings. Tiles
polished. are manufactured in square units, mechani-
Terrazzo can be poured in place (in situ) cally vibrated in the mold, and hydraulically
(. Fig. 5.1) or precast in blocks using a mold
pressed. After unmold, the units are water or
to fabricate stairs treads, risers, wall base, pan- air cured and then grit polished before being
els for cladding columns, and slabs for coun- shipped to site. Terrazzo is commonly used in
tertops and tabletops. It can be also present as public areas where good appearance must be
ready-made tiles, easy to apply straight to coupled with resistance to heavy foot traffic. It
floors and walls. Terrazzo constitutes an is principally used due to its durability and
attractive option for flooring because of its low maintenance.
5.2 · Definitions
105 5
fied Portland cement, or resinous matrices.
The terrazzo is poured in place, cured,
ground, and then polished.” The standard
also states that “rustic terrazzo is a variation
where, in lieu of grinding and polishing, the
surface is washed with water or otherwise
treated to expose the aggregates. Quartz,
quartzite, and river bed aggregate can also be
used.” ASTM F141 standard only considers
the option of poured in place but National
Terrazzo and Mosaic Association (NTMA)
from US states that terrazzo can be poured
in place or precast.
.. Fig. 5.2 Divider strips layout. (Image courtesy of The European standards for terrazzo spec-
Terrazzco) ifies materials, properties, and methods of
testing for unreinforced cement-bound ter-
razzo units that are factory-made and sold
ready to be placed. These units are intended
for both internal use (EN 13748-1) and exter-
nal use (13748-2). Concrete paving flags (EN
1339) display very similar characteristics but
they will be considered in precast concrete
products (see 7 Chap. 9).

EN 13748 standard defines terrazzo tiles as

“suitably compacted elements of uniform
shape and thickness; the tiles can be single - or
dual-layered. They are either individually pro-
duced by compression and/or vibration or
cast as large cement-bound mineral aggregate
.. Fig. 5.3 Logo obtained using divider strips. (Image sheets or blocks by means of vibration and/or
courtesy of Terrazzco)
compression and/or vacuum, before being cut
to size.” With respect to single-layered ter-
Divider strips (. Fig. 5.2) are sometimes

razzo tiles, they are “made in a single homoge-
present in terrazzo and are used to divide sec- neous layer of granules or chippings of a
tions, make color transitions, design decora- suitable aggregate embedded in a paste of grey
tive patterns or logos (. Fig. 5.3), and allow

or white cement and water; admixtures and
for movement or crack mitigation. Divider additions can be used.” A different product,
strips are made from aluminum (epoxy ter- the dual-layered terrazzo tiles are defined as
razzo only), zinc, brass or plastic but never “made up of a facing or wear layer whose
stainless steel. Brass and plastic can have a composition is similar to single-layered ter-
reaction with some resinous materials. razzo tiles and a second layer known as back-
ing or base concrete layer whose surface is not
exposed during normal use and which in the
5.2 Definitions case of a calibrated tile will be partially
removed by specialized processing.” According
According to ASTM F141 standard, ter- to these definitions and materials require-
razzo is “a form of mosaic flooring made by ments present in European standards, it is
embedding marble, onyx, granite, or glass essential to bear in mind that only cement
chips in Portland cement, polyacrylate modi- binder is permitted.
5.3 Raw Materials
Three main types of components are used to

manufacture terrazzo: (a) aggregates and min-
eral fillers, (b) bonding agents, and (c) color-
ing agents and additives. Where terrazzo tiles
are composed by two different and separated
layers, the first layer (face layer) mix together
with water the following products: white
cement, marble powder, marble aggregate,
5 and coloring agents. The second layer (back
.. Fig. 5.5 Terrazzo tiles with aggregate size larger
layer) mix gray cement, crushed stone powder,
than 45 mm
and siliceous sand (with little amount of
water).
in the same manner, that is, the aggregates are
crushed and ground through a screening pro-
5.3.1 Aggregates and Mineral cess to regulate sizing. With respect to mineral
fillers, they are commonly formed by the same
Fillers
component as the aggregates (e.g. marble
powder). Fillers must be furnished in the
Marble granulates are the commonly used
quantity necessary to impart the required
aggregate, ranging generally from 2 to 25 mm,
color and/or physical characteristics. The
although rocks like marble, which can be
grain size of aggregates classifies terrazzo in
ground and take polishing well, are also used
several types: (a) micrograin: aggregate size
for terrazzo aggregates. They can vary in color
up to 6 mm), (b) intermediate grain: up to
and size, although a proportional mixture of
30 mm, (c) coarse grain: up to 45 mm, and (d)
sizes is common. Other fragment types such
chips: size larger than 45 mm (. Fig. 5.5).
as onyx, travertine, or serpentine are also

used. Quartz, granite, quartzite, and silica

pebbles are used for nonpolished surfaces, e.g.
rustic terrazzo. Aggregates such as glass chips,
5.3.2 Bonding Agents
mother of pearl (. Fig. 5.4), or synthetic
Bonding agents form the matrix, that is, the

materials can be included to create special

mix that holds the aggregates in place. There
decorative effects. Regardless of the material
are three main terrazzo matrices: (a) cementi-
to be incorporated as aggregate, it is processed
tious matrix (Portland cement), (b) modified
cementitious matrix (polyacrylate-modified
cement), and (c) thermal setting resinous
matrices (epoxy or polyester). Cementitious
matrices consist of Portland cement. White
cement provides precise color control and
combines well with coloring agents whereas
gray cement cannot be color controlled. It
may cause color variations in the matrix but it
costs less than white cement. This type of
matrices accommodates substrate defects and
can be used with radiant flooring systems. The
mixes are always cement-rich, with a 1:2 or
1:2.5 ratio of cement to aggregate. The princi-
pal disadvantage of cementitious matrices is
.. Fig. 5.4 Marble, glass, and mother of pearl aggre-
the long cure time and limited color selection.
gates. (Image courtesy of Terrazzco) For use in terrazzo, cement should exceed the
5.4 · Terrazzo Systems
107 5
ors. For instance, red, yellow, orange, or brown
tonalities are obtained using different types of
iron oxides, titanium dioxide, always blended
with other pigments, to produce white color,
or chromium oxide to obtain green tonalities.
Pigments are either alkali-resistant mineral or
synthetic powders. To avoid contamination,
pigments should be not only nonfading min-
eral or synthetic formulations but also stable
and compatible with the binder.
5.4 Terrazzo Systems

.. Fig. 5.6 Mixing epoxy matrix. (Image courtesy of
Terrazzco)
Terrazzo is constructed in sand cushion,
bonded, monolithic, or thin-set installations.
Bonded and monolithic are systems that bond
directly to the concrete slab whereas sand
cushion and thin set are generally systems
installed independent of the concrete slab.
5.4.1 Sand Cushion
It is considered the best cement terrazzo sys-

tem, being ideal for designing patterns and
.. Fig. 5.7 Pigments using with multiple colors. Different layers of
material form the sand cushion terrazzo. This
minimum standards of ASTM C-150 and EN system controls cracking where structural
197-1 standards. movement is expected because this cement-
Modified cementitious and resinous matri- based system is physically separated from the
ces are used where additional chemical resis- structural slab with an isolation membrane
tance or conductivity is required or where the and a sand layer. The wire reinforced underbed
installation is thin set, being epoxy matrices enables the bed to move separately from the
the most commonly used (. Fig. 5.6). They

structure. It is used on the lower and ground
present faster cure times and almost unlimited levels as well as in multistory buildings.
color range and uniformity. Polyacrylate-
modified cement can be acid washed for exte-
rior slip resistance but is limited color. Certain 5.4.2 Bonded
combinations of aggregate and matrix are
more compatible than others (e.g. stone and It is installed as a Portland cement topping
cement or glass and epoxy). and underbed totaling at least 50 mm in thick-
ness, which reduces the total thickness and
weight of the installation. Where it bonds to
5.3.3 Coloring Agents cement, it is necessary to expect a longer cure
time. It is used in both indoor and outdoor
Pigments (. Fig. 5.7) are powdered, inorganic projects, for floors, bases, walls, and any verti-

substances used to color the cementitious ter- cal surface. Bonded terrazzo is mainly appro-
razzo mix. Coloring pigments are added to the priate for new construction where a depressed
white cement to produce a wide variety of col- concrete subfloor can be provided. Unlike
thin-set terrazzo, bonded terrazzo has a few

limitations in color options.
5.4.3 Monolithic
It is poured in one step directly onto a concrete

base without the use of an underbed, which is
the most economical system of installation.
Panels are poured within the directly bonded
5 metal L angled divider strips. It is ideal for large
areas such as shopping malls, schools, etc. The
performance of monolithic terrazzo depends
on the quality of its substrate. It requires a flat, .. Fig. 5.8 Installing epoxy terrazzo. (Image courtesy
structurally sound subfloor; otherwise, the ter- of Terrazzco)
razzo will crack in the slabs deflects. The system
is suitable for new construction as well as for strength not found in cement-based systems
some types of remodeling, but only if the floor although it is not recommended to outdoor
is structurally capable of supporting the extra use. It can be used over concrete as well as
weight without excessive deflection. wooden bases, which suggest a wide range of
applications. In commercial construction,
most of the terrazzo installed today is epoxy
5.4.4 Thin-Set terrazzo (. Fig. 5.8).

A polyacrylate matrix provides a fast cur-

Thin-set terrazzo is lightweight, comes in a ing installation that is generally well suited for
full range of colors, and can be used both hor- utilization in areas subject to moisture vapor
izontally and vertically for restoration work. transmission. Although it can be used in both
Epoxy or polyacrylate matrices must be used, indoor and outdoor installations, it is espe-
which resist chemical spills, making it suitable cially recommended for outdoor works
for laboratories, hospitals, and manufacturing because the mixture is resistant to harsh con-
facilities. Epoxy terrazzo is less labor-intensive ditions. Glass chips can be additionally incor-
and does not require many of the skills that porated into the mixture but with size
cementitious terrazzo does. Epoxy matrix pro- restrictions. An example of epoxy terrazzo
vides resiliency and compressive tensile installation can be shown in 7 Box 5.1.
Box 5.1
Valdosta High School Terrazzo Surface preparation is a necessary first step

Floor—Courtesy of Terrazzco of any terrazzo installation. On day one of the
Valdosta High School in Georgia (USA) was installation, the installers prepare the substrate
designed to include over 100 classrooms, offer- for a strong bond with the epoxy terrazzo sys-
ing 200 courses for the students. The architects tem. In this stage, the installers vacuum clean
searched for building material options for the the concrete floor. After the concrete is clean,
school flooring, selecting epoxy terrazzo. The the installation crew applied a flexible floor
goal was to find a flooring system that would membrane over the concrete surface
provide Valdosta High School with a durable (. Fig. 5.9), filling in cracks (. Fig. 5.10)

surface to withstand constant foot traffic, with flexible epoxy. Flexible membranes are
reduce maintenance and repair costs, and have applied to concrete in order to assist in the pre-
visual appeal. vention of substrate cracks transferring
5.4 · Terrazzo Systems
109 5
through to the finish floor system due to hori-

zontal movement. In this stage, installers will
add protection to walls and sidings to prevent
the epoxy terrazzo from touching other areas
of the construction project.
The following day, the installers begin to
cut and place aluminum divider strips to form
the layout for the terrazzo floor and logo
design. Divider strips for the logo were cut pre-
cisely with waterjet technology and transported
to the job site for installment. Installers glue
down the divider strips in place and continue
until all strips are in place to in order to start
the process of pouring the epoxy terrazzo.
Once the layout of the terrazzo logo is final-
ized, the installers begin to mix components for
the epoxy terrazzo. To complete the terrazzo
logo design, four epoxy terrazzo mixes were
needed (yellow, black, white, and gray), each
color consisting of its own aggregate combina-
tions. Aggregates included a white marble chip
.. Fig. 5.9 Applying a flexible floor membrane
over the concrete surface. (Image courtesy of Ter- native to the Georgia region as well as post-
razzco) consumer recycled clear glass and other color-
ful marble chips.
The installers begin to mix components for
specified colors using a 5:1 ratio of part A
epoxy resin and part B hardener mixed well,
and specified aggregates added into the mix
afterward. Starting with the color yellow, the
terrazzo is hand troweled (. Fig. 5.11) at

about 10 mm thickness in specified areas of the

design. Installers continue applying each color
to the logo design, typically allowing one color
to cure per day before moving onto the next
color of epoxy. Installers applied a white epoxy
without aggregates inside sections of the shield
design.
After the terrazzo is poured in place and
fully cured, the installation team uses an elec-
tronic grinder to transition from a rough to
smooth surface moving the machine slowly for-
wards and backwards using side-to-side
motion. The terrazzo grinding machine circu-
lates at high speeds, beginning with rougher
stones and later smoother stones to create a
.. Fig. 5.10 Filling in cracks in surface preparation. smooth uniform surface. Next, the installation
(Image courtesy of Terrazzco) crew cleans the terrazzo floor with water and
.. Fig. 5.12 Polishing terrazzo. (Image courtesy of

Terrazzco)
nonporous throughout the entire lifecycle.

Afterward, at a 1200 polish level, the installa-
tion crew will begin polishing the terrazzo floor
using a wet method (. Fig. 5.12). In the same

fashion as the grinding stages, an installer will

cover all areas of the terrazzo surface. Lastly,
.. Fig. 5.11 Hand troweled yellow and black ter- once the polishing stage is complete, the ter-
razzo. (Image courtesy of Terrazzco)
razzo installation team vacuums any slurry left
from the polishing stage and cleans the floor
scrubber allowing the surface to completely dry. using a neutral cleaner, clean water, and elec-
They will check for any pinholes in the terrazzo tronic scrubber. Two coats of a water-based
floor, adding an epoxy terrazzo grout to fill in sealer are applied to the terrazzo floor giving it
the voids. This allows epoxy terrazzo to remain added protection from foreign matter.
5.5 Types of Terrazzo ing areas for swimming pools, since it is

weather resistant. This type of terrazzo is
There are four basic types of terrazzo: stan- cement-based and has a uniformly textured
dard, venetian, rustic, and palladiana. finish (about 1 mm to 2 cm) produced by
Standard terrazzo is the most common type: a washing the matrix before it is set to expose
ground and polished terrazzo finish consist- the aggregates, which are not ground. The tex-
ing mainly of relative small stone granulates tured surface is achieved utilizing a surface
(up to 10 mm) combined with Portland retarder on top of the mixture to prevent it
cement, gray or white, with or without pig- from setting. The aggregates are marble, gran-
ments. Venetian terrazzo contains large stone ite, riverbed stone, which are combined with
chips with smaller pieces filling the spaces Portland cement. Palladiana is a mosaic ter-
between larger ones. As in the standard type, razzo finish (. Fig. 5.13) consisting of ran-

the aggregate is combined with Portland dom cut or fractured marble slabs up to
cement, gray or white, and with or without approximately 40 cm in their greatest dimen-
pigments. sion set by hand in the desired pattern in a
Rustic Terrazzo provides a rough surface mortar bed, with smaller granulates set into
with great slip-resistant properties. It is gener- the spaces between; the surface is commonly
ally used at outdoor locations, e.g., surround- ground.
5.6 · Precast Terrazzo Tiles
111 5
.. Fig. 5.15 Double-layered tile
the product has to be polished for application

.. Fig. 5.13 Palladiana terrazzo layout. (Image cour- as indoor flooring. In this technology, the pro-
tesy of Terrazzco) cess does not require a second dry layer to
absorb the excess of water from the wet mix
of the first layer. Thus, the evacuation of the
excess of water from the wet mix takes place
through the same pressing pad of the press, by
means of a special draining plate and of a fil-
tering system.
55 Single-layered
The single-layered process can be described in

five main steps: (a) batching and mixing aggre-
gates and cement: the batching and mixing
plant prepares the wet mix of the single-layer
through batching of the raw materials (aggre-
gates and cement) and subsequent mixing
with water (water/cement ratio about 0.6); this
mix is then poured into the tank of the auto-
matic doser of the press; (b) tiles molding in
the press: from the automatic doser of the
.. Fig. 5.14 Single-layered tiles press, the right amount of wet mix is then
poured into the molds of the hydraulic press,
where the molding of the single-layered tile
5.6 Precast Terrazzo Tiles takes place, by means of high pressure and
simultaneous evacuation of the excess of
5.6.1 Production Process water from the wet mix, (c) tiles moving sys-
tem and steam-curing chambers: the tiles
The production process of precast terrazzo molded in the press are then automatically
tiles depends on the number of layers of the transferred on special steel containers that
tile: single-layered (. Fig. 5.14) or double- will hold them during the steam-curing pro-

layered (. Fig. 5.15). The single-layered tech- cess, which lasts one day and takes place in the

nology offers an immediate advantage in the opposite chambers; these steel containers are
final thickness of the product, with a reduc- superimposed in piles, which are moved by
tion of over 40% compared to the double- means of a special automatic moving system;
layered product with the same mechanical the same system manages the moving of the
resistance. Additionally, the high molding cured tiles and their conveying to the calibra-
pressure and the consequent higher density of tion and polishing line, (d) calibration and
the structure grant better visual results where polishing line: during the first part of this pro-
cess, the product is face down to ensure that

the back of the tile is calibrated to the required
finish and thickness before proceeding with
the next phase; the single-layered tile is then
turned so that the face surface is now visible
and ready for the final calibration of all sides
and the required surface finish; once this pro-
cess is completed, the tiles are then moved
down the automatic production line to the
drying path where, with hot and cold air blow-
5 ers, the tiles are dried, and (e) brushing and
cleaning: the materials are brushed and .. Fig. 5.16 Dosing the raw materials in the sight face
cleaned by using of a very soft rotating brush,
which removes any loose dust particles from
the surface. The final part of the production The double-layered terrazzo tiles are pro-
line is the packaging and palletizing of the duced in a 6 or 7-station revolving hydraulic
product. press where the molding process is sequen-
Regarding the size of the tiles, the possi- tially carried out in stages. After dosing the
bilities are many depending on the size of the raw materials (. Fig. 5.16), the second layer

mold used in the hydraulic press. For instance, is pressed against the first layer in the mold
some examples of tile size are the following: with a molding pressing of about 110–160 kg/
25 cm × 25 cm, 30 cm × 30 cm, 40 cm × 40 cm, m2. The fresh molded tiles then undergo the
50 cm × 50 cm, 40 cm × 60 cm, or even larger curing process, at the end of which they are
(e.g. 100 cm × 100 cm or 150 cm × 50 cm). strong enough for the subsequent operations
55 Double layered of calibration and polishing. The curing can
be natural, that is, with a permanence of 2 or
With respect to the traditional double-layered 3 days in a covered area at room temperature,
terrazzo, the tile is made up of two layers, or accelerated, that is, one day in closed cham-
independently prepared, which become a sin- bers with programmed addition of steam to
gle body during the molding operation in the raise temperature and humidity.
press. The sight face of the tile is the termed The great thickness, e.g. 20 mm, gives
first layer because it is the first to be intro- double-layered tiles high mechanical charac-
duced into the mold of the press. It is made of teristics. As it is made of a poor mixture (the
marble or granite granulates, marble powder, first layer is only the 30–40% of total thick-
and white or gray cement, mixed with water. ness), its cost per weight unit is low as the
The dry second layer works as absorbent of cement and the raw materials used are gener-
the water in excess from the wet first layer and ally inexpensive. Because of the big thickness
as a support of the same. It is made of sand, of the tile, it is rather heavy and transport
crushed stone powder, and gray cement. The costs are more expensive than for the single-
size of the tile can be very variable but 40 cm layered tiles. Double-layered tiles involve
× 40 cm to 60 cm × 60 cm are the most com- many applications such as flooring inside the
mon sizes. houses in the polished version or external
A common dosage of raw materials in a applications (streets, squares, etc.).
double-layered terrazzo tile is the following:
(a) sight or face layer: white cement—15 to
20% in dry weight, aggregates—45 to 65% in 5.6.2 Properties and Testing
dry weight, mineral filler—20 to 25% in dry
weight, pigment—0 to 3% in dry weight, The main properties of terrazzo tiles are simi-
water—about 15% of the global mixture, and lar to those of dimension and engineered
(b) second or back layer: sand and gray stone because terrazzo is made using princi-
cement with a ratio of 4:1 to 6:1. pally the same components (stone aggregates).
5.7 · Applications
113 5
Thus, properties such as mechanical strength instance, the following reference purposes can
(breaking strength, breaking load, and abra- be established in terrazzo tiles based on thick-
sion resistance), slip/skip resistance, climate nesses and uses: (a) for terrazzo tiles for
resistance (water absorption and resistance to indoor use measuring 40 cm × 40 cm, the rec-
frost/thaw cycles), fire performance, water ommended thickness is 3.4 cm, (b) for ter-
absorption, or thermal conductivity must be razzo tiles for indoor use measuring
tested. The methods and tests required to 60 cm × 40 cm with heavy pedestrian traffic,
analyze these properties in EN standards are the recommended thickness is 4.5 cm, (c) for
described in EN 13748-1 (internal use) and terrazzo tiles for outdoor use measuring
EN 13748-2 (external use). ASTM standards 60 cm × 40 cm with light pedestrian and vehi-
such as C131 for abrasion resistance, C190 for cle traffic, the recommended thickness is 5 cm,
tensile strength, C348 for flexural strength, and (d) for terrazzo tiles for outdoor use mea-
C157 for thermal coefficient of expansion, suring 60 cm × 40 cm with heavy vehicle traf-
C267 for chemical resistance, or C579 for fic, the recommended thickness is 7 cm. The
compressive strength are also used to test distinction between external or internal utili-
different properties of terrazzo systems
zation only affects the climate resistance and
(NTMA 1999). external fire performance parameters.
In both terrazzo tiles for outdoor and Other basic factor of terrazzo paving is the
indoor applications, two classes of thickness surface finish (facing) given to obtain the
are defined in EN standards depending on technical and visual characteristics required
whether mechanical polishing processes are in the project. These mainly include ground
applied after the tiles have been installed: “(a) surfaces for finishing on the site and factory-
thickness class I (Th I): the thickness of the finished surfaces. In the latter case, the tiles
facing layer of the manufactured tile shall be commonly show grooves of different types
at least 4 mm for a product that will not be and shapes with aesthetic functions and for
ground after laying, and (b) thickness class II evacuating water. With respect to texture/
(Th II): the thickness of the facing layer of the relief, the most used terrazzo facing is the fol-
manufactured tile shall be at least 8 mm for a lowing: (a) polished: a glossy finish obtained
product that will be ground after laying.” In without wax or chemicals, used mainly for
EN 13748-1 standard devoted to terrazzo tiles interior uses, (b) texturized or surface texture
for internal use, classification is established (. Fig. 5.17): this term is used because the

based on use (normal, heavy, and industrial) pressing mold has a determined texture and
and including breaking load and abrasion shape that give the tile its finish; this method
resistance values. However, the utilization is allows to copy the natural or specific textures
not defined in terrazzo tiles for external use of other materials and is used in indoor and
although different classes are considered based outdoor applications, (c) grit blasted or shot
on breaking load, abrasion resistance, etc. peening: this method is based on blasting the
5.7 Applications
As noted above, there is a broad range of

applications for terrazzo, including indoor
and outdoor locations, small areas or large
areas such as shopping malls, schools, etc.
Terrazzo can be also used as wall finish and
countertops. The type (standard, venetian,
rustic, and palladiana) and system (sand cush-
ion, bonded, monolithic, or thin set) will
determine the optimal use of terrazzo. For .. Fig. 5.17 Texturized finish
5 .. Fig. 5.18 Washbeton finish
hardened tile with metal shot at a very high

pressure and intensity done by a tunnel
machine; the aim is to give the tile a very char-
acteristic slip-resistant texture, ideal for out-
door uses, (d) washbeton finish (. Fig. 5.18):

the special stripping of the cement at the time

of hardening drags the dry components to the
surface, giving it a different texture; it is com-
monly used in swimming pools, outdoor uses,
and (e) tactile: with reliefs containing anti-slip
fines or reading reliefs for sight impaired users
(. Fig. 5.19).

5.8 Questions .. Fig. 5.19 Tactile finish
??Short Questions
55 Definition of terrazzo according to ASTM
??Long Questions
and EN standards
55 Explain the main steps in single-layered
55 List the three main types of raw materials
terrazzo production process
to manufacture terrazzo
55 What does micrograin terrazzo type mean?
55 List the three main types of terrazzo
matrices
References
55 Explain the bonded terrazzo system
NTMA (1999) Terrazzo specifications and design guide.
55 What does thin-set terrazzo mean? The National Terrazzo and Mosaic Association,
55 Comment the most common type of Inc., Fredericksburg, USA 50 p
terrazzo
55 Summarize the double-layered terrazzo Standards
manufacturing process ASTM C131 / C131M – 14. Standard test method for
55 How many classes of thickness are defined resistance to degradation of small-size coarse aggre-
gate by abrasion and impact in the Los Angeles
in terrazzo tiles EN standards?
machine
55 Describe three types of terrazzo facing
References
115 5
ASTM C150 / C150M – 19. Standard specification for EN 13748-1: 2004+A1: 2005. Terrazzo tiles. Terrazzo
Portland cement tiles for internal use
ASTM C157 / C157M – 17. Standard test method for EN 13748-2: 2004. Terrazzo tiles. Terrazzo tiles for
length change of hardened hydraulic-cement mortar external use
and concrete
ASTM C190-85. Method of test for tensile strength of Further Reading
hydraulic cement mortars
Binggely C (2013) Materials for interior environments,
ASTM C267 – 01 (2012) Standard test methods for
2nd edn. Wiley, Hoboken 400 p
chemical resistance of mortars, grouts, and mono-
Godsey L (2013) Interior materials and specification,
lithic surfacings and polymer concretes
2nd edn. Fairchild Books, Bloomsbury Publishing
ASTM C348 – 19. Standard test method for flexural
Inc., New York 432 p
strength of hydraulic-cement mortars
ASTM C579 – 18. Standard test methods for compres-
sive strength of chemical-resistant mortars, grouts, Useful Links
monolithic surfacings, and polymer concretes Concord Terrazzo Company Inc. www.terrazzco.com
ASTM F141 – 12 (2020) Standard terminology relating National Terrazzo and Mosaic Association Inc. www.
to resilient floor coverings ntma.com
EN 197-1: 2011. Cement. Composition, specifications National Federation of Terrazzo Marble, & Mosaics
and conformity criteria for common cements Specialists www.nftmms.co.uk
EN 1339: 2003. Concrete paving flags. Requirements Terrazzo Tile & Marble Association of Canada ttmac.
and test methods com
117 6
Cement
Contents
6.2 History of Cement – 121

6.3.1 alcareous Component – 123
C
6.3.2 Argillaceous Component – 124
6.3.3 Corrective Components – 126
6.3.4 Minor Constituents – 126
6.3.5 Proportioning of Raw Materials – 127
6.4 Manufacturing Process – 128

6.4.1 uarrying Raw Materials – 129
Q
6.4.2 Preblending – 131
6.4.3 Raw Mix Grinding – 132
6.4.4 Preheating – 132
6.4.5 Burning in the Kiln – 133
6.4.6 Clinker Cooling and Storing – 134
6.4.7 Blending and Grinding – 135
6.4.8 Final Storage and Packaging – 140
6.5 Clinker Major Phases – 141

6.5.1 Alite (C3S) – 141
6.5.2 Belite (C2S) – 142
6.5.3 Aluminate (C3A) – 143
6.5.4 Ferrite (C4AF) – 143
6.5.5 Quality Estimation of Clinker Composition – 143
6.5.6 Reactions in Clinker Formation – 144
6.6 Hydration, Setting, and Hardening – 144

6.7.1 hysical Properties – 149
P
6.7.2 Chemical Properties – 153

6.8 Types of Cements – 153

6.9.1 O2 Emissions – 159
C
6.9.2 Air Pollutant Emissions – 163
References – 164
6.1 · Introduction
119 6
Cement is a well-known construction
Summary material, being one of the main constituents
This chapter draws attention to all topics of concrete and mortar. World cement pro-
related to cement, actually the most duction has grown steadily since 1950, espe-
important hydraulic binder in construction cially in developing countries. . Figure 6.1

processes. It starts with the description of shows the global cement production in the
raw materials and their essential features. last century, which has had an exponential
The manufacture of cement is further growth from about 1000 million tons in 1990
summarized, from quarrying and to near 3000 million tons in 2010. According
preblending of raw materials to kiln to US Geological Survey, world total
burning operations and final blending and (rounded) production of cement in 2019
grinding of clinker with gypsum and reached 4100 million tons (Curry 2020),
admixtures. The four main phases of clinker China being the most important producer
(alite, belite, aluminate, and ferrite) are with 2200 million tons. The largest cement
described as well as the chemical reactions producers in the world, LafargeHolcim,
taking place in the kiln. Bogue calculations CEMEX, Heidelberg Cement, have diversi-
with the objective to predict the final fied their core business, adding other building
composition of clinker are discussed. The material sectors such as aggregates and con-
main types of hydraulic cements according crete. It is important to bear in mind that
to ASTM, EN, and ISO standards are then cement industry is among the most capital-
commented. At the end of the chapter, intensive industries.
environmental considerations of cement There are many types of cement available
manufacture are taken into account, in the market and each type is used under cer-
including the utilization of alternative fuels tain conditions due to its special properties.
for burning and the carbon capture and The most commonly used cement is Portland
storage process of the CO2 generated in cement, and much of this chapter applies to
the kiln. this type of material; in fact, cement and
Portland cement are terms often used inter-
changeably. Portland cement is a partial fused
gray in color product manufactured in a
cement plant (. Fig. 6.2). ASTM C219 stan-

6.1 Introduction dard defines Portland cement as “a hydraulic

cement produced by pulverizing clinker, con-
In this chapter, the term cement is used in its sisting essentially of crystalline hydraulic cal-
classical meaning: a crystalline compound of cium silicates, and usually containing one or
calcium silicates and other calcium com- more of the following: water, calcium sulfate,
pounds having hydraulic properties. Cement is up to 5% limestone, and processing addi-
therefore a hydraulic binder, that is, a material tions.” Other definition of Portland cement is
that chemically reacts with water by convert- “a hydraulic binder, that is, a finely ground
ing the water-binder system into a solid matrix inorganic material that, when mixed with
with the capacity to agglomerate other solid water, forms a past that sets and hardens by
materials. According to their reactivity, means of hydration reactions and processes
hydraulic binders can be classified as active and which, after hardening, retains its strength
(the binder has the capacity to react spontane- and stability even under water” (EN 197-1
ously with water) or latent (the binder needs standard). This product, termed CEM cement,
presence of an alkali activator to develop a “shall, when appropriately batched and mixed
significant hydration process). Other materials with aggregate and water, be capable of pro-
can acquire hydraulic properties in presence ducing concrete or mortar which retains its
of calcium hydroxide, being termed pozzolans workability for a sufficient time and shall after
or pozzolanic materials (see 7 Sect. 6.4.7.1).
defined periods attain specified strength levels
120 Chapter 6 · Cement
.. Fig. 6.1 World 3000

production of cement in
the last century (Costa
2015) 2500
cement (millions of tons)

World production of
2000
1500
1000
6
500
1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000
Year
hydraulic calcium silicates and aluminates

and usually containing one or more forms of
calcium sulfate as an interground additive.”
Cement is produced by a high-temperature
(about 1500 °C) reaction in a rotary kiln of
carefully proportioned and blended ratios of
lime (CaO), silica (SiO2), alumina (Al2O3),
and iron oxide (Fe2O3). The production of
cement is a chemical process requiring an
accurate blend of the previously cited four key
organic oxides and the limitation of several
undesirable oxides and/or elements, e.g., mag-
nesia. Before undergoing burning in the rotary
.. Fig. 6.2 General view of a cement plant. (Image kiln, the raw materials are ground into small
courtesy of Grupo Cementos Portland Valderrivas) particles to make them more reactive. The
product originated in the kiln is a granular
and also long-term volume stability.” Thus, material called clinker or cement clinker. ISO
the main objective of cement is the manufac- standards state that clinker is “fused materials
ture of concrete and mortar. The big differ- from the kiln in cement manufacturing that
ence between the two definitions (ASTM and are interground with calcium sulfate to make
EN) is that Portland cement in ASTM stan- cement” and ASTM C219 standard defines
dard appears in the names of cement contain- Portland cement clinker as “a clinker, par-
ing as little as 30% Portland cement clinker tially fused by pyroprocessing, consisting pre-
whereas Portland cements included in EN dominantly of crystalline hydraulic calcium
standard (CEM I type) contain a minimum of silicates.”
65% of Portland cement clinker. Finally, Once the nodules of cement clinker have
according to ISO standards, Portland cement cooled (. Fig. 6.3), they are ground into a

is “ground clinker generally consisting of fine powder and a small amount of calcium
6.2 · History of Cement
121 6
.. Fig. 6.3 Nodules of cement clinker (keys about 7 cm)
sulfate is then added at the grinding stage to

control the setting characteristics of the
cement. Clinker quality depends on raw mate-
rial composition and inappropriate raw mate-
rials or an improperly mix will generate a
product with poor strength and durability. In
this sense, the most important property of
cement is the ability to harden even under .. Fig. 6.4 Eddystone Lighthouse: Sir James N. Doug-
water. lass’s version. (Image courtesy of Encyclopaedia
Britannica)
6.2 History of Cement (. Fig. 6.4) remained on duty for 126 years

before replacement was needed. Therefore,

John Smeaton was an important civil engineer toward the end of the eighteenth century, it
and made an essential contribution to the was observed that some argillaceous lime-
invention of cement. He identified the compo- stones could be calcined to give a hydraulic
sitional requirements needed to obtain cement. So, the naturally occurring mix of the
hydraulicity in lime, observing that this prop- appropriate materials was known as cement
erty was directly related to the clay content in stone.
limestone. His investigations led finely to the Apparently unaware of the Smeaton’s
discovery of Portland cement. It is noticeable work, the French engineer Louis Vicat, after
to remember that Romans were aware of the graduating from the famous École
importance of clay in cement, but the skills of Polytechnique in Paris, built a bridge over the
the Romans were lost in the Dark Ages. Dordogne River. He used a material obtained
Smeaton, designing the Eddystone Lighthouse mixing powdered lime with clay, creating an
(Cornwall, England) in the 1700s, noticed that artificial cement that set in water for several
certain particular types of limestones contain- days. The bridge, finished in 1822, was the first
ing clay minerals could be calcined to obtain bridge built using cement. It seems that Vicat
hard cement. In fact, this product was really a was the first to determine the approximate
hydraulic lime (see 7 Chap. 7) since the tem-
proportions of limestone and clay needed to
perature used in the process was lower than obtain a hydraulic binder for industrial appli-
1500 °C. The great advantage of this cement cations.
was that it sets under water and hence could John Aspdin (Leeds, England) received in
be used for piers, lighthouse foundations, 1824 a British Patent for a product called
canal locks, etc. The Smeaton’s lighthouse Portland cement. Aspdin is usually regarded
as the inventor of modern Portland cement.

He selected this name because the product
resembled the oolitic limestone of the Isle of
Portland (England), extensively used at that
time as dimension stone in Great Britain. He
observed that it was possible to obtain a
cement of superior quality in comparison
with natural cement by calcining limestone
with clay in a lime kiln and grinding the sin-
tered material (clinker). The patent stated: “I
take a specific quantity of limestone… and I
cause the puddle or powder… to be calcined…
I then take a specific quantity of argillaceous
6 earth or clay and mix them with water… then .. Fig. 6.5 Tube mill used to grind the cement
I brake the said mixture into suitable lumps
and calcine them in a furnace similar to a lime
kiln till the carbonic acid is entirely expelled.”
It can be seen that the patent specifications
were vague because they did not establish the
lime and clay proportions to be used or the
temperature of the lime kiln.
In 1845, Isaac Johnson made the initial
modern Portland cement. His work resulted
in finer grinding processes, improvements in
the proportions of the mixture of chalk and
clay, and the utilization of higher tempera-
tures until the mass was almost vitrified. That
cement was similar to those used today. At
temperatures between 1400 and 1500 °C, clin-
kering occurs and the resulting minerals are
very reactive.
The high cost of making Portland cement .. Fig. 6.6 Calcareous and argillaceous raw materials
inhibited its utilization in concrete, but three used to manufacture cement (keys about 7 cm)
important developments in the manufactur-
ing process lead to modern Portland cement:
(a) development of rotary kilns, (b) addition 6.3 Raw Materials
of gypsum to control setting, and (c) utiliza-
tion of ball mills to grind clinker and raw Since the main oxides to manufacture Portland
materials. Starting the twentieth century, the cement are lime (CaO), silica (SiO2), alumina
original vertical shaft kilns were gradually (Al2O3), and iron (Fe2O3), the raw mix for
substituted by rotary cement kilns because making cement clinker is generally obtained
they heat the clinker mainly by radiative heat by blending a calcareous material, typically
transfer. This method is more efficient at high limestone, with a smaller amount of an argil-
temperatures and allows higher burning tem- laceous one, commonly clay or shale
peratures to be achieved. The two other main (. Fig. 6.6). Because the composition of the

technical developments were also introduced raw materials is commonly expressed in

at around the start of the twentieth century. oxides, cement chemists have adopted a short-
Thus, iron mills replaced the millstones used hand notation using a single letter to represent
for grinding the clinker and later they in turn a unit of an oxide. Thus, C = CaO; S = SiO2;
were replaced by tube mills (. Fig. 6.5) filled
A = Al2O3; and F = Fe2O3. This nomenclature
with steel balls. will be used henceforth this chapter.
123 6
The most common raw material used to needed. In using materials for Portland
manufacture Portland cement is the so-called cement manufacture, care must be taken that
cement rock, that is, an impure limestone with nonessential and hazardous components are
oxide composition that approximates the ratio not present in excess because these constitu-
of lime, silica, alumina, and iron oxide in clin- ents will negatively affect the cement.
ker. There are few countries in the world Examples of those components are the alkalis
where some limestone and clay cannot be (sodium and potassium oxides) and magnesia.
found in sufficient quantities to manufacture
cement. The raw materials used are mostly
natural rocks but several industrial by- 6.3.1 Calcareous Component
products can be used where available. In gen-
eral, the raw materials used in Portland The geological definition of limestone is a
cement manufacture must be inexpensive and sedimentary rock with more than 50% of
abundant. In some cases, it can be necessary CaCO3, calcite, and/or aragonite. Limestone
to incorporate minor proportions of other is the most common nonsiliciclastic sedimen-
components (corrective constituents) to cor- tary rock. Aragonite and magnesian calcite
rect the bulk composition. Some argillaceous are abundant primary minerals in recent car-
limestone and marls have compositions bonate sediments but both are metastable and
exactly near to that required, making possible tend to transform to stable calcite of low-
to use a blend of closely similar materials magnesian calcite with burial and/or time.
from the same quarry. In practice, it is Probably, over 95% of the world’s CaO sources
extremely rare for a single rock type not only for this objective are variations of limestone
to be chemically uniform but to occur in suf- or its metamorphic equivalent (marble).
ficient quantity to support a cement plant. Limestone has usually to be blended with
Although the main chemical components of argillaceous material to adjust the chemistry
Portland cement have not changed, the of silica, alumina, and iron oxide. For this rea-
choices of raw materials as sources of these son, limestones that are quite pure are used in
chemical components have changed due to the process but chemical purity is not essential
market competition, cement prices, and global for the limestone component. If dolomite is
economic crises. the predominant mineral, carbonate rock is
The location of a cement plant is usually named dolomite rock or dolostone. Dolomite
determined by the availability of adequate can be many times dispersed in limestone,
supplies of the raw materials within a reason- producing an undesirable increase in MgO
able distance of each other. Moreover, cement content in limestone. Some magnesia can be
plants are normally located near limestone tolerated but dolomitic limestones are not
deposits because, as commented above, CaO used (see 7 Sect. 6.3.4).

is the major oxide in manufacturing cement

(. Fig. 6.7). For each ton of cement pro- 6.3.1.1 Geological Environments

duced, about 1.5 tons of raw materials are for Limestone Formation

The carbonate mineral system is relatively
easy to understand because it is controlled by
only four minerals: calcite, aragonite, Mg-
calcite, and dolomite. Carbonate rocks have
formed from Precambrian to Recent times.
Although they constitute only about 0.25% of
the earth’s crust volume, about 15–20% of all
sedimentary rocks in the stratigraphic record
are carbonate rocks. It is important to bear in
.. Fig. 6.7 Cement plant in close proximity to lime-
stone deposit. (Image courtesy of Grupo Cementos
mind that carbonate formation is a biogeo-
Portland Valderrivas) chemical system in operation since the
Archean. Limestone is found in many forms

and is classified in terms of its origin, chemi-
cal composition, structure, and geological for-
mation. In general, all limestones are
crystalline and the crystal size increases with
the degree of crystallization that occurred
during the formation of the carbonate rock.
The environment of deposition is signifi-
cant since it determines the size, shape, purity,
and other essential characteristics of the car-
bonate rock used as raw material in cement
industry. Carbonate sediment is formed in a .. Fig. 6.8 Carbonate spring deposits at Pamukkale
variety of settings, the two ends of the environ- (Turkey). (Image courtesy of José Pedro Calvo)
6 mental spectrum being marine and terrestrial
settings. Most components of carbonate sedi-
ments are either biogenic or nonbiogenic or Carbonate rocks are also formed in a vari-
combination of both, and they precipitate from ety of terrestrial settings such as lakes, springs,
seawater or freshwater saturated with respect to and caves. Limestones and dolostones gener-
CaCO3. Limestone formed in high- energy ated in lakes and marshes are by far the most
zones generally contains little noncarbonate extensive and economically important terres-
components and hence can be the source of trial accumulations (James and Jones 2016).
high-purity carbonate material. In contrast, Carbonate deposits form in freshwater or salt-
limestones accumulated in low-energy areas are water lakes under different climate regimes,
likely contaminated with clay and other non- from humid regions to evaporitic in arid
carbonate materials, e.g., quartz grains. regions, being present in both perennial and
Marine carbonates have the potential to ephemeral lakes. Lacustrine carbonate sedi-
accumulate anywhere in the ocean even in ments are diverse in terms of their mineral-
deep areas but most carbonate sediments are ogy, facies, and geochemistry. Carbonate
produced in bright, relatively clear, near- spring deposits are also widespread and spec-
surface subtropical ocean waters (James and tacular deposits formed of calcite and/or ara-
Jones 2016). The two major environments for gonite characterizes many spring systems
carbonate production are the neritic zone, (. Fig. 6.8). They develop where subterra-

from the shoreline to the continental shelf nean water comes to the Earth’s surface and is
edge, which is now located at about 200 m discharged subaerially or subaqueously. The
water depth, and the abyssal zone. In these size of these carbonate deposits is controlled
environments, the most important organisms by the volume, the physical and chemical
are benthic and planktic, respectively. Zones characteristics of the discharged water, the
of neritic carbonate sedimentation are either flow paths, and the biota. Some examples can
in intracontinental basins or in the open cover areas of 700 km2 with up to 250 m thick
oceans as shallow banks. In fact, the marine carbonate spring deposits.
neritic system has probably originated most
of the carbonates in geologic history, depend-
ing on water temperature, salinity, siliciclastic 6.3.2 Argillaceous Component
input, etc. In tropical zones, carbonate pro-
duction and accumulation are impressive The classical practice in cement manufacture
because the water is warm (>20 °C), super- is to use clay or shale and sand for the silica
saturated with carbonate, and clear and and alumina constituents while a source of
brightly illuminated. Classical examples of iron (e.g., iron ore) is generally required to
these environments at present time are located adjust the chemistry to the desired composi-
in the Caribbean, the Persian Gulf, and tion. Clay is the common name for a number
Australia. of fine-grained materials whose chemical
125 6
composition includes hydrous aluminum sili- and chemical decomposition. These processes
cates with minor amounts of impurities such lead to the transformation of original miner-
as potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, als into clay minerals. Many factors control
or iron. Clays are the most common source of rock weathering such as rock type, climate,
silica and alumina in cement manufacturing e.g., rainfall and temperature, time (age of the
because they are made of fine particles (always weathering profile), topography, and presence
smaller than 0.004 mm) and do not need proof organisms and organic matter. In general,
cessing prior to use. chemical composition of the weathered rocks
Suitable shales and clays commonly pres- and water/rock ratio are the main factors to
ent bulk composition in the range of 55–60% establish the type of clay minerals formed
SiO2, 15–25% Al2O3, and 5–10% Fe2O3, with while temperature and time determine the
smaller amounts of MgO, alkalis, H2O, and chemical processes.
other components. Mineralogically, their Ancient sedimentary rocks are composed
main constituents are clay minerals, being of about 70% mudstones, with up to 50%
dominant the illite and kaolinite families. clay-size particles, and shales. Currently, sedi-
Instead of clays or shales, other types of sili- mentary environments with mud formation
ceous rocks such as schist or volcanic rocks of include about 60% of marine continental
suitable compositions can be used. shelves and 40% of deep ocean basins. On the
Clays are widely distributed both geo- other hand, continental aquatic environments
graphically (across the surface of the Earth) such as lakes, rivers, estuaries, and deltas also
and stratigraphically (over geological time). contain high proportions of clays. The types
Clays are subdivided into residual clay, found and quantities of clay minerals in sediments
in the place of origin, and transported clay, and sedimentary rocks are controlled by the
also known as sedimentary clay, removed from source area, changes during transport and
the place of origin and deposited in a new deposition, and changes after sedimentation
location. Residual clays are most commonly (diagenesis). Clay minerals of sedimentary
formed by surface weathering, which gives rise sequences reflect mainly the climate, relief,
to clay in three ways: (1) chemical decomposi- and lithology of source areas. Thus, erosion
tion of rocks (e.g., granite), (2) solution of of soils is governed by profile structure,
rocks such as limestone with clayey impurities humidity, clay content, slope, and climatic
resulting in insoluble residuals, and (3) disin- conditions, being the finest particles of the
tegration and solution of shale. profile (mostly clay minerals) most easily
transportable. Clay transportation mainly
6.3.2.1 Geological Environments takes place by water flow (stream, river);
for Clay Formation transport is usually short and has not much
The environments of formation of clays influence on clay alteration.
include weathering crusts and soils, continen- Regarding the burial diagenesis and low-
tal and marine sediments, geothermal fields, grade metamorphism environment, porosity
volcanic deposits, altered wall-rock produced decreases in sedimentary clays from 80% to
by the intrusion of plutonic rocks and hydro- about 20% at the first kilometer of burial. As
thermal fluids, and very low-grade metamor- depth increases, sediments tend to reach a
phic rocks (Galan 2006). All of these global chemical equilibrium and new phases
environments can generate clay minerals from can form under the new environmental condi-
preexisting minerals. Thus, three main geo- tions. These minerals are more highly ordered
logical environments can be distinguished for and of large size than their original constitu-
clay formation: weathering, sedimentation, ents. In this sense, illite is the most common
and burial diagenesis and low-grade meta- diagenetic product. Typical low-grade meta-
morphism. morphic rocks derived from the clay sedi-
The weathering environment is commonly ments are pelitic rocks (slates), mainly
subaerial and involves physical disaggregation composed of mica (or illite), chlorite, alkali
Pyrites Quartz
Component % Diatomite Bauxite cinders Iron ore Sand
LOI 6.2 15–20 5–12 0.2

SiO2 77.0 16–22 6.6–25.0 20–25 99.2
Al2O3 44–58 2–16 3–9
9.6
Fe2O3 10–16 62–87 45–60 0.5
CaO 0.3 2–4 0.7–0.9 0.5–2.5
MgO 0.9 0.2–1.0 0.2–2 1.5–7
SO3 0.8–8 0.3–0.6
Na2O
K2O3 1.5
6
.. Fig. 6.9 Chemical composition of some typical corrective components used in cement production
feldspar, and quartz. Shales are gradually deficiency of SiO2; and high-grade limestone
transformed into phyllites, and into schists to regulate the CaO content. In other cases,
with increasing metamorphism. Moreover, industrial by-products, e.g., pyrite ash for iron
intrusion of plutonic rocks and deposition of control, can be used if natural products are
volcanic events lead to wall-rock alteration expensive. It is essential to bear in mind that
and transformation of some rock-forming corrective components can introduce minor
minerals into clayey materials. components to the kiln, e.g., heavy metals,
with hazardous characteristics. . Figure 6.9

shows chemical composition of some typical

6.3.3 Corrective Components corrective components used in cement pro-
duction.
Corrective components, sometimes called
auxiliary materials, are used if the primary
raw materials, e.g., limestone and clay, do not 6.3.4 Minor Constituents
have the appropriate chemical composition
that favors the formation of the required clin- Minor constituents are derived mainly from
ker phases. Thus, corrective materials can be raw materials or are added deliberately. Their
used to adapt the chemical composition of the effects can be beneficial or harmful. Beneficial
raw mix to the requirements of the process effects may include acceleration of the clin-
and quality targets since they are specifically kering reactions or lowering of the tempera-
enriched in one of the four main oxides. The ture at which they occur. However, minor
amounts of these components are commonly constituents most commonly include a num-
very low compared to the huge quantities of ber of elements that are detrimental to cement,
the main raw materials; the exact amounts to its manufacturing processes, or both. They
will depend upon the shortfall of the requisite are, therefore, highly undesirable in any of the
components. Classical examples of corrective raw materials but can be inevitably present in
materials are suitable rock types such as iron small amounts (<1%). Some elements have
ore to correct the deficiency of Fe2O3; bauxite, advantageous effects at low concentrations
laterite, and kaolinite to correct Al2O3 con- but deleterious ones at higher concentrations
tent; quartz sand and quartzite to control the (7 Box 6.1).

127 6
Box 6.1
Harmful Components clase and the expansive forces could crack the
Alkalis are probably the most important harm- concrete or mortar. For this reason, the
ful components in cement raw materials. amount of MgO in cement should generally be
Alkalis are potassium and sodium and are less than 4%.
referred as their oxides, K2O and Na2O, respec- Sulfur is introduced into the kiln system
tively. Alkali quantities larger than 0.6% total through the fuel and also with the raw materi-
by weight Na2O equivalent (percentage of als. Then, sulfates and sulfides enter into the
Na2O + 0.658 times the percentage of K2O) can chemical reactions under the high temperature
give rise to reactions with certain types of inside the kiln and form components that are
aggregates with silica components (opal, chal- highly expansive. Chlorides are also introduced
cedony, cristobalite, etc.) to produce a gel of into the kiln system with the fuel and raw mate-
hydrous alkali silicates which expands and pro- rials, particularly if some of them are of marine
duces cracking in concrete and mortar (alkali- origin. Their effect in the process is so serious
aggregate reaction—see 7 Chap. 9). Portland

that it is normal practice to limit the total
cements with high alkali content are commonly amount of chloride to a maximum of 0.015%
manufactured but care must be taken to utilize of the raw meal feedstock. Moreover, most
aggregates without silica compounds. standards worldwide limit the chloride amount
Another meaningful and very common to 0.10% in order to avoid issues of reinforce-
impurity in raw materials is magnesia. It can ment corrosion in concrete.
be deleterious since expands in volume by up Other harmful elements that must be noted
to 120%, resulting in cracks. An excess of mag- include phosphorous, manganese, titanium,
nesia can remain uncombined in cement clin- barium, chromium, lead, molybdenum, vana-
ker in the form of the mineral periclase, being dium, and zinc. For instance, phosphorous
this mineral potentially dangerous because it tends to slow down the setting time excessively;
hydrates slowly and eventually forms brucite manganese oxidizes and crumbles the cemented
(Mg(OH)2). The change originates an expan- structure; and titanium can inhibit early
sion to twice the volume of the original peri- strength development.
6.3.5 Proportioning of Raw process as well as to avoid friction resulting

Materials from a high content of silica when calcium
content is low. The quality of cement raw
Once the raw materials for cement manufac- materials and cement clinker is evaluated by
turing are selected, the next step is to calculate parameters such as lime saturation factor
the composition of the raw mix for determin- (LSF), hydraulic ratio or modulus (HM), sil-
ing the quantitative proportions of the raw ica ratio or modulus (SM), and alumina ratio
materials, e.g., limestone 80% and clay 20%. or modulus (AM), which are broadly used
The main objective of this process is to give elsewhere. These parameters are preset
the clinker the desired chemical and mineral- according to the strength and quality of the
ogical composition. In this sense, the homoge- end product cement desired.
neity of feed chemical composition has The lime saturation factor for any mix of
important consequences on fuel consump- raw materials is given by the ratio of the lime
tion, kiln operation, clinker production, and available to the lime theoretically required:
cement performance.
LSF = CaO / ( 2.8SiO 2 + 1.2Al2 O3 + 0.65Fe 2 O3 )
The preparation of the kiln feed mixture
must include a suitable amount of calcium The value of lime saturation factor is often
carbonate, e.g., 77%, to avoid hard burning referred to as a percentage and therefore is
multiplied by 100. LSF usually ranges between values lower the amount of liquid at any given
92% and 105%. Ordinary Portland cements temperature in the kiln, making the clinker
have LSF of up to 97%. Higher values are more difficult to burn. It also originates a ten-
commonly required for fast setting cements dency toward formation of coating in the kiln
with high early strength. Thus, production of and a slow setting and hardening of the
cements with LSF values of more than 100% cement.
leads to increased CO2 emissions due to the Alumina ratio, sometimes also called iron
calcination of higher amounts of CaCO3 in modulus, characterizes the clinker using the
the raw meal as well as higher burning tem- proportion of alumina to iron oxide:
peratures required for such raw meals.
Moreover, LSF higher than 102% will gener- AR = Al2 O3 / Fe 2 O3
ate high amounts of free lime, which does not
contribute to the strength development of the The alumina ratio conforms the composition
6 cement but may affect its soundness. of liquid phase because both oxides are pres-
The hydraulic modulus, very similar to the ent almost entirely in the liquid phase at clin-
lime saturation factor, estimates the optimum kering temperature. It governs the ratio of
lime content of the mix and is defined as aluminate to ferrite phases, which has impor-
follows: tant effects on cement properties. It is com-
monly in the range from 1.5 to 2.5. Low
HM = CaO / ( SiO 2 + Al2 O3 + Fe 2 O3 ) values of this ratio produce low heat of hydra-
tion and slow binding of cement. A high alu-
A high content of lime enables lime-rich clin- mina ratio, together with a low silica ratio,
ker phases, which have the most favorable results in fast setting of the cement, which
properties but considering that all the CaO requires higher gypsum content to control the
must be always combined with SiO2, Al2O3, setting time.
and Fe2O3. Otherwise, free lime can be origi-
nated, which causes expansion phenomena.
Good quality clinker has HM value near 2, 6.4 Manufacturing Process
being generally limited between 1.7 and 2.4.
Clinkers with HM values lower than 1.7 show The process used for the manufacture of
mostly insufficient strength and clinkers with cement can be broadly classified as dry or wet,
HM greater than 2.4 have poor stability of lying the difference in the preparation of the
volume. kiln feed. In the wet process, commonly used
The silica ratio or modulus, together with where raw materials are soft, water is added to
the alumina ratio, supplements to a certain the raw mill during the grinding of the raw
degree the hydraulic modulus. Silica ratio rep- materials producing a pumpable slurry. In the
resents the proportion of SiO2 to the total of dry process, adopted where raw materials are
Al2O3 and Fe2O3: hard, grinding and mixing of raw materials
are carried out in their dry state. Thus, the
SR = SiO 2 / ( Al2 O3 + Fe2 O3 ) process selection is to a large extent estab-
lished by the state of the raw materials: dry or
SR controls the proportions of silicate phases wet. In the recent past, the more economical
in the clinker and characterizes the ratio of dry process has replaced the wet process. For
solid to liquid in the clinkering process, instance, energy consumption in the dry pro-
because at clinkering temperature the SiO2 is cess is approximately one-fourth of that in the
predominantly present in the solid phases wet process. The following description of the
while the other oxides occur in the liquid manufacturing process of cement corresponds
phase. SR value is commonly between 2 and hence for the standard dry process
3 in Portland cement clinker, with preferred (. Fig. 6.10), which is the most modern and

values between 2.2 and 2.6. Increases in SR common way to manufacture cement.
6.4 · Manufacturing Process
129 6
.. Fig. 6.10 Diagram of dry process cement manufacturing (Kosmatka and Wilson 2011)
6.4.1 Quarrying Raw Materials materials such as limestone and clay. The min-
ing plan is nowadays carefully defined to
The production of cement starts at the raw reach the chemical targets of the clinker to be
material quarries, being cement plants gener- manufactured. Subsequently, all the processes,
ally situated close to naturally occurring raw e.g., preblending, are controlled to insure
6 .. Fig. 6.12 Front-end loader and haul-truck in a lime-

stone quarry. (Image courtesy of Grupo Cementos Port-
land Valderrivas)
.. Fig. 6.11 Robot for sample preparation and analy-

sis. (Image courtesy of LafargeHolcim)
chemical uniformity of the raw materials and

of the feed to the kiln. The importance of
chemical uniformity in processing raw materi-
als caused the implementation of several tech-
niques of quality control. For instance, plants
install prompt gamma neutron activation
analyzers immediately after primary crushers
to analyze limestone and control further
blending operations. In some cases, practices .. Fig. 6.13 Inside an impactor. (Image courtesy of
of robotic sample preparation are developed Benito Arnó e Hijos S.A.U.)
(. Fig. 6.11). X-ray fluorescence and X-ray

diffraction are also used in quality control of they are mined using only front-end loaders
kiln feed and the produced clinker. or wheel loaders (. Fig. 6.14) although often

In general, limestone deposits are quarried the materials are first ripped with a bulldozer
by bench mining using explosives (e.g., prior to extraction. Each raw material is
ANFO). The rock is then extracted using stored separately (. Fig. 6.15) and prepared

front-end loaders and loaded into haul trucks to preblending. It is important to note that
(. Fig. 6.12), which transport the limestone
large reserves of raw materials, particularly of
to the primary crusher (e.g., gyratory or jaw limestone, are crucial to provide security of
crusher). Other plants include impact crush- supply to the cement plant. Since 1–2 millions
ers such as hammer mill or impactor of tons of clinker can be manufactured in a
(. Fig. 6.13) to size reduction of limestone
medium-size cement plant in a year, about 2–4
(Bustillo 2018). Clay deposits do not com- millions of tons of raw materials in the quarry
monly require drilling and blasting. Thus, are needed for this purpose.
131 6
.. Fig. 6.14 Clay quarry. (Image courtesy of Lafarge-

Holcim)
.. Fig. 6.16 Longitudinal installation for preblending.

(Image courtesy of Grupo Cementos Portland
Valderrivas)
.. Fig. 6.15 Clay stored separately. (Image courtesy of

LafargeHolcim)
6.4.2 Preblending
.. Fig. 6.17 Circular installation for preblending.
Preblending of raw materials is a necessary (Image courtesy of LafargeHolcim)
practice and incorporates several blending
operations that are designed to provide a feed
to the kiln with appropriate and continuously
similar chemical composition. The preblend-
ing stockpile is sometimes used as a single-
component homogenizing system or to mix
and homogenize several components. In this
step, the raw materials are stockpiled and
reclaimed in set proportions based on the tar-
get chemistry and laid down in longitudinal
(. Fig. 6.16) or circular (. Fig. 6.17) instal-

lations in a chevron or windrow pattern. They

are then reclaimed by mechanical rakes
(. Fig. 6.18) that cut across the layers to pro-

vide a fairly chemically uniform feed to the .. Fig. 6.18 Mechanical rakes for reclaiming. (Image
further milling process. For instance, in a lon- courtesy of Grupo Cementos Portland Valderrivas)
gitudinal stockpile, one pile is formed while originated by the raw mill for ensuring that
the other pile is reclaimed. Selection of longi- the kiln can produce a consistently high clin-
tudinal or circular design is dictated by fac- ker quality.
tors such as chemical and physical variability
of raw materials and their number, moisture
content, space available, and capital cost. 6.4.4 Preheating
These installations are usually covered to pre-
vent rainfall and to content fugitive dust. Modern plants preheat raw meal to calcina-
Regarding the size of the preblending installation temperature in a multistage cyclone pre-
tion, total capacity of 10 days of consump- heater mounted in a tower above the feed end
tion is common. of the kiln (. Fig. 6.20). A preheater is a heat

exchanger, commonly a suspension preheater,

in which the moving powder is dispersed in a
6 6.4.3 Raw Mix Grinding stream of hot gas coming in the opposite
direction from the kiln. The feedstock is intro-
Once all the raw materials, including correc- duced into the inlet of the uppermost cyclone
tive components, are correctly dosed, the mix, where the gas temperature is about 500 °C. The
commonly named raw meal, raw mix, or raw raw meal passes through the preheater in less
fed, is finely ground to obtain the desired size than a minute and leaves it at a temperature of
(≈100–200 μm) and it is then conveyed to the about 900 °C. The bottom cyclone discharges
raw meal silos. In about 90% of all raw mate- into the kiln itself. The benefit of preheating is
rial grinding applications worldwide, the roller to improve the efficiency of the process since
mill with grinding rollers (. Fig. 6.19) is
less energy is needed. During the process, the
nowadays used. The raw mix is later stored in heat is transferred efficiently from the hot
silos to be supplied at a regulated flow rate to gases to the raw meal, generating the dehydra-
the preheater. Raw meal samples are obtained
and analyzed at short intervals, these data
being used as basis for controlling the raw
meal composition. A new blending process for
the raw meal is commonly carried out in the
silos, being designed several types of blending
silos. The main ones involve turbulence and
controlled flow. Thus, the raw meal silo per-
forms two functions: (a) it acts as a raw meal
store, ensuring that the kiln is supplied with
raw meal, and (b) it homogenizes the raw meal
.. Fig. 6.20 Preheaters. (Image courtesy of Grupo

.. Fig. 6.19 Grinding roller Cementos Portland Valderrivas)
133 6
tion and decomposition of the clay and the
decarbonation of the limestone.
Cyclone preheaters have developed quickly
in the last 60 years, being actually the norm to
include a multistage cyclone preheater with
five stages. Each stage consists of a riser pipe
and a cyclone. In the riser pipe, hot gas ascends
and raw meal is injected into the side and
becomes entrained. Passing into the cyclone,
the mixture is separated and the heated meal
passes to the next stage down whereas the
cooled gas passes to the next stage up. The
size of cyclones relates to the maintaining of
desired gas velocity criteria and efficiency.
6.4.5 Burning in the Kiln
This part of the process is the most important

in terms of product quality and cost. The pre-
heated mix passes into a rotary kiln
(. Fig. 6.21) that takes the form of a huge

inclined steel cylinder up to 100 m long lined .. Fig. 6.22 Refractory bricks. (Image courtesy of
with refractory bricks having a thickness Octavio de Lera)
between 150 and 250 mm (. Fig. 6.22). The

aim of the refractory bricks is to protect the The rotary kiln was introduced at the end
steel shell and retain heat within the kiln. of the nineteenth century, being the heart of
Bricks in the burning zone are in a more the manufacturing process and the heaviest
aggressive environment compared with those rotating industrial equipment. It is frequently
at the cooler end of the kiln, so different parts as much as 5 m in diameter and is mounted
of the kiln are lined with different types of with axis slightly inclined from the horizontal
brick. Obviously, the bricks located in the in a downward slope of approximately 2.5–
burning zone have the shortest life. Periodically, 5% and with three supporting roller stations.
the brick lining, or part of it, has to be replaced. The inclination of the axis allows the material
to tumble forward by gravity and the tempera-
ture increases as the raw mix moves forward.
The kiln rotates about 1.5–4 rpm (revolutions
per minute) and the raw meal flows down
through progressively hotter zones of the kiln
due to the combination of the tube’s slope and
the rotation effect.
Fuels such as petroleum coke (. Fig. 6.23),

coal, gas, oil, and alternative fuels are fired

directly into the rotary kiln at the lower end of
the kiln so long hot flame is produced by the
burner (. Fig. 6.24) at up to 2000 °C. This

temperature insures that the mixture reaches

temperatures of up to 1500 °C. It is essential
.. Fig. 6.21 Rotary kiln. (Image courtesy of Lafarge- to maintain kiln temperatures in the sintering
Holcim) zone between 1400 and 1600 °C. The thermal
.. Fig. 6.25 Fully automated control of kiln opera-

6 .. Fig. 6.23 Petroleum coke tions. (Images courtesy of LafargeHolcim and Grupo
Cementos Portland Valderrivas)
a semi-solid state in the burning zone, also

called clinkering or sintering zone, and solidify
completely on cooling. The highest tempera-
ture reached in the kiln (approximately
1450 °C) is achieved at about 4/5 of the end of
the kiln. Computers are widely used for con-
trolling the operations and quality at various
stages in the cement manufacturing processes.
Thus, fully automated control of kiln operat-
ing conditions is common in modern plants
(. Fig. 6.25).

According to EN 197-1 standard, Portland

.. Fig. 6.24 Burner of the kiln. (Image courtesy of cement clinker is “a hydraulic material which
LafargeHolcim) shall consist of at least two-thirds by mass of
calcium silicates, the remainder containing
energy requirement for clinker manufacturing aluminum oxide, iron oxide, and other oxides.
is ruled by the endothermic reactions of the The ratio by mass (CaO/SiO2) shall be not less
raw materials with needed temperatures of up than 2.0. The content of magnesium oxide
to 1450 °C for the formation of stable clinker shall not exceed 5.0% by mass.” ASTM C1356
phases. Thus, in a period ranging from 30 min- standard states that a clinker phase is “a phys-
utes to 2 hours, depending on the kiln design, ically and chemically distinct optically identi-
the materials are subjected to increasingly fiable portion of the clinker sample, including
higher temperatures as they pass through the both principal phases (alite, belite, aluminate,
kiln. Hot gases go through the rotary kiln, and ferrite -see 7 Sect. 6.5-), minor phases

usually in the opposite direction. (for example, free lime, periclase, and alkali
In the initial section of the kiln, where sulfates), and voids.”
temperature is about 1000 °C, calcium car-
bonate is transformed to calcium oxide, in a
similar manner to lime manufacturing (see 6.4.6 Clinker Cooling and Storing
7 Chap. 7). The high temperature causes

chemical and physical reactions that partially A high rate of clinker cooling is essential if
melt the material into a granular material the best strength-giving properties of the clin-
called clinker. Nodules of clinker (. Fig. 6.3),
ker are to be achieved. For instance, clinkers
typically 10–50 mm in diameter, are formed in that have been slowly cooled often reveal a
135 6
.. Fig. 6.26 Grate cooler. (Image courtesy of Lafarge- .. Fig. 6.27 Planetary coolers. (Image courtesy of
Holcim) Grupo Cementos Portland Valderrivas)
partial transformation of some of the compo- charge end of the rotary kiln), the clinker is
nents, which can lead to several problems in cooled in a countercurrent air stream.
the mechanical properties of cement. Thus, Finally, clinker can be stored in adequate
the clinker cooler serves to cool clinker from steel or concrete silos or transported by truck,
the 1200 °C at which it leaves the kiln to less train, or ship to other grinding plants. Storage
than 300 °C to produce a better quality clin- of cement clinker is a prerequisite for continu-
ker. From the lower end of the kiln, the clin- ous kiln operation. Constantly increasing kiln
ker is cooled using large amounts of air. The capacities insure storage volumes of 250,000
heated air from the coolers is returned to the tons. The situation on site as well as the spe-
kiln saving fuel consume and increasing effi- cific properties of the material determines the
ciency. What all types of cooler have in com- configuration of the storage. Therefore, there
mon is that the cooling air flows directly is a varied range of structures to store the clin-
through the clinker. ker, e.g., domes or conical buildings of differ-
The main cooling technologies are either ent shapes. Clinker storage can also serve to
the grate cooler or the planetary cooler. By blend the clinker.
far, the preponderant type is the grate cooler
(. Fig. 6.26), which comprises a series of

horizontal or slightly inclined reciprocating 6.4.7 Blending and Grinding

perforated plates. The system allows control-
ling the volume and pressure of injected cool- The final step in Portland cement manufactur-
ing air. The principal characteristic of the ing involves a sequence of blending and grind-
grate cooler is that a layer of clinker spread on ing operations that convert clinker to Portland
a perforated grate, through which cold air is cement. Thus, around 5% gypsum is added to
blown. The clinker progresses through the clinker with the aim to control the setting time
cooler by moving horizontally along the grate, of the cement. Gypsum retards the dissolu-
and so the direction of the cooling air is tion of tricalcium aluminate by forming tri-
roughly at right angles to the direction of calcium sulfoaluminate, which is insoluble
movement of the clinker. and prevents too early reactions of setting
Planetary coolers, sometimes called satel- and hardening. The quantity of gypsum
lite coolers (. Fig. 6.27), can be grouped with
added must be close to the optimum for the
the more general class of integral coolers, the proposed application of the cement because
common feature of which is that they are a gypsum affects strength development and
rigidly-attached part of the structure of the drying shrinkage. Natural gypsum and/or
rotary kiln, and rotate with it. In the planetary anhydrite is generally used but other calcium
cooler (a series of tubes surrounding the dis- sulfate by-products can be used. EN 197-1
standard points out that: “calcium sulfate

(added in small quantities) can be gypsum
(CaSO4·2H2O), hemihydrate (CaSO4·½H2O)
or anhydrite (CaSO4) or any mixture of them.
Gypsum and anhydrite are found naturally
but calcium sulfate is also available as a by-
product of certain industrial processes.”
Examples of these processes are desulfuriza-
tion of gases and production of phosphoric
acid from boric acid and from citric acid. If
gypsum is added as the calcium sulfate com-
ponent, it can become dehydrated producing
the so-called false set in concrete or mortar
6 and making it necessary to add additional .. Fig. 6.29 Balls as cement grinding media (object
water. about 10 cm)
The mixture is later ground into a gray
powder (10–40 μm) called Portland cement
(. Fig. 6.28). According to Portland Cement

Association, “cement is so fine that one pound

of cement contains 150 billion grains.”
Grinding should be considered together with
burning processes in the kiln because clinker
grindability is largely controlled by clinker
chemistry and burning conditions. As grind-
ing processes consume most of the power,
grinding technology has a major impact on
total electric energy demand. The ball mill
(. Fig. 6.5) is the most used device to grind

the cement in manufacturing plants. It is a

tube rotating about a horizontal axis, being
inside normally divided into at least two sepa-
rated chambers and with balls as grinding
media (. Fig. 6.29). Such arrangement is

essential since clinker to be ground contains

nodules as large as 50 mm in diameter and
these nodules require a larger ball size to
break them down.
.. Fig. 6.30 High-pressure grinding rolls. (Image cour-

tesy of Metso)
Modern cement plants also incorporate

grinding devices such as high-pressure grind-
ing rolls (HPGR) (. Fig. 6.30) and vertical

roller mills for raw material and cement. Thus,

finish grinding must be always optimized.
Cement characteristics have also an impor-
.. Fig. 6.28 Portland cement fine powder tant impact on power consumption. This is
137 6
because the higher the cement’s strength
development, the finer it typically has to be
ground, requiring therefore significantly more
energy in the mills. Portland cement (clin-
ker + gypsum) can also be further mixed with
other materials (called admixtures) such as
slag, fly ash, silica fume, or inert fillers to
replace part of the clinker and thus originate
different types of cements (see 7 Sect. 6.8)

that achieve a significant reduction of the CO2

emissions.
6.4.7.1 Mineral Admixtures

Pozzolanic and cementitious materials, both
commonly named mineral admixtures, are .. Fig. 6.31 Pozzolan stockpile in a cement plant
calcareous, siliceous, and/or aluminous mate-
rials that finely divided react chemically in
presence of water to form additional com- term generated from the ancient Roman town
pounds showing cementitious properties. of Puteoli (Pozzuoli), is defined by ASTM C51
Other terms used for these products are standard as a “siliceous or alumino-siliceous
cement replacement materials, supplementary material that in itself possesses little or no
cementitious materials, or complementary cementitious value but that in finely divided
cementitious materials. In modern cement form and in the presence of moisture will
world, mineral admixtures have become chemically react with alkali and alkaline earth
essential components of cement manufactur- hydroxides at ordinary temperatures to form
ing because their use decreases the amount of or assist in forming compounds possessing
Portland cement consumed, which results in cementitious properties.” This action is called
both economic and ecological benefits. Since pozzolanic action. Pozzolans include a wide
manufacturing of Portland cement is an variety of materials with different chemical
energy-intensive process, the incorporation of compositions, mineralogical nature, and geo-
mineral admixtures in cement generates a logical origins. EN 197-1 standard adds that
reduction in energy consumption as well as “these compounds are similar to those which
lower greenhouse gas emissions. This is are formed in the hardening of hydraulic
because they do not need burning processes in cements” and “pozzolans shall consist essen-
a rotary kiln, as in the case of clinker. The uti- tially of reactive SiO2 and Al2O3; the remain-
lization of mineral admixtures even reduces der contains Fe2O3 and other oxides; the
the quantity of waste sent to the landfill since proportion of reactive CaO is negligible.” EN
many of them are industrial by-products. 197-1 standard makes a distinction between
However, the essential reasons for utilizing natural pozzolan (P) and industrial puzzolan
mineral admixtures in cement are that they (Q). Natural pozzolans “are usually substance
enhance the workability of fresh concrete and of volcanic origin or sedimentary rocks with
the durability of hardened concrete. suitable chemical and mineralogical composi-
Mineral admixtures are natural materials tion” and industrial pozzolans “are thermally
or industrial by-products and can be grouped treated and activated clays and shales, air
into three categories: (a) materials of low or no cooled slags from lead, copper, zinc, and other
reactivity, (b) pozzolans, and (c) latent hydrau- products from the ferroalloys industry.”
lic materials. The first group includes materi- The third group includes those materials
als, e.g., ground limestone, which are used to with the ability to form cementitious products
improve some properties of cement, as a filler, when reacting with water. It mainly consists
or simply to reduce the price of the final prod- of granulated blast-furnace slags (BFS) and
uct. A pozzolan or pozzolana (. Fig. 6.31),
fly ashes. According to ASTM C 219 stan-
dard, granulated blast-furnace slag is “the addition, hydraulic properties.” The types and
glassy granular material formed when molten relative amounts of incombustible matter in
blast-furnace slag is rapidly chilled, as by the coal used to establish the chemical compo-
immersion of water.” BFS is formed in a blast sition of fly ash. As a rule, fly ash produced in
furnace with molten iron from iron ore in the the combustion of sub-bituminous coals
reducing presence of heated air, coke, and incorporates components with more calcium
limestone. When the blast furnace is tapped to and iron than those components in the fly ash
release molten iron, it flows with molten slag originated from bituminous coal.
floating on its upper surface (see 7 Chap. 15).
Finally, silica fume (see 7 Chap. 10) is a

1 ton of pig iron commonly originates around mineral admixture mostly composed of sub-
300 kg of slag. EN 197-1 standard states that micron particles of amorphous (noncrystal-
“granulated blastfurnace slag is a latent line) silicon dioxide. It is commonly used in
hydraulic material, i.e. it possess hydraulic concrete manufacturing for designing very
6 properties when suitable activated; it shall high-strength concrete structures because it is
contains at least two-thirds by mass of glassy a very reactive product due to its fine particles,
slag; the granulated blastfurnace slag shall large surface area, and high SiO2 content.
consist of at least two-thirds by mass of the Silica fume is also referred to as microsilica or
sum of CaO, MgO, and SiO2; the remainder condensed silica fume, although the term silica
contains Al2O3 together with small amounts fume has been commonly accepted. According
of other oxides; the ratio by mass (CaO+MgO)/ to ASTM C125 standard, silica fume is “very
SiO2 shall exceed 1.0.” fine pozzolanic material, composed mostly of
Fly ash (. Fig. 6.32) is one of the by-
amorphous silica produced by electric arc fur-
products of coal burning thermal power naces as a by-product of the production of
plants. During the burning process, the impu- elemental silicon or ferro-silicon alloys.” In
rities of pulverized coal are transformed to the manufacture of silicon and ferrosilicon
ash and some of them are transported by alloys in a submerged-arc electric furnace, the
gases and collected by mechanical separators escaping gaseous oxidizes and condenses in
or electrostatic precipitators. Thus, fly ash is a the form of extremely fine spherical particles
fine-grained material with particle sizes rang- of amorphous silica. Silica in the form of
ing from 0.2 to 200 μm. EN 197-1 standard glass (amorphous) is highly reactive, and the
affirms that “fly ash may be silico-aluminous smallness of the particles speeds up the reac-
(siliceous fly ash -V-) or silico-calcareous (cal- tion with calcium hydroxide produced by the
careous fly ash -W-) in nature; the former has hydration of Portland cement. In addition,
pozzolanic properties, the latter may have, in these particles fill the intergranular void
between cement particles (filler effect) and
thus densify and homogenize the cement paste
microstructure. Silica fume is by far the most
expensive of all mineral admixtures.
EN 197-1 standard points out that “more
correctly described as condensed silica fume,
this material comprise 0,1-0,2 μm particles
of what is essentially, but not completely,
amorphous silica… it has a tendency to
agglomerate and as a result special care
needs to be taken to disperse it when incor-
porated into a cement.” With respect to the
purity of the product, “silica fume meets the
following requirements to be used: amor-
.. Fig. 6.32 Ground fly ash used in a cement plant phous silica ≥ 85% by mass and loss on igni-
(coin about 2 cm) tion ≤ 4% by mass.”
139 6
6.4.7.2 Additives can be subdivided into three main groups: (a)
Additives are “constituents… which are grinding additives, commonly named grind-
added to improve the manufacture of the ing aids, (b) quality improvers or performance
properties of the cement (e.g., grinding aids). enhancers, and (3) functional additives.
The total quantity of additives should not Grinding aids (7 Box 6.2) are compounds

exceed 1% by mass of the cement” (EN 197-1 that are added to the clinker in the cement mill
standard). In a market of increasing competi- to diminish the energy required to grind the
tion, cement manufacturers must reduce costs clinker into a specific fineness. Some positive
to increase profitability. On the other hand, effects in the cement, e.g., rheology of the
the interest in high-performance cements is paste, increased strength, can be obtained
growing in the last decades. Thus, the produc- using additives, these products being generally
tion of such high-performance cements at a named quality improvers because they provide
reasonable cost is nowadays essential and this these additional properties. Strength enhanc-
aim can be reached using suitable cement ing cement additives have become increasingly
additives. They are chemical compounds that, common since the 1980s. Functional additives
when used with clinker and other compo- improve the quality of the cement imparting
nents, greatly expand the performance param- specific functionalities such as promotion of
eters of cements. Several types of products air entrainment, increase of the workability,
can be found in the market. Cement additives and reduction of chromium levels.
Box 6.2
Grinding Additives ponents influence grindability, probably

Grinding aids are organic compounds that are through a modification of crystalline structure
added to the mill during cement grinding and of alite.
have been used for decades in cement produc- The milling media (e.g., balls) are com-
tion. This is because cement clinker is difficult monly coated with cement if no grinding aid
to grind and the fine grinding of this material is is used. Since the clinker particles form
one of the major problems of cement industry. agglomerates that are held together by strong
The main effects of grinding additives are the polar interactions, the main objective of
reduction of energy required to grind the clin- grinding aids is to partially neutralize the
ker into a given fineness and the increase in charges present on the surface of cement par-
grinding efficiency. Another beneficial effect is ticles developed during milling, reducing the
the decrease of compaction in storage. Cement surface free energy of the material being
grinding is an intensive energy-consuming pro- ground. For this aim, the additive molecules
cess since this step consumes about one-third are adsorbed over the surface of the cement
of the power required to produce one ton of particles by weak electrostatic forces, favoring
cement. This excess in power consumption the repulsion, and avoiding their agglomera-
leads to a significant increase in cement pro- tion. In turn, the coating effect is avoided,
duction costs, especially in those regions where enhancing handling and storage conditions.
power is an expensive commodity. . Figure 6.33 shows the effect of grinding

The most important factors affecting the cement clinker with (a) and without (b) grind-
grindability of clinker are the following: (a) ing aid (Engelsen 2009).
amount of belite and alite: clinkers with high Some of the positive effects of grinding
amount of belite commonly display more diffi- aids for cement are therefore the following
culties in grinding, (b) dimension of alite and (Weibel and Mishra 2014): “(a) reduction of
belite crystals: bigger crystals increase clinker surface polarity: grinding aid molecules, with
hardness, and (c) presence of impurities such as their polar and nonpolar parts, compensate
magnesium, sulfate, and potassium: these com- and reduce the polarity of the clinker surfaces
.. Fig. 6.33 Principle of grinding cement clinker with a and without b grinding aid. (Image courtesy of
6 Chryso)
to a considerable extent, (b) reduction of sur- organic compounds. They are usually added at
face energy: in parallel with the polarity, there the entrance of the mill.
is also a reduction in surface energy, and (c) With respect to the dosage level, the grind-
reduction of agglomeration energy: the ing performance in the lower dosage range of
agglomeration energy correlates inversely with grinding aids increases with further addition of
the grinding performance; the lower the forces product. However, in the upper range it flattens
of attraction between two surfaces, the fewer out and at very high levels and sometimes falls
and smaller agglomerates form and the more below the level without additives. Weibel and
efficient is grinding.” Mishra (2014) affirmed that “optimum dosage
Grinding aids most commonly used is levels and excessive dosages depend on the
formed by ethanolamines such as triethanol- chemical structure of the added compounds
amine (TEA) and triisopropanolamine (TIPA) and the local cementitious materials (clinker
along with glycols such as diethylene glycol and supplementary cementitious materials) as
(DEG) and propylene glycol (PG) (Kaplan well as on the fineness and the mill system (type
et al. 2018). The majority of grinding aids and condition).” The most favorable addition
products are dispersed in water for both techni- level depends on the chemicals but commonly
cal and economic reasons. Water increases the ranges between 0.01% and 0.1% by weight of
safety and is itself a weak grinding aid, assist- the active compound. Higher dosages do not
ing the quick and uniform dispersion of the significantly improve grinding performance.
6.4.8 Final Storage and Packaging Dome silos for storing cement up to 30,000
tons or more are probably the most recent
Correct handling, packaging, and shipping of development. They are generally 30 m in
cement are essential to keep the products pro- diameter or greater and are often built around
tected from moisture and to guard against terminals at port facilities. These silos have
impacting the environment. The cement is the capability of handling large shipments of
commonly homogenized and stored in large bulk cement carriers. Care must be taken
silos at the cement plant. At this point, the when operating these installations because the
cement manufacturing process is complete formation of lumps can block the discharge
and the product is ready to be bagged in sealed devices. In general, great bulk of cement is
backpacked onto pallets on a packing station transported in bulk quantities by truck
or transported in bulk away from the plant. (. Fig. 6.34), train, or ship. These are the

6.5 · Clinker Major Phases
141 6
.. Fig. 6.34 Transporting cement using trucks. (Image .. Fig. 6.36 Microscopy image of clinker major phases.
courtesy of LafargeHolcim) (Image courtesy of Francisco Javier Pastor)
materials and chemical composition of the

kiln feed, but overall 70–85% of Portland clin-
ker is alite and belite. Most cement clinkers
contain free CaO, termed uncombined lime, in
quantities up to 2% in weight, and can also
contain free MgO (periclase). It is undesirable
because may cause expansion similar to that
caused by lime but undetected for years.
The main phases begin to form at different
temperatures as the clinker heats up when
passing down the kiln. Thus, belite begins to
form at around 700 °C and alite starts to form
at around 1300 °C but most of this compound
.. Fig. 6.35 Bags of cement. (Image courtesy of is transformed into alite as the temperature
LafargeHolcim)
increases to about 1450 °C. Aluminate and
ferrite both begin to form at about 900 °C.
least expensive and easiest forms of transport. . Table 6.3 shows the main properties of the

The balance of the product is sold in packages clinker major phases.

of various sizes (e.g., 35 kg bag—. Fig. 6.35-)
to bulk bags of several hundred kilograms.

6.5.1 Alite (C3S)
6.5 Clinker Major Phases Alite is the most important constituent of
Portland clinker, of which it constitutes
The composition of Portland clinker is com- 40–70%, and is stable between about 1250 °C
plicated but it basically consists of four main and 1800 °C. It is tricalcium silicate (Ca3SiO5)
compounds, sometimes called phases: alite, and can be modified in composition and crys-
belite, aluminate, and ferrite (. Fig. 6.36).
tal structure by ionic substitutions. In fact,
. Table 6.1 shows the main components
chemically pure alite does not occur in
(major phases) of Portland clinker, including Portland clinker and the C3S formed in clinker
the abbreviations used for phases, and contains around 3–4% of oxides other than
. Table 6.2 shows the approximate chemical
CaO and SiO2. Obviously, the amount and
composition expressed in oxides. The quan- composition of these other oxides depend on
tity of the clinker phases formed depends on the composition of the raw materials used to
the time and temperature treatment of the raw make the clinker, the temperatures at which it
.. Table 6.1 Main components (major phases) of Portland clinker
Mineral Chemical formula Oxide composition Abbreviation
Tricalcium silicate (alite) Ca3SiO5 3CaO.SiO2 C3S

Dicalcium silicate (belite) Ca2SiO4 2CaO.SiO2 C2S
Tricalcium aluminate Ca3Al2O4 3CaO.Al2O3 C3A
Tetracalcium aluminoferrite Ca4AlnFe2-nO7 4CaO.AlnFe2-nO3 C4AF
.. Table 6.2 Approximate oxide composition .. Table 6.3 Main properties of the clinker
6 limits of Portland cement major phases
Oxide Percent content C3S Tricalcium Hydrates and hardens

silicate (alite) rapidly
CaO 60–67 Responsible for initial
set and early strength
SiO2 17–25
C 2S Dicalcium Hydrates and hardens
Al2O3 3.0–8.0 silicate (belite) slowly
Fe2O3 0.5–6.0 Contributes to later
age strength (beyond 7
MgO 0.1–4.0 days)
Alkalies (K2O, Na2O) 0.4–1.3 C 3A Tricalcium Liberates a large
aluminate amount of heat during
SO3 1.3–3.0
first few days
Contributes slightly to
early strength
is burned, and the manner in which it was fur- development
Cements with low %
ther cooled. Alite can decomposes back to ages are more resistant
belite and CaO between 1500 °C and to sulfates
1100 °C. Alite renders the clinker easier to
C4AF Tetracalcium Reduces clinkering
grind and reacts relatively quickly with water, aluminoferrite temperature
being the most important of the constituent (ferrite) Hydrates rapidly but
phases for strength development, particularly contributes little to
at early times; at ages up to 28 days, alite is by strength
far the most important. For this phase to form Color of hydrated
cement (gray) due to
in the burning process, it is essential that sin- ferrite hydrates
tering should occur.
6.5.2 Belite (C2S) temperature and reacts slowly with water,

contributing little to the strength develop-
Belite forms 15–30% of Portland cement clin- ment in the first 28 days. However, it partici-
ker. It is dicalcium silicate (Ca2SiO4) and can pates substantially to further increase in
be also modified by ionic substitutions; it nor- strength cement that takes place at later ages.
mally presents wholly and largely as the Thus, the strengths gained at 1 year from alite
P-polymorph. The overall substitutions of and belite are about the same under similar
oxides range between 4% and 6%, with signifi- conditions. Belite also imparts resistance to
cant quantities of Al2O3, Fe2O3, and K2O. It chemical attack. Changes in phases of belite
occurs mainly in solid form at the clinkering cause a quick disintegration of clinker (falling
6.5 · Clinker Major Phases
143 6
of clinker), being the most easy solution a substitutions. In fact, C4AF is an approxima-
rapid cooling of clinker. tion that simply represents the midpoint of
C2A – C2F compositional series. In this com-
pound, there is significant substitution of
6.5.3 Aluminate (C3A) SiO2 and MgO. The rate at which it reacts
with water appears to be somewhat variable,
Aluminate forms 5–10% of Portland clinkers. probably due to differences in chemical com-
It is tricalcium aluminate (Ca3Al2O6), impor- position, but in general it is very slow reacting
tantly modified in composition and in struc- and of little importance to the properties of
ture by ionic substitutions. It is cubic and does cement. Ferrite is primarily a result of materi-
not exhibit polymorphism when pure. als used in the cement manufacturing process
Aluminate typically contains around 13% to lower the temperatures required in the
oxide substitution: about 4% substitution of kilns. The most significant effect on concrete
SiO2, around 5% substitution of Fe2O3, and is probably its influence on color. Thus, higher
about 1% each of Na2O, K2O, and MgO. It concentrations of ferrite will originate darker
reacts very quickly with water, this being the color concretes. In white cement, the percent-
reason to add a set-controlling agent, e.g., age of ferrite must be strongly controlled,
gypsum, to avoid undesirably rapid setting. commonly between 1% and 2%.
Aluminate plays an important role in the main
characteristics of fresh concrete. It begins the
hydration process rapidly upon exposure to 6.5.5 uality Estimation of Clinker
Q
water and originates a significant amount of Composition
exothermic heat during the early hydration
period (first few days). It also contributes to Traditionally used methods of phase compo-
the very early age strength in the first 3 days. sition and quality of cement clinker analysis
However, its own hydraulic properties are include microscopy, chemical analysis, and
slight and contribute little to the main engi- Bogue calculations (7 Box 6.3). However,

neering properties of cement paste. Raising these methods generally do not allow a quick
the aluminate content reduces the setting time and above all accurate multiphase identifica-
and weakens resistance to sulfate attack. tion and quantification of the composition of
a cement. For this purpose, X-ray diffraction
(XRD) and scanning electron microscopy
6.5.4 Ferrite (C4AF) (SEM) methods are essential for qualitative
and quantitative multiphase analyses because
Ferrite constitutes 5–15% of Portland cement these methods provide a more accurate infor-
clinkers. It is tetracalcium aluminoferrite mation regarding the behavior of the Portland
(Ca2AlFeO5), substantially modified in com- cement paste during hydration, e.g., Jumate
position by variation in Al/Fe ratio and ionic and Manea 2012.
Box 6.3
Bogue Calculations sition. The Bogue compound calculations

The estimation of the potential composition of assume that the clinker has crystallized com-
Portland cement clinker is calculated from the pletely to yield its equilibrium products, that is,
analytical results and is based on the work of the clinker melt (liquid phase in clinkering)
R.H. Bogue and others, often referred to as crystallizes in equilibrium with the solid phases
“Bogue Composition” or “Bogue Compounds.” and assumes that (1) the compositions of the
Thus, the Bogue calculations are a means of four major phases are C3S, C2S, C3A, and C4AF,
calculating the quantity of the main minerals (2) the Fe2O3 occurs as C4AF, and (3) the
present in the clinker based on its oxide compo- remaining Al2O3 occurs as C3A. These assump-
tions lead to the following equations (the Bogue of the Bogue calculations are commonly named
equations more commonly used), in which potential phase compositions, because when
CaO is assumed to have been corrected for free the procedure was designed, it was usually con-
lime: sidered that the main source of error was fail-
ure to reach equilibrium during cooling.
C3S = 4.0710 CaO - 7.6024 SiO 2 - 6.7187 Al2O3 Nevertheless, the principal source of error is
-1.4297 Fe 2O3 - 2.8520 SiO 2
that the compositions of the clinker phases dif-
C2S = 2.8675 SiO 2 - 0.7544 C3S fer considerably from those of the pure com-

pounds. Thus, the results of Bogue calculations
C3A = 2.6504 Al2O3 - 1.6920 Fe 2O3
commonly underestimate alite and overesti-
C4 AF = 3.0432 Fe 2O3 mate belite although the contents of aluminate

and ferrite phases differ only by a few percent
6 Because minor oxide components are excluded, from the calculated (potential) content. Despite
the total for the four principal phases plus free the mineralogical composition obtained by the
lime will not add exactly 100%. It is implicit in Bogue’s equations is not entirely accurate, the
the approach that all the MgO in the system is calculations are so easy to carry out that these
assumed to be present as periclase. The results relations are still generally used in industry.
6.5.6 Reactions in Clinker In turn, the assumed chemical reactions that

Formation take place throughout the kiln are the
following:
The raw meal in the kiln undergoes a series of
reactions as temperature increases gradually 55 CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
(. Fig. 6.37). . Figure 6.38 shows the pro-

55 CaO + 2SiO2 → C2S
cess of clinker production from raw feed to 55 CaO + C2S → C3S
the final product. A simplification of these 55 3CaO + Al2O3 → C3A
reactions is the following: 55 4CaO + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 → C4AF
55 Evaporation of free water (100 °C)

55 Decomposition of the clay minerals (500– 6.6 Hydration, Setting,
800 °C) and Hardening
55 Decarbonation of the calcium carbonate—
calcination (900 to 1000 °C) The chemical reaction between cement and
55 Reactions to form dicalcium silicate (90– water is commonly known as hydration of
1200 °C); liquid is formed only to a minor cement. The extent of hydration and the
extent resultant microstructure of hydrated cement
55 Clinkering reactions at about 1300– influence the physical properties of concrete.
1450 °C to form tricalcium silicate; a melt The chemical reactions that take place are
of aluminate and ferrite is formed to act as quite complex and simple transformation of
a flux to facilitate the formation of alite by anhydrous compounds into the correspond-
the reaction between belite and CaO and ing hydrates is only a simplification. These
the material takes the form of nodules to reactions are exothermic and the amount of
constitute the clinker heat released is sufficient to raise the temper-
55 Cooling of clinker; the melt crystallizes to ature up to 100 °C or more in one day. The
form the ferrite and aluminate phases; reactions of the compounds and their prod-
quick cooling generates a more reactive ucts can be summarized approximately as
cement follows:
6.6 · Hydration, Setting, and Hardening
145 6
3CaO.SiO 2 + H 2 O ® Ca ( OH )2 + calcium silicate hydrate
2C3S + 6H ® C3S2 H3 + 3Ca ( OH )2
When the cement comes in contact with water, ing in hardening and further development of
the silicates and aluminates form products of strength. The hydrated crystals are very small,
hydration that in time generate a firm and fibrous, or tubular in shape and ranging in size
hard mass. About an average 38% of water by from 2 to 10 mm or more. With respect to their
weight of cement is required to complete the mineralogical composition, the crystals formed
chemical reaction. At any stage of hydration, as hydration products can be needle-like crys-
the cement paste consists of gel (a finely tals of ettringite (Ca6Al2(SO4)3(OH)12·26H2O)
grained product of hydration), the remnant and large hexagonal crystals of portlandite
of unreacted cement, calcium hydroxide, and (Ca(OH)2).
water, plus some other minor components. As the hydration proceeds, the deposit of
The gel contains many small gel pores, usually hydration products on the original cement
ranging from 0.5 to 5 μm wide, in between the grains makes the diffusion of water to unhy-
fibrous particles and new products are depos- drated nucleus more difficult, thus reducing
ited within the existing matrix as hydration the rate of hydration with time. According to
continues, decreasing thus the gel porosity. Older (1998), the paste hydration of Portland
The crystals of various resulting com- cement at ambient temperature can be defined
pounds form an interlocking random three- by “four periods: (a) pre-induction period:
dimensional network gradually filling the immediately after contact with water, but
space originally occupied by the water, result- short-lived hydration of C3S gets under way
.. Fig. 6.37 Schematic representation of phase transformations occurring in the preheater and kiln during clinker
production (Costa 2015)
.. Fig. 6.38 Process of clinker production from raw feed to the final product (Hills 2000)
(no more than a few minutes), (b) induction deceleration period: after reaching a maxi-
(dormant) period: period in which the rate of mum, the rate of hydration starts to slow
reaction slows down significantly (few hours), down gradually.” . Figure 6.39 shows a sche-

(c) acceleration (post-induction) period: after matic heat evolution as a function of cement
several hours, the rate of reaction accelerates hydration time. It is usually admitted to subdi-
suddenly and reaches a maximum, and (d) vide the scheme shown in . Fig. 6.39 into five

6.6 · Hydration, Setting, and Hardening
147 6
.. Fig. 6.39 Schematic heat evolution as a function of cement hydration time (and correspondence with the periods
(or stages) of the cement hydration mechanism) (Costa 2015)
different areas and associate each of them cement, due to the formation of expansive
with a distinct period (stages) of the hydration hydrated compounds, e.g., ettringite.
mechanism of a polymineralic cement parti- The hydration of cement is associated
cle; these periods are schematically repre- with both chemical and physicomechanical
sented in . Fig. 6.40.
changes in the system, especially setting and
With time, the rate of hydration decreases hardening. The term setting is used to describe
continuously and the size of unhydrated the stiffening of the cement paste without sig-
cement particles decreases; for instance, grains nificant development of strength, occurring
of cement have hydrated to a depth of only commonly in a few hours. It results in a sud-
4 μm after several days of contact with water. den loss of plasticity of the original paste and
As mentioned earlier, the reaction of C3A its transformation to a solid component. The
with water is very fast (flash setting) and term hardening refers to the significant devel-
CaSO4 must be added to the clinker to avoid opment of strength of a cement paste that fol-
rapid setting. The CaSO4 dissolves lows the setting of the paste, being typically a
immediately in water and the sulfate ions in slower process. After the setting, the cement
the solution react with C3A to create insoluble paste continues to harden during an extended
calcium sulfoaluminate. It then settles out on period of time. Hardening involves a subse-
the surface of the C3A to originate a guarding quent gel formation and gradual crystalliza-
membrane and therefore retarding the hydration of hydration products. It almost
tion reaction. CaSO4 also accelerates calcium completes in about a year although the pro-
silicates hydration, which leads to an increase cess continues over 10 years.
in the compressive strength development dur- It is common to differentiate between set-
ing the early ages. However, it is essential to ting and hardening of cement, but in fact they
control the amount of calcium sulfate added are a continuous and complicated physical
to the cement since it is likely to promote and chemical changing process. All these
dimensional instability in the hardened changes provide essential properties of hard-
.. Fig. 6.40 Scheme of the different periods (or stages) aluminoferrite, C-S-H = calcium silicate hydrate,
of the hydration mechanism of a polymineral cement Aft = calcium trisulfoaluminate hydrated, and
particle: C3S = tricalcium silicate, C2S = dicalcium sili- AFm = calcium monosulfoaluminate hydrated (Costa
cate, C3A = tricalcium aluminate, C4AF = tetracalcium 2015)
ened cement paste, which have an important ting time indicates the beginning of the setting
impact on the application of cement. Setting process when the cement paste begins losing
types are controlled by minor constituents in its plasticity whereas final setting time is the
the cement such as alkalis and sulfates, by time elapsed between the adding of water to
fineness, water-cement ratio, temperature, and the cement and the time when the cement def-
admixtures presence. For instance, the overall initely loses its plasticity and can resist certain
setting time of cement significantly decreases definite pressure.
with a rise in temperature. Nevertheless, the
setting characteristics of the cement paste are
controlled by an initial set and a final set. The 6.7 Properties and Testing
former indicates the rough calculation of the
time at which the paste starts to stiffen consid- To be used, for instance in the manufacture of
erably. Final set approximately establishes the concrete, the cement must have certain given
time at which the cement paste has hardened qualities. In order to satisfy all the require-
and can support some load. Thus, initial set- ments, standards such as EN and ASTM com-
149 6
monly include specifications for chemical last two methods measure the surface area
composition and for physical properties of while the first calculates grain sizes. Because
cement. Although chemical composition of Portland cement is formed by very small par-
Portland cement is essential, especially for the ticles ranging from 10 to 40 μm, the sieve
manufacturer, physical properties provide more method does not estimate the true mean size
direct information about the specific character- of cement particles. Moreover, the fine parti-
istics of Portland cement. Based on these chem- cles generally tend to form lumps, which dis-
ical and physical properties, it is possible to tort the grain size distribution curves.
compare the quality of cement from different An example of the estimation of the fine-
sources. Thus, testing of cement quality is very ness of a cement using sieves is ASTM C430
important in the production of quality con- standard, which covers the calculation of the
crete, being the tests carried out on the cement fineness of hydraulic cement by means of the
either on dry powder or hardened cement paste. 45 μm (No. 325) sieve. With respect to air per-
Obviously, understanding the significance of meability methods, ASTM C204 standard
physical and chemical properties is helpful in covers determination of the fineness of
interpreting the results of cement tests. The hydraulic cement utilizing the Blaine air per-
most important physical and chemical proper- meability apparatus, in terms of the specific
ties of cement and their associated tests are as surface expressed as total surface area in
written in the following headings. With respect square centimeters per gram of cement. The
to European standards, most cement testing Blaine method is the reference test method
standards are included in the EN 196 series employing the manually operated standard
termed methods of testing cement, although Blaine apparatus (. Fig. 6.41). Finally,

other standards are also used. ASTM C115/C115M standard establishes the
6.7.1 Physical Properties
The most important physical properties of

Portland cement are fineness, setting time,
soundness, compressive strength, specific
gravity, and heat of hydration.
6.7.1.1 Fineness
Fineness is a measure of the size of particles
and is commonly expressed in terms of spe-
cific surface area. The specific surface area of
cement particles ranges from 300 to 550 m2/
kg. The finer the cement, the higher the rate of
hydration because more surface area is avail-
able for chemical reaction. Thus, fineness is an
essential factor in determining the rate of gain
of strength, especially at the beginning of the
hydration process. As such, the final grinding
is a major factor influencing the class of
strength of the cement. However, if the cement
is extremely ground, its properties are affected
due to the hydration produced by atmospheric
moisture.
There are several methods for testing fine-
ness: the sieve methods, the air permeability .. Fig. 6.41 Blaine air permeability apparatus. (Image
methods, and the turbidimeter methods. The courtesy of ELE International)
determination of the fineness of Portland paste. Initial setting time establishes the time
cement as represented by a calculated mea- at which the cement paste loses its plasticity
sure of specific surface of cement utilizing the and final setting time is the time taken to reach
Wagner turbidimeter. On the other hand, the stage when the past becomes a hard mass.
European standard EN 196-6 covers determi- Thus, initial setting time marks the point in
nation of the fineness of cement by means of time when the paste has become unworkable.
the sieves and using the Blaine air permeabil- Final setting time should not be too long in
ity apparatus. order to resume construction activity within a
logical time after the placement of concrete
6.7.1.2 Setting Times because the molds must be removed after this
Determination of initial and final setting time. Vicat apparatus is the universal method
times defines the rheological properties of to measure initial and final setting time
cement in terms of stiffening of the cement (7 Box 6.4).
6

Box 6.4
Vicat Apparatus The Vicat frame consists essentially of a

Vicat Apparatus is designed to determine the rod weighing 300 grams, having a needle in
initial and final setting time of cement. ASTM each end, and supported in a frame with a
C191 and EN 196-3 are the US and European graduated scale to measure the distance to
standards, respectively, to determine the time of which the needle penetrates the cement. For
setting of hydraulic cement by means of the calculating the initial set, a round needle with a
Vicat needle. There is a reference test method diameter of about 1.0 mm is used (. Fig. 6.43).

using the manually operated standard Vicat This needle, acting under a p rescribed weight,
apparatus and another method that permits the is used to penetrate a paste of standard consis-
use of an automatic Vicat machine (. Fig. 6.42).

tency located in a standardized mold. When the
paste stiffens sufficiently for the needle to pen-
etrate no deeper than to a point around 6 mm
from the bottom, initial setting has taken place.
Initial setting time is expressed as the time
elapsed since the mixing water was added to the
cement. The initial setting time of the Portland
cement is commonly around 30 minutes.
A similar needle fitted with a metal attach-
ment estimates final set. It is said to have taken
.. Fig. 6.42 Vicat apparatus. (Image courtesy of .. Fig. 6.43 Needle used in the Vicat apparatus.
LafargeHolcim) (Image courtesy of LafargeHolcim)
151 6
place when the needle, gently lowered to the added to the cement. Generally, the final set-
surface of the paste, penetrates it to a depth of ting time of Portland cement ranges from 10 to
0.5 mm but the circular cutting edge fails to 12 hours. Because the setting of cement is
make an impression on the surface of the paste, affected by temperature and humidity of the
that is, when the needle just makes the impres- surrounding air, these are specified in the cor-
sion on the surface of the cement but do not responding standard (e.g., a temperature of
penetrate into it. The final setting is calculated around 20 °C and a minimum relative humidity
from the moment when mixing water was of about 50% in EN 196-3 standard).
6.7.1.3 Soundness is placed in an autoclave (high-pressure steam

Soundness refers to the ability of a hardened vessel). The change in length of the specimen
paste to retain its volume. Consequently, the is calculated by subtracting the length com-
unsoundness of cement is originated by the parator reading before autoclaving from that
undesirable expansion of some of its compo- after autoclaving, and report as percent of
nents. This is assured by establishing limits to effective gage length to the nearest 0.01%.
the amounts of free lime and magnesia that
generate change in volume of cement. On the 6.7.1.4 Compressive Strength
other hand, fine grinding of the raw materials Three types of strength calculations can be
and clinker helps to manufacture sound obtained in cement: compressive, tensile, and
cement. Accelerated hydration methods are flexural. The most important physical prop-
commonly used in cement manufacturing to erty of cement is compressive strength because
control that it does not possess unsoundness. this property defines the quality of the final
It is essential that concrete manufactured with concrete product and is perhaps the most
cement does not undergo important changes obvious property required for structural use.
in volume after setting. Big changes in volume Compressive strength is influenced mainly by
accompanying expansion result in disintegra- the composition and fineness of the cement.
tion and intense cracking, ultimately leading The compressive strength test is of undoubted
to failure. importance as an indication of ability of the
The main tests to evaluate soundness are cement to manufacture quality concrete.
the Le Chatelier test and the autoclave test. However, it is very important to bear in mind
Standard EN 196-3 estimates changes of vol- that cement strength cannot be used to predict
ume in cement using Le Chatelier method. In accuracy concrete strengths since many
this method, cement paste of normal consis- variables are involved in the calculation (e.g.,
tency is taken between glass slides and sub- aggregates characteristics or concrete mixtures).
merged in water for around 24 hours. The Strength tests are not made on a neat
sample is then taken out to measure the dis- cement paste because of difficulties of mold-
tance between the marks and returned to ing and testing, which produce a large vari-
water. It is then boiled and after cooling the ability of test data. Thus, a mortar of cement
distance between indicators is again calcu- and sand is used for these tests. ASTM C109/
lated. This distance must not exceed 10 mm in C109 and EN 196-1 standards estimate the
a good quality cement. ASTM C151/C151M compressive strength of these mortars. In
standard evaluates soundness with autoclave: European standard, the sand is natural, sili-
“the autoclave expansion test provides an ceous, rounded, and can be obtained from
index of potential delayed expansion caused various sources. The sand/cement ratio is 3,
by the hydration of CaO or MgO, or both, and the water/cement ratio is 0.50. The molds
when present in a hardened cement paste.” In and samples obtained (. Fig. 6.44) are 40 by

this test, cement paste of normal consistency 40 by 160 mm prisms, which are first tested in
.. Fig. 6.44 Molds to obtain samples for calculation of .. Fig. 6.45 Testing machine to calculate compression
flexural and compression strength in cement. (Image strength in cement. (Image courtesy of LafargeHolcim)
courtesy of LafargeHolcim)
flexure (loading at the center point of the particles themselves and for cement. When
mold until failure) so as to break into halves. used in concrete, the space around the cement
Thus, optional flexural strength estimation particles is taken up by water so there is no air
can be obtained. In both standards, a mechan- around the particles and the bulk density is
ical testing machine equipped with the appro- not important. Density of cement is not an
priate compression platens is used for the test indication of its quality. Nevertheless, the
(. Fig. 6.45). The total maximum load
weight of the particles and their volume are
obtained in the machine is recorded and important so that the relative density or spe-
reported; the compressive strength is then cific gravity is normally used in mixture pro-
estimated based on the load and the sample portioning calculations volume because
dimensions. concrete is sold by volume. Commonly
assumed particle density for Portland cement
6.7.1.5 Density is 3.15 g/cm3 but this value will not be exact if
There are several ways to express the relation- limestone or other admixtures are blended
ship between mass and volume in cement. into the cement. For instance, pozzolan
Thus, density, bulk density, and specific grav- cements have densities ranging from 2.90 to
ity represent different things. The density of 3.15 g/cm3.
hydraulic cement is defined as the mass of a The current ASTM standard for measur-
unit volume of the solids and is reported as ing cement density is ASTM C188, which uti-
tons per cubic meter or grams per cubic centi- lizes a liquid displacement method to measure
meter (the numeric value is the same for both the volume of the cement. The density is cal-
units). The bulk density reflects the volume culated utilizing the mass of powder. A spe-
taken up by the cement plus any air trapped cial flask, the so-called Le Chatelier flask, is
between the particles. The relative density or used to facilitate the volume measurement.
specific gravity is the weight of the material This test method covers the determination of
6.8 · Types of Cements
153 6
the density of hydraulic cement and its par- of hydraulic cements. General procedures
ticular usefulness is in connection with the commonly include sample weighing, taring of
design and control of concrete mixtures. crucibles, weighing of ignited residues, volatil-
ization of platinum, chemical analyses, and
6.7.1.6 Heat of Hydration calculation. Reporting of analyses is usually
Heat of hydration is the heat generated at a produced in the following order: major com-
given temperature, in calories per gram, when ponents, minor components, and separate
cement and water react. The amount of heat determinations. Reference test methods and
liberated depends on the chemical composi- procedures in ASTM C114 standard include
tion of cement, alite, and belite being respon- “determination of insoluble residue, silicon
sible for high heat production. The total heat dioxide, ammonium hydroxide group, ferric
generated in the complete hydration process oxide, phosphorus pentoxide, titanium diox-
will depend on the relative quantities of prin- ide, zinc oxide, aluminum oxide, calcium
cipal components of cement. Other factors oxide, magnesium oxide, sulfur, loss on igni-
influencing heat of hydration are temperature, tion, sodium and potassium oxides, manganic
water/cement ratio, and fineness of cement. A oxide, chloride, chloroform-soluble organic
rise of these variables increases the heat of substances.” EN 196-2 is the European stan-
hydration. In general, common Portland dard for chemical analysis of cement.
cement generates about 90 calories per gram
of heat in 7 days and from 90 to 100 calories
per gram in 28 days. Heat of hydration is not 6.8 Types of Cements
calculated as a routine test but is essential in
concrete structures with low surface/volume As with so many types of construction mate-
ratio because a high rate of heat evolution in rials, each country has its own standards for
the early stages of cement can cause intense cement (in this sense, the European Cement
cracking in concrete. Association published in 2017 a book entitled
ASTM C186 standard test method “covers Cement Standards of the World). Nevertheless,
the determination of the heat of hydration of the main types of cement worldwide can be
a hydraulic cement by measuring the heat of outlined according to ASTM, EN, and ISO
solution of the dry cement and the heat of standards. The European Committee for
solution of a separate portion of the cement Standardization (CEN) and the correspond-
that has been partially hydrated for 7 and for ing Technical Committee (TC 51) decided to
28 days, the difference between these values group the different types of cements in two
being the heat of hydration for the respective main categories: common cements and special
hydrating period.” Since nitric and hydroflu- cements. The first category includes those
oric acid solutions are used in the test, the cements provided for common uses (EN 197-1
results can be inaccurate if some of the com- standard) while special cements are those
ponents of the hydraulic cement are insoluble cements having different mechanisms of hard-
in these solutions. EN 196-8 standard ening or additional special properties, e.g.,
calculates the heat of hydration of cement sulfate-resisting cements, low-heat cements,
using the solution method, and EN 196-9 and calcium aluminate cements. As common
standard estimates this variable utilizing the cements in Europe represent more than 95%
semi-adiabatic method. of European cement production, this category
of cements is described in more detail than
the other types of cement.
6.7.2 Chemical Properties The constituents of cement can be subdi-
vided into main and minor additional con-
Chemical composition of cement is routinely stituents. Main constituents are those
carried out in both clinker and cement. ASTM substances with content exceeding 5% by
C114 standard covers the chemical analyses mass. In addition to Portland cement clinker
(K), the main constituents established for use There is official designation and/or code
in common cements are as follows: (1) granu- for each type of common cement. It includes
lated blast-furnace slag (S), (2) pozzolanic letters and numbers based on the type of
material (P or Q), (3) fly ash (V or W), (4) cement and the compressive strength class.
burnt shale (T), (5) limestone (L or LL), and For instance, Portland cement of strength
(6) silica fume. Minor additional constituents class 42.5 R is designed as CEM I 42.5R and
are the same substances but with maximum blast-furnace cement, containing between
content of 5% by mass as well as inorganic 66% and 80% by mass of granulated blast-
mineral substances from clinker production. furnace slag of strength class 32.5 is designed
The data of the final cement composition, as CEIII/B 32.5 N. European standards are
also concerning the proportions of calcium not yet available for special cements with the
sulfate and additives, always relate to the total exception of the following: (a) very low-heat
of all main and minor additional constituents special cements (EN 14216 standard), (b) cal-
6 in the cement without taking into account the cium aluminate cement (EN 14647 standard),
quantities of calcium sulfate and additives. In and (c) masonry cement (EN 413-1 standard).
other words, calcium sulfate and additives are The ASTM standards are also very impor-
excluded from the compositional calculations. tant and contain regulations form the follow-
Based on these constituents, EN 197-1 ing cements: (a) Portland cement (ASTM
standard outlines 27 different types of com- C150/C150M standard), (b) blended hydrau-
mon cements that are shown in . Table 6.4
lic cement of defined composition (ASTM
and can be grouped into five main categories: C595/595M standard), (c) blended hydraulic
(1) CEM I—Portland cement, (2) CEM II— cement with defined performance features
Portland-composite cement; (3) CEM III— (ASTM C1157/1157M standard), and (d)
blast-furnace cement, (4) CEM IV—pozzolanic expansive cement (ASTM C845/845 M stan-
cement, and (5) CEM V—composite cement. dard). With respect to the first group, ASTM
CEM I is Portland cement containing at least C150 standard provides for ten types of
95% by mass of Portland cement clinker. Portland cement (. Table 6.5). Although all

CEM II includes cements that contain clinker types are basically similar, they differ primar-
and one or more cited above constituents in a ily in their content in C3A and in their fine-
proportion of between 6% and 35% by mass ness. The different types are produced to meet
(silica fume up to a maximum content of 10% different physical and chemical requirements
by mass). In this group, the cement with the for specific applications. Thus, type I, com-
maximum amount of Portland cement clinker monly used as a reference, is a normal, general
is designated with the letter A whereas those purpose Portland cement suitable for all uses
with the lower content in Portland cement (e.g., most buildings, bridges, pavements, pre-
clinker is designated as B. CEM III is the cast concrete products, etc.) where the special
group for three types of blast-furnace cement, properties of other types of cement are not
which are subdivided based on Portland needed. It contains about 50% C3S, 25% C2S,
cement clinker content. CEM IV is pozzolanic 12% C3A, 8% C4AF, and 5% gypsum.
cements with two subtypes and CEM V Types II and V are designed to be resistant
comprises composite cements which contain to sulfate attack, keeping the C3A content low.
36 to 80% by mass of granulated blast-furnace They are used for structures in water or soil
slag and/or pozzolana and/or siliceous fly ash. containing moderate (type II <8% C3A) or
With regard to compressive strength char- high (type V <8% C3A) amount of sulfate.
acterization of common cements, three stan- Type III is designed to develop early strength
dard compressive strength classes are defined more rapidly than type I, generally in a week
at 28 days (32.5 N/mm2, 42.5 N/mm2, and or less, which is very useful to maintain a
52.5 N/mm2). The three classes are further quick pace of construction. This characteris-
subdivided based on their initial strength into tic is obtained by finer grinding and by
normal hardening (letter N = normal) and increasing C3S and C3A contents. Type IV
rapid hardening (letter R = rapid). generates heat more slowly than type I and
.. Table 6.4 Types of European common cements
Main Notation of the 27 products (types of Composition (percentage by mass3)

types common cement) Main constituents Minor additional
Clinker Blast- Silica Pozzolana Fly ash Burnt Limestone constituents
furnace fume Natural Natural Siliceous Calcareous shale
slag
calcined
K S Db P Q V W T L LL
CEM I Portland cement CEM I 95– – – – – – – – – – 0–5

100
CEM Portland-slag cement CEM 80–94 6–20 – – – – – – – – 0–5
II II/A-S
CEM 65–79 21–35 – – – – – – – – 0–5
II/B-S
Portland-silica fume CEM 90–94 – 6–10 – – – – – – – 0–5
cement II/A-D
Portland-pozzolana CEM 80–94 – – 6–20 – – – – – – 0–5
cement II/A-P
CEM 65–79 – – 21–35 – – – – – – 0–5
II/B-P
CEM 80–94 – – – 6–20 – – – – – 0–5
II/A-Q
CEM 65–79 – – – 21–35 – – – – – 0–5
II/B-Q
(continued)
6 155
6
156
.. Table 6.4 (continued)
Main Notation of the 27 products (types of Composition (percentage by mass3)

types common cement) Main constituents Minor additional
Clinker Blast- Silica Pozzolana Fly ash Burnt Limestone constituents
furnace fume Natural Natural Siliceous Calcareous shale
slag calcined
K S Db P Q V W T L LL
Chapter 6 · Cement
Portland-fly ash CEM 80–94 – – – – 6–20 – – – – 0–5

cement II/A-V
CEM 65–79 – – – – 21–35 – – – – 0–5
II/B-V
CEM 80–94 – – – – – 6–20 – – – 0–5
III/A-W
CEM 65–79 – – – – – 21–35 – – – 0–5
II/B-W
Portland-burnt shale CEM 80–94 – – – – – – 6–20 – – 0–5
cement II/A-T
CEM 65–79 – – – – – – 21–35 – – 0–5
II/B-T
Portland-limestone CEM 80–94 – – – – – – – 6–20 – 0–5
cement II/A-L
CEM 65–79 – – – – – – – 21– – 0–5
II/B-L 35
CEM 80–94 – – – – – – – – 6-20 0–5
II/A-LL
CEM 65–79 – – – – – – – – 21- 0–5
II/B-LL 35
Portland-composite CEM 80–88 ←12–20→ 0–5
cementc II/A-M
CEM 65–79 ←21–35→
II/B-M
CEM Blast-furnace cement CEM III/A 35–64 36–65 – – – – – – – – 0–5
III
CEM III/B 20–34 66–80 – – – – – – – – 0–5

CEM III/C 5–19 81–95 – – – – – – – – 0–5
CEM Pozzolanic cementc CEM IV/A 65–89 – ←11–35→ – – – 0–5
IV
CEM IV/B 45–64 _ ←36–55→ – – – 0–5
CEM V Composite cementc CEM V/A 40–64 18–30 – ←18–30→ – – – – 0–5
CEM V/B 20–38 31–49 – ←31–49→ – – – – 0–5
aThe values in the table refer to the sum of the main and minor additional constituents
bThe proportion of silica fume is limited to 10%
cIn Portland-composite cements CEM II/A-M and CEM II/B-M, in pozzolanic cements CEM IV/A, and CEM IV/B and in composite cements CEM V/A and CEM V/B,
the main constituents other than clinker shall be declared by designation of the cement
6 157
.. Table 6.5 Different types of Portland

cements according to ASTM C150 standard
Type I Normal
Type IA Normal, air-entraining
Type II Moderate sulfate resistance
Type IIA Moderate sulfate resistance,
air-entraining
Type II Moderate heat of hydration and
(MH) moderate sulfate resistance
Type II Moderate heat of hydration and
6 (MH)A moderate sulfate resistance,
air-entraining .. Fig. 6.46 Nodules of white cement clinker
Type III High early strength

cess. For instance, higher than 2000 °C tem-
Type High early strength, air-entraining peratures are required because of the absence
IIIA of fusing elements in the raw materials.
Type IV Low heat of hydration The groups (b) and (c), termed hydraulic
Type V High sulfate resistance
cements, are manufactured by blending two or
more types of admixtures (e.g., granulated
blast-furnace slag, fly ash, or silica fume) and
they are used in the same manner as Portland
also gains strength more slowly, being useful cements. The group (b) includes the following
for massive structures, e.g., large gravity dams. types of hydraulic cements: (1) IS—Portland
This type of cement is nowadays rarely avail- blast-furnace slag cement, (2) IP and P—
able. Types IA, IIA, and IIIA are cements Portland pozzolan cements, (3) I (PM)—poz-
used to make air-entrained concrete. They zolan modified Portland cement, (4) S—slag
correspond in composition to types I, II, and cement, and (5) I (SM)—slag modified
III, respectively, except that small amounts of Portland cement. Regarding the group (c),
air-entraining material are interground with ASTM C1157 standard provides for six types
the clinker during production. These cements of hydraulic cements: (1) GU—general use,
generate concrete with improved resistance to (2) HE—high early strength, (3) MS—moder-
freezing and thawing. ate sulfate resistance, (4) HS—high sulfate
The gray color of most Portland cements is resistance, (5) MH—moderate heat of hydra-
largely due to ferrite. The utilization of nonfer- tion, and (6) LH—low heat of hydration.
rite containing materials results in a very low Expansive cements (ASTM C845/845M
C4AF content in cement, which is termed white standard) are hydraulic cements that expand
Portland cement. Raw materials such as highly slightly during the early hardening period
pure limestone, kaolin, quartz sand, feldspar after setting and are designated as type E-1.
or diatomaceous earth are selected based According to their chemical composition, up
mainly on their low iron contents. Manufacture to three different varieties of expansive
of white cement is similar to gray cement, the cements are recognized and designated as K,
combination of cooling and whitening being M, and S, which are added as a suffix to the
the main technological difference. White type (e.g., E-1(K)). The most important
Portland cement is very attractive in decorative advantage of these cements is probably the
applications because it is an almost pure white control and reduction of drying shrinkage
color product (. Fig. 6.46). However, white
cracks. Finally, ISO standards (e.g., ISO/TC
Portland cement is significantly more expen- 74, ISO 679, or ISO 9597) also define different
sive that other cements due to the increased topics of cements such as definitions, methods
costs of the raw materials and production proof testing, and specifications.
159 6
6.9 Environmental Considerations erates about 5% of global man-made CO2
emissions (50% in clinker production, 40%
The cement manufacturing process is complex from the fuel burning, and 10% from electric-
because it can involve a large number of mate- ity use and transportation). The production
rials, manufacturing techniques, and fuel of cement releases greenhouse gas emissions
sources. However, the main environmental both directly and indirectly. CO2 is generated
problems dealing with cement manufacturing at two points during cement production: as a
are energy consumption and emissions to air, by-product of burning of fossil fuels, which
being both closely interlinked. Since cement indirectly results in CO2 emissions, and from
production is one of the most energy-intensive the thermal decomposition of calcium car-
of all industrial manufacturing processes, bonate, releasing CO2 directly. Currently, 1 kg
understanding the environmental consider- of cement emits 0.6–0.8 kg of CO2, which is a
ations of cement production is becoming low amount in comparison to other material
essential in the last two decades. For this pur- production emissions, e.g., aluminum.
pose, life cycle inventory (LCI) of Portland Nevertheless, the impact of cement industries
cement is essential, e.g., Marceau et al. 2006. is significant due to the volume of cement pro-
LCI is a quantification of the inputs and out- duction and it the reduction of CO2 emission
puts (materials, energy, and emissions) from a is imperative.
given product or service throughout its life There are three main levels for CO2 reduc-
cycle. With respect to cement, LCI is the most tions: (1) the use of alternative fuels to replace
accurate data on the inputs and emissions coal and petroleum coke in the cement kiln
related to its manufacture. Moreover, the LCI heating process, (2) the substitution of clinker
of this material is in turn the basis of the LCI with other materials in cement, and (3) car-
of concrete, concrete products, and concrete bon capture and storage. Emissions from
structures. burning fossil fuels to heat the kiln can be
diminished by changing to alternative fuels
since these less carbon-intensive fuels could
6.9.1 CO2 Emissions reduce overall cement emissions. Alternative
fuel utilization started in the 1980s and alter-
In cement manufacturing, energy consump- native fuels principally used include tires
tion depends on many factors such as size and (. Fig. 6.47), animal residues, sewage slud-

plant design, raw materials properties, specific ges, motor oil, spent solvents, printing inks,
caloric values of fuel, type of clinker, etc. paint residues, waste oil, waste wood, and
Energy cost amounts to about 40% of total solid recovered fuels retrieved from industry
production costs involved in manufacturing waste streams. Waste derived fuels consist of
one ton of cement, thermal energy, e.g., fuel, shredded paper, plastics, textiles, and rubber.
and electrical energy demand being the most There can be an indirect effect of emissions
important. Historically, the primary solid fos- being reduced if wastes are used in a cement
sil fuel used was coal but a various number of plant instead of being landfilled or inciner-
other solid, liquid, or gaseous fossil fuels such ated in separate installations with correspond-
as petroleum coke (. Fig. 6.23), lignite, and

ing additional emissions. On the other hand,
natural gas are also used. the CO2 reduction potential can be significant
Since concern over the impact of anthro- if pure biomass use is assumed.
pogenic carbon emissions on the global cli- While in some kilns up to 100% substitu-
mate has increased in the last decades due to tion rates have been reached, local waste mar-
the importance of growth in global warming, kets and permitting conditions do not allow
it is essential to bear in mind that cement pro- for higher rates of alternative fuel substitution
duction is the third ranking producer of in many others. This is because alternative
anthropogenic (man-made) CO2 in the world fuel utilization needs the adaptation of the
after transport and energy generation. It gen- combustion process since the physical and
.. Fig. 6.47 Tires (left) and tire chips (right) constitute a typical alternative fuel in cement manufacturing
6
chemical properties of most alternative fuels vant international environmental agree-
differ significantly from those of conventional ments.”
fuels. The co-processing of wastes in the Some alternative fuels may be easily used
cement kiln is a combination of recycling and in the cement industry but many others can
thermal recovery. According to The European cause technical issue due to their low calorific
Cement Association (Cembureau), co-value, high moisture content, and/or high
processing consists of “using both the calo- concentration of chlorine or other harmful
rific potential to heat the kiln and the material substances. However, although cement pro-
component from the fuel ash as a raw mate- duction is energy-intensive, the high tempera-
rial, thereby reducing our requirement for tures used in the cement kiln have clear one
natural resources.” Thus, the mineral portion advantage: the potential for burning hazard-
of the waste is reused during the process and ous waste as a fuel. The alternative fuels can
replaces virgin raw materials. At the same be burned relatively safely since extremely
time, the energy content of the waste is ade- high temperatures in the kiln result in com-
quately recovered into thermal energy, saving plete combustion and low pollution emissions.
conventional fuels. Co-processing has also a In this sense, municipal solid waste incinera-
direct impact on decreasing C = 2 emissions tors work at considerably lower temperatures.
because it diminishes the quantity of natural Therefore, thermal destruction in a cement
raw materials required for clinker manufac- kiln is the safest method for disposal of many
turing. In 2010, the European cement indus- types of chemicals.
try recovered or recycled: (a) over 13 million In this sense, the European Integrated
tons of granulated blast-furnace slag, (b) close Pollution Prevention and Control Bureau
to five million tons of fly ash; and (c) over (EIPPCB—2013) “has identified several fea-
seven million tons of waste materials such as tures specific to a cement kiln system that
tires, sewage sludge, or saw dust. result in the destruction of organic pollutants
Co-processing must observe the waste because of high temperatures and a suffi-
hierarchy, that is (Cembureau): “(a) does not ciently long retention time. This results in
hamper waste reduction efforts, (b) does not typically lower dioxins/furans (a family of
replace recovery nor recycling but is a waste toxic substances that all share a similar chem-
management solution that can reduce the ical structure) and volatile organic compounds
amount of waste that is landfilled or inciner- (VOC) linked to fuel from cement kilns and
ated without energy and material recovery, (c) lower heavy metal emissions compared to
is regarded as a flexible and integral part of other methods of thermally processing the
modern waste management, as it provides an waste. Typically, emission limits for these
environmentally sound resource recovery combustion-related compounds are the same
option, and (d) must remain in line with rele- or lower than those for waste incinerators.
161 6
The main features are: (a) kilns operate at completely immobilized in this way; so their
high temperatures, (b) the typical residence content in raw and/or waste materials must be
time of combustion gases in the kiln is more assessed and controlled.”
than five seconds at a temperature higher than As to the substitution of clinker with other
1000°C; by contrast, gas residence time in a mineral materials in cement, another option
typical incinerator is two seconds; residence to decrease the environmental impact of CO2
time for solid materials varies from 20 min- emissions in cement production is to reduce
utes to an hour depending on the cement pro- the amount of clinker in the cement. Cements
cess, (c) the process takes place under oxidizing that include other components besides clinker
conditions with good mixing conditions, show a lower clinker-to-cement ratio than
assuring good combustion and avoiding the Portland cement and, consequently, exhibit
generation of carbon monoxide (CO) and less energy demand for the clinker burning as
other deleterious compounds, (d) the ther- well as less CO2 emissions. Thus, blended
mally consistent conditions in a kiln guaran- cements replace some of the limestone-based
tee the complete destruction of organic clinker with other materials such as coal fly
components in the waste, (e) waste materials ash and blast-furnace slag, decreasing CO2
in the kiln are in contact with a large flow of emissions by as much as 20%. The utilization
alkaline (basic) materials that neutralize of limestone as a minor constituent in cement
potential acid off-gases from combustion, (f) is an efficient method to reduce the clinker/
any inorganic mineral residues from combus- cement ratio of cement. On the other hand,
tion, including most heavy metals, are trapped the use of alternative calcium-containing raw
in the complex matrix of the clinker and material that is already decarbonated offers
cement, (g) complete combustion and the an opportunity to reduce CO2 emissions gen-
trapping of mineral residues mean that in erated from the decarbonation of raw materi-
most cases there is no ash residue from the als as well as CO2 emissions from the fuel
process, and (h) cement kilns are often fitted required for decarbonation.
with waste heat recovery and power genera- Finally, CO2 capture and storage
tion systems; such systems do not alter the (7 Box 6.5) is an approach to CO2 abate-

emission profile of the cement kiln, including ment, by which CO2 arising from large point
the formation of dioxin/furan or VOC emis- sources like power plants and industrial pro-
sions. However, some volatile heavy metals cesses is captured and stored away from the
(e.g. mercury, cadmium or thallium) are not atmosphere for a very long period of time.
Box 6.5
CO2 Capture and Storage line or ship, for safe and permanent

Carbon capture and storage (CCS) is a technol- underground storage, preventing it from enter-
ogy designed to mitigate climate change. ing the atmosphere and contributing to anthro-
According to The Carbon Capture & Storage pogenic climate change” (. Fig. 6.48).

Association (CCSA), “CCS, or carbon capture Therefore, CCS involves the capture of CO2,
and storage, sometimes also called carbon cap- either prior to or after combustion of the fuel,
ture and sequestration, is a low carbon technol- transportation of the CO2 to a suitable storage
ogy that captures carbon dioxide (CO2) from site, and the process of the storage of the CO2
the burning of coal and gas for power genera- to a suitable geologic formation. ISO/TR
tion, and from the manufacturing of steel, 27912:2016(en): Carbon dioxide capture—
cement and other industrial facilities. The car- Carbon dioxide capture systems, technologies,
bon dioxide is then transported by either pipe- and processes, states that CO2 capture is the
infrastructure needed to access those resources”

(Anderson 2017).
Capturing carbon dioxide is the first step in
carbon capture and storage (CCS). For indus-
trial applications such as cement production,
CO2 can be separated in different ways: before,
after, and during the production of CO2. Thus,
three main types of CO2 capture can be out-
lined: precombustion, post-combustion, and
oxyfuel with post-combustion. Precombustion
capture processes transform fuel into a gaseous
.. Fig. 6.48 Principles behind carbon capture and mixture of hydrogen and CO2. The hydrogen is
6 storage. (Illustration courtesy of Kraftwerk Forsc- separated and can be burnt without producing
hung) any CO2, which can be compressed for trans-
port and storage. Post-combustion processes
“separation of CO2 in such a manner as to pro- separate CO2 from combustion exhaust gases.
duce a concentrated stream of CO2 that can Carbon dioxide can be captured utilizing a liq-
readily be transported for storage.” uid solvent or other separation processes. Once
Because the cement industry is one of the absorbed by the solvent, the CO2 is released by
most important CO2 emitters after the power heating to form a high-purity CO2 stream. This
sector, the application of CO2 capture and stor- method is the most developed of the three men-
age technologies is being discussed in the tioned. With regard to oxyfuel combustion pro-
cement industry. One of the major advantages cesses, they employ oxygen rather than air for
of CCS as an emissions reduction technology is combustion of fuel. This produces exhaust gas
that it can be applied to different types of CO2 that is mostly water vapor and CO2 that can be
emissions sources, particularly those with very easily separated to produce a high-purity CO2
large volumes of emissions (e.g., cement stream. Oxy-fuel combustion is the least devel-
plants). For some industrial processes such as oped of the three options and has not yet been
cement production, CO2 capture and storage commercialized.
are the only technological alternative that can ECRA (2017) points out that “today, most
help secure deep emissions reduction. Besides capture technologies are still in the stage of
technical aspects, economic feasibility will be research and require more investigation regard-
decisive for future applications of carbon cap- ing the technical and economic feasibility
ture in the cement industry. Nevertheless, there before industrial–scale installations can be real-
are still a large number of barriers to the large- ized at the clinker burning process. Up to now,
scale implementation of carbon capture and only few operational experiences from small-
storage, being these barriers political and eco- scale projects are available in the cement sector.
nomic in nature. For instance, the actual price At the moment, the costs for CO2 capture
of releasing CO2 into the atmosphere is much amount from >50 to >70 €/t CO2 avoided.
lower than the investment required to achieve However, it is expected that the cost will
deep emission reductions. Indeed, it is clear decrease to ≤40 €/t CO2 avoided in the future
that governments must play a role to overcome according to the technical and scientific prog-
this gap. However, “the potential costs of com- ress. This estimate has been made for a refer-
mercial-scale CO2 storage are not well con- ence cement plant with a clinker production
strained, stemming from the inherent capacity of 6000 t/day. According to the cur-
uncertainty in storage resource estimates cou- rent state of knowledge, some CO2 capture
pled with a lack of detailed estimates of the technologies seem to be more appropriate for a
163 6
potential application at cement kilns than oth- storage site is an essential step in CCS process.
ers. Post-combustion technologies are end-of- Transport of CO2 by pipeline is a mature tech-
pipe measures which would not require nology, with CO2 being transported for over
fundamental changes in the clinker burning 40 years in pipelines in the United States. There
process. Therefore, these technologies would be are millions of kilometers of pipelines world-
applicable not only at new kilns, but also for wide transporting different types of gases,
retrofits at existing cement kilns. The most including CO2. Transport by shipping is the
advanced post-combustion technology is most cost-effective form of transporting CO2
chemical absorption because operational expe- over distances longer than 2400 km, being the
riences are available from several industries, process of transporting very similar to ship-
and high abatement rates also seem to be ping Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG). Finally,
achievable. These technologies are being tested captured CO2 is stored by injection in the geo-
in the cement industry at pilot-scale level. logical subsurface. In theory, this process is
However, the significant additional costs of the analogous to natural gas being trapped in
post-combustion technologies are a major bar- hydrocarbon pools. There are two main types
rier to their full-scale application. Thus, oxy- of suitable geologic sites for storage of CO2:
fuel technology is currently seen as a more old fossil fuel fields and saline aquifers, ideally
economic candidate for CO2 capture at cement located at depths greater than 800 m. Both
kilns although it is still very costly. Furthermore, must be sufficiently porous and permeable to
oxyfuel technology has been investigated at allow CO2 injection at the desired rate and be
power plants, so that some of the results able to hold the desired volume. Obviously, an
obtained may be transferred to cement kilns.” extensive cap rock or barrier at the top of the
Safely and reliably transporting carbon formation must exist to contain the CO2
dioxide (CO2) from where it is captured to a constantly.
6.9.2 Air Pollutant Emissions sense, lime in the cement kiln acts as a scrubber
and absorbs some sulfur. Nitrous oxide emis-
Besides CO2, cement production generates sions are determined by fuel type and com-
important amounts of air pollutant emissions bustion conditions, e.g., flame temperature,
such as particulate matter and gaseous pollut- burner type, and material/exhaust gas reten-
ants: sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrous oxides tion in the burning zone of the kiln. Strategies
(NOx). The emission range permitted depends to reduce nitrogen emissions include altering
largely on the nature of the raw materials, the the burner design, modifying kiln and pre-
fuels used, the age of the plant, and on the calciner operation, utilization of alternative
requirements of the involved authority. fuels, and adding ammonia to the process.
Particulate air pollution is mainly formed Other main air-polluting substances
by small particles, less than 2.5 microns in included in the 2007 IPPC (Integrated
diameter, generally coming from combustion Pollution Prevention and Control) Directive
of fossil fuels. SO2 emissions (and to a lesser of the European Commission, not always
extent SO3, sulfuric acid, and hydrogen sul- relevant in cement manufacture industry, are
fide) result from sulfur content of both the total organic compounds (TOC), including
raw materials and the fuel (especially coal). volatile organic compounds (VOC), polychlo-
The main strategies to reduce sulfur emis- rinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans
sions include the utilization of low-sulfur raw (PCDDs and PCDFs), metals and their com-
materials and collecting the sulfur emissions pounds, hydrogen fluoride (HF), hydrogen
through pollution control equipment. In this chloride (HCl), and carbon monoxide (CO).
6.10 Applications 55 Summarize the main air pollutant

emissions generated in the cement kiln.
As mentioned in the beginning of the chapter, 55 What is the heat of hydration?
EN 197-1 standard explicitly states that 55 List the main alternative fuels used in
cement “shall, when appropriately batched cement manufacturing.
and mixed with aggregate and water, be capa- 55 What is the composition of the cement
ble of producing concrete or mortar.” Thus, it termed CEM I?
is clear that the principal goal of cement is the 55 Explain shortly the Vicat Apparatus.
manufacture of concrete and mortar. For this 55 Explain the main group of additives
reason, cement is not itself a construction used in cement manufacture.
material but rather a component used to mak- 55 List the main oxides to manufacture
ing concrete, which is definitely the most Portland cement.
important construction product of the last 55 What is the significance of the index
6 century. As a result, it is adequate to say that termed lime saturation factor?
applications of cement are basically the appli-
cations of concretes and mortars, although ??Long Questions
this assertion is obviously false. 55 Explain in summary form the main
The different types of cements will be used processes in manufacturing Portland
in concrete manufacture according to their cement.
specific properties, e.g., type of admixture, 55 Explain the different admixtures used
strength class, heat of hydration, and etcetera. in the production of cement.
For instance, white cement is classically speci-
fied to assure a wide range of colors for pro-
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ASTM C109/C109M – 20a. Standard Test Method for of cements, 2nd edn. Spon Press, New York, 584 p
Compressive Strength of Hydraulic Cement Mor- Bye GC (1999) Portland cement – composition, produc-
tars (Using 2-in. or [50-mm] Cube Specimens) tion and properties, 2nd edn. Thomas Telford Pub-
ASTM C114 – 18. Standard Test Methods for Chemical lishing, London, 224 p
Analysis of Hydraulic Cement Chatterjee AK (2004) Raw materials selection. In:
ASTM C115/C115M - 10e1. Standard Test Method for Bhatty JI, Miller FM, Kosmatka SH (eds) Innova-
Fineness of Portland Cement by the Turbidimeter tions in Portland cement manufacturing. Portland
ASTM C125 – 20. Standard Terminology Relating to Cement Association, Skokie, pp 37–63
Concrete and Concrete Aggregates Hewlett PC (ed) (2003) Lea’s chemistry of cement and
ASTM C150/C150M – 19a. Standard Specification for concrete, 4th edn. Oxford, Elsevier, Butterworth-
Portland Cement Heinemann, 1092 p
ASTM C151/C151M – 18. Standard Test Method for Kurdowski W (2014) Cement and concrete chemistry.
Autoclave Expansion of Hydraulic Cement Springer Netherlands, p 700
ASTM C186 – 17. Standard Test Method for Heat of Locher FW (2013) Cement – principles of production
Hydration of Hydraulic Cement and uses. Verlag Bau und Technik GmbH, Erkrath,
ASTM C188 – 17. Standard Test Method for Density of 535 p
Hydraulic Cement Taylor HFW (1997) Cement chemistry, 2nd edn.
ASTM C191 – 19. Standard Test Methods for Time of Thomas Telford Publishing, London, 480 p
Setting of Hydraulic Cement by Vicat Needle
ASTM C204 – 18e1. Standard Test Methods for Fine-
ness of Hydraulic Cement by Air-Permeability Links
Apparatus Cemex. www.cemex.com
ASTM C219 - 19a. Standard Terminology Relating to Heidelberg Cement Group. www.heidelbergcement.com
Hydraulic Cement LafargeHolcim. www.lafargeholcim.com
ASTM C430 – 17. Standard Test Method for Fineness The European Cement Association. cembureau.eu
of Hydraulic Cement by the 45-μm (No. 325) Sieve The Portland Cement Association. www.cement.or
ASTM C595/C595M – 19. Standard Specification for World Cement Association. www.worldcementassocia-
Blended Hydraulic Cements tion.org
ASTM C845/C845M – 18. Standard Specification for
Expansive Hydraulic Cement
167 7
Lime
Contents

7.3.1 eological Environments for Dolostone Formation – 172
G
7.3.2 Fuels – 172
7.4 Manufacturing Processes – 173

7.4.1 uarrying and Limestone Preparation – 173
Q
7.4.2 Calcination Process – 174
7.4.3 Quicklime Processing – 180
7.4.4 Quicklime Hydration – 180
7.6 Types of Lime – 183

7.6.1 onhydraulic Limes – 183
N
7.6.2 Hydraulic Limes – 185
7.6.3 Sintered Dolomite – 186
7.8 Markets and Applications – 188

7.8.1 Construction and Building – 189
References – 192

168 Chapter 7 · Lime
Wall. Many other civilizations such as Greeks,

Summary Romans, Incas, and Mogul also used lime
This chapter provides a general overview of products. Several ancient texts, including the
lime, which is one of the most commonly Bible, mention the use of lime: “So it shall be
used alkali in the world. After a first when you cross the Jordan, you shall set up on
heading devoted to the complex group of Mount Ebal, these stones, as I am command-
term definitions related to the lime sector, ing you today, and you shall coat them with
the raw materials for production of lime are lime” (Deut 27:4).
reviewed, including fuels. Manufacturing The more striking example of lime use is
processes are then described, involving probably the Roman Empire since many
quarrying and limestone preparation, ancient lime kilns are known from Roman
calcination process, quicklime processing, archaeological sites. Romans developed the
and quicklime hydration. The most technology of lime burning and also used
important type of kiln to manufacture hydraulic lime and lime pozzolan mixtures in
quicklime, termed parallel flow regenerative many construction projects. They even used
7 kiln, will receive special attention. Physical lime as a chemical reagent. Most of the
and chemical properties of lime as well as Mediterranean civilizations were familiar
the ASTM and EN tests involved in their with lime as paint; Dioscorides, a Greek phy-
determination are discussed. A summary of sician, pharmacologist, botanist, and author
each type of lime (nonhydraulic limes, of De Materia Medica, described some medi-
hydraulic limes, and sintered dolomite) is cal utilization of lime. Lime industry in medi-
then listed. Environmental considerations eval times is almost unknown but both
are briefly outlined. Finally, the diverse properties and applications were used for
world of construction applications of lime building purposes. The use of this binder in
is summarized. construction spreads throughout Europe
from 1400s. Thus, lime mortar is present in
most historic stone buildings in Europe. In
7.1 Introduction ancient construction processes, lime occupied
the place of Portland cement in the manufac-
Lime is the least expensive and one of the turing of concrete, that is, lime was the main
most heavily used alkali in the world, being binder agent until the discovery of that
essential to our society. It is a nonhydraulic cement. In fact, a transition (the lime
binder, excepting the so-called hydraulic lime, spectrum—. Fig. 7.1) can be clearly estab-

meaning that it will not set under water. For lished among air lime (manufactured at
this reason, lime is sometimes called air lime 1000 °C from pure limestone), hydraulic lime
since it hardens on exposure to air. It was used (1000–1200 °C and limestone with clay), and
for thousands of years in masonry mortars to Portland cement (1500 °C and limestone with
bind the stone and/or brick units. Some of the clay). The chemistry and technology of lime
earliest evidence for the utilization of lime production have progressively evolved but
dates back some 10,000 years (evidence from most of the progress occurred since 1900, with
eastern Turkey shows that lime mortar was the greatest step forward made since 1955.
used in terrazzo floors dated from 7000 to From a chemical viewpoint, lime is cal-
14,000 BC). The first clear evidence of the use cium oxide (CaO) not found in nature, being a
of lime in ancient times was in the former generic term referred to the calcium oxide
Yugoslavia, where a floor dated 6000 B.C. component of a material. This term is often
consisted of a mortar type made from lime, used incorrectly to describe many products of
sand, clay, and water. Lime was also used by limestone. In industrial applications, lime
the Egyptians in the construction of the pyra- includes both quicklime and slaked lime and
mids and by the Chinese to build the Great is synonymous with the term lime products.
7.1 · Introduction
169 7
.. Fig. 7.1 The so-called lime spectrum
Quicklime is obtained by calcination of cal-

cium carbonate (CaCO3) to less than its melt-
ing point, resulting in the dissociation of
calcium carbonate into calcium oxide (CaO)
and carbon dioxide (CO2). When slaked with
water, quicklime transforms into hydrated
lime (. Fig. 7.2).

Lime products provide a key component

for many processes such as purifying water,
making sugar, cleaning gases, producing iron,
constructing buildings, and treating contami-
nated land, being also additives for manufac-
turing paper, glass, pharmaceuticals, and
toothpaste. . Figure 7.3 shows the main

applications of lime. Lime is much appreci-

ated in building and construction for many
reasons: (a) it possesses good plasticity and is
easy to work with, (b) it stiffens easily and is
resistant to moisture, (c) it is very suitable for
masonry works due to its excellent cementi- .. Fig. 7.2 Typical hydrated lime bag. (Image courtesy
tious properties, (d) the shrinkage on drying is of Cement Australia)
small because of its high water retentivity, (e)
its alkaline properties make it naturally bacte- Geological Survey, world production of lime
ria repellent, and (f) lime mortars are softer in 2018 was 420 million tons (rounded), being
that surrounding masonry, prolonging the life China the most important producer with 300
of masonry. According to United States million tons (rounded) (Corathers 2019).
.. Fig. 7.3 Worldwide Other Environ-

utilization of lime in the Chemical industry; 11 Argiculture
mental
main market segments in Non- industry; 25 and food; 4
protection; 28
millions of tons per year ferrous
(Piringer 2017) metals; 18
Building
materials; 46
Aerated
concrete; 14
Iron
Soda ash; 18
and
7 steel; 179
Sugar; 11
7.2 Definitions with water. This term includes hydrated lime,

milk of lime, and lime putty. According to
The lime industry includes a complex group ASTM C51, hydrated lime is “a dry powder
of lime-related definitions based mainly in obtained by treating quicklime with water
chemical composition and hydraulic or non- enough to satisfy its chemical affinity for
hydraulic character. The following definitions water under the conditions of its hydration. It
are the most commonly used in the lime sector consists essentially of calcium hydroxide or a
worldwide. Quicklime (sometimes also called mixture of calcium hydroxide and magnesium
burned lime) is “a calcined limestone, the oxide or magnesium hydroxide, or both” and
major part of which is calcium oxide or cal- slaking is “the chemical reaction that pro-
cium oxide in association with magnesium duces hydrated lime when quicklime and
oxide, capable of slaking with water” (ASTM water are mixed”; milk of lime is “a suspen-
C51 standard). In EN 459-1 standard, devoted sion of hydrated lime (or slaked quicklime) in
to building lime, lime is defined “as calcium water in such proportions as to resemble milk
oxide and/or hydroxide and calcium magne- in appearance”; and lime putty is “the prod-
sium oxide and/or hydroxide produced by uct obtained by slaking quicklime with water
thermal decomposition (calcination) of natu- according to the directions of the manufac-
rally occurring calcium carbonate, i.e. lime- turer or by mixing hydrated lime and water to
stone, or calcium magnesium carbonate, i.e. a desired consistency.” Otherwise, ISO 9652-5
dolomite.” ASTM C141/141M states that standard defines hydrated lime “as fine, dry
hydraulic quicklime, similar to lime with powder consisting mainly of calcium hydrox-
hydraulic properties, is “a cementitious prod- ide” and lime putty “as mixture of hydrated
uct obtained by calcining argillaceous or sili- lime and water in plastic form ready for addi-
ceous limestone, or a mixture of similar tion to mortar or grout.”
composition to form sufficient free lime to Nevertheless, there are many different types
permit hydration by slaking.” ISO 28901 stan- of lime products used in a wide variety of
dard points out that “liming material consist- applications. Thus, distinction between calcium
ing mainly of calcium oxide or a mixture of limes, dolomitic limes, and hydraulic limes can
calcium oxide and possibly magnesium oxide, be made. . Table 7.1 shows an example of the

produced by the calcination of limestone, chemical composition of calcium and dolo-

magnesian limestone or dolomitic limestone.” mitic limes. Calcium limes are by far the largest
Slaked lime is calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) category and are supplied in lump, ground, and
obtained when quicklime is mixed (or slaked) hydrated products. Dolomitic limes are more
171 7
many countries. Thus, limestone and dolos-
.. Table 7.1 Example of the chemical composi-
tion of calcium and dolomitic limes
tone are produced on a large scale in virtually
every country in the world. Limestone and
Component Calcium lime Dolomitic lime dolostone are so widespread in time and space
range, % range, % that their reserves can be considered almost
infinite and adequate for the production of
CaO 93.25–98.00 55.5–57.50
quicklime on a worldwide basis. However,
MgO 0.30–2.50 37.60–40.80 only a small proportion is suitable for lime
SiO2 0.20–1.50 0.10–1.50 production because the level of impurities
such as quartz or clays is particularly impor-
Fe2O3 0.10–0.40 0.05–0.40
tant and must be very low (<5%).
Al2O3 0.10–0.40 0.05–0.40 Limestone and dolostone exist in many
H 2O 0.10–0.90 0.10–0.90 forms depending on how they were originally
formed, generating a great variety of textures,
CO2 0.40–1.50 0.40–1.50
grain sizes, impurities, and carbonate content.
Lime is made from high calcium, or magne-
sium (or dolomitic) limestone and dolomite
that has a minimum of 95% total carbonate
composition. For hydraulic lime production,
the raw materials used contain 65–85% CaCO3
and MgCO3. Therefore, the purity of the raw
materials in hydraulic lime production is very
different from those needed in the production
of other types of lime.
The quality of limestone and dolomite
plays an essential role in the final quality of
the lime and in its chemical composition. The
following requirements should be taken into
consideration when assessing the quality of a
limestone deposit (Oates 1998): “(a) strength
.. Fig. 7.4 Limestone quarry to produce raw material and abrasion resistance of the stone, (b) resis-
for lime manufacturing. (Image courtesy of Calcinor) tance of the limestone to thermal degrada-
tion, (c) strength and abrasion resistance of
the quicklime, (d) rate of calcination, (e) con-
exclusive products and are offered in the mar- tent of CaCO3 and MgCO3, and (f) content of
ket in smaller amounts as lump, ground, impurities that might affect kiln operation or
hydrated, and dead burn forms. Hydraulic the acceptability of the lime.” For instance,
limes, defined previously, contain cementitious relatively soft limestones suffer thermal deg-
compounds and are used exclusively in building radation or produce a soft lime that cannot be
and construction. adequate for calcining in shaft kilns.
Since geological environments for lime-
stone formation were depicted in the cement
7.3 Raw Materials chapter, i.e., limestones commonly form under
marine conditions in relatively shallow envi-
The raw material for lime production is lime- ronments becoming less common in deep
stone (. Fig. 7.4) or, to a lesser extent, dolos-
water marine and continental environments,
tone and dolomitic limestone. Limestone and the following geological description is only
dolostone deposits are relatively common in devoted to dolostone formation.
7.3.1 Geological Environments 7.3.2 Fuels

for Dolostone Formation
Lime kilns are fired with fossil fuels such as
Dolostone refers to a rock constituted of solid, liquid, or gaseous fuels as well as waste
more than 50% dolomite. Dolostones are as products and biomass. The utilization of
widespread as limestones in the geological waste fuels is conditioned by the expected
record and, from an economic viewpoint, are lime quality. Likewise at the cement manufac-
presumably even more important because ture, the use of fossil fuels has diminished and
many large hydrocarbons reservoirs and the utilization of waste fuels has increased
mineral deposits are hosted in this type of over the last years. The most common fuels
rock. Although the dolomite problem is still used in EU “are natural gaseous fuels such as
present, that is, it is difficult to explain the natural gas, coke oven gas, solid fuels such as
genesis of thick, pervasively dolomitized suc- coal (hard coal or pulverized lignite), petro-
cessions of limestones, “at present there is a leum coke (. Fig. 7.5), and coke/anthracite

consensus that dolomite can form early in as well as liquid fuels such as heavy and/or
7 synsedimentary situations, during early dia- light fuel oil; waste is also used as fuel, e.g.
genesis in the relatively shallow subsurface, used oil, plastics, tyres, waste wood, paper,
or during late diagenesis under deep burial and animal meal -meat bone meal- or saw-
diagenesis” (James and Jones 2016). dust” (Schorcht et al. 2013) (. Fig. 7.6).

Synsedimentary and/or authigenic dolo-

mite forms in the environment of deposition
just below the sediment surface during or
shortly after sedimentation. It is most com-
mon as a precipitate from saline waters in
settings such as muddy tidal flats, shallow
lakes, and organic-rich marine sediments.
This type of dolomites is commonly made
of microcrystalline rhombs, most being
precipitated directly from water. Dolostones
of this type are generally stratiform and
range from a few meters to around 10 m in
.. Fig. 7.5 Petroleum coke used as fuel in a lime pro-
thickness but they do not originate big rock duction plant. (Image courtesy of Calcinor)
units.
Dolomites generated in the shallow sub-
BIOMASS
surface are more diverse than the synsedimen- WASTE NATURAL GAS
tary dolomites and usually form from meteoric
or marine waters or combinations of both at 3%
OIL 8%
temperatures of <60 °C. The resultant dolos- 5%
tone bodies cross-cut depositional facies and 34%
display a wide variety of crystal types. Finally,
deep-burial late diagenetic dolomites are gen-
erated by precipitation from hot, commonly
saline, fluids and are generally associated with
mineral resources, e.g., metal deposits and 51%
hydrocarbons. In general, those dolomites do
not show vestige of the original limestone tex-
ture and the resultant dolostones can some-
FOSSIL SOLID FUELS
times produce bodies that are thousands of
cubic meters in volume (James and Jones
2016). .. Fig. 7.6 Fuels used in the European lime industry
(EuLA 2014)
7.4 · Manufacturing Processes
173 7
Most kilns operate on more than one fuel 7.4.1 Quarrying and Limestone
but some fuels cannot be used in certain kilns. Preparation
Optimizing the election of fuel for a given kiln is
a site-specific process, which can include trials This step comprises quarrying or mining,
to assure that there are not unexpected issues crushing, screening, and sometimes washing
with a particular fuel. The choice of fuel for of limestone to remove impurities. Limestone
lime production is essential for many reasons: can be extracted in both underground and
(a) costs: the cost of fuel(s) per ton of lime man- surface mines although the second method is
ufactured can represent 30–60% of the produc- more commonly used (. Fig. 7.4). The

tion costs because the lime production is a extraction includes drilling and blasting to
highly energy-intensive industry, (b) accessibil- break down the rocks. Lime quality limestone
ity of fuel type on the market, (c) quality of the must be strictly controlled to maintain its
lime product, (d) atmospheric emissions (e.g., purity. Thus, standard quality control method
CO2, CO, SOx, and NOx), and (e) saving of min- consists of chemical analysis of each blast
eral resources. It is important to note that the hole to assure product purity. The blasted
average fuel consumption in lime production is limestone is then fed to the crushing and
around 5 GJ/ton of quicklime. Obviously, the screening processes (. Fig. 7.8). Selective

kiln type has a major impact on the energy con- mining can improve the quality of limestone
sumption per ton of lime. for the calcinations process. Sometimes, it
may be necessary to stockpile stone of vari-
7.4 Manufacturing Processes able quality for blending processes so that the
kiln feed is maintained with uniform dosifica-
Processing of limestone into lime is tightly tion (Krukowski 2006).
controlled to assure quality products. Limestone rocks with sizes of around 1 m
. Figure 7.7 (EuLA 2014) shows the overall
in diameter are commonly crushed in primary
manufacturing process. The four main pro- crushers such as jaw crushers, gyratory crush-
duction steps are the following. ers, or impact crushers. The main goal is to
.. Fig. 7.7 Overall manufacturing process of lime and hydrated lime (EuLA 2014)
.. Fig. 7.10 Bucket elevators to feed the kiln in the

upper zone. (Image courtesy of Calcinor)
7
.. Fig. 7.8 Feeding of raw material to the crushing vators (. Fig. 7.10). As written earlier, lime-

process. (Image courtesy of Calcinor) stone can be washed to decrease the amount
of impurities (e.g., clay), which may have a
negative effect on the kiln process or diminish
the quality of the final products.
7.4.2 Calcination Process

7.4.2.1 Chemical Reactions
After the limestone rock is processed, it is
transported to the kiln, in which lime is pro-
duced by burning calcium and/or magnesium
carbonates at temperatures between 900 °C
and 1200 °C. The lime/limestone is held for a
sufficiently long period at these temperatures
.. Fig. 7.9 Storage silos prior to feeding into the lime in order to assure calcium carbonate decom-
kiln. (Image courtesy of Calcinor) position and a good residence time for con-
trolling the reactivity of the product. These
obtain pieces of rock with sizes ranging from temperatures are sufficiently high to generate
100 to 300 mm. Crushing plants are generally carbon dioxide (CO2) and to obtain the
located at the quarry and sometimes are derived oxide (CaO). If the calcination tem-
mobile. Crushed limestone from the primary perature is too low and the calcination time is
crusher is then transported to vibrating not sufficient, limestone is not completely pro-
screens to separate big pieces while those pass- cessed and under-burned lime is generated.
ing through and are small enough are used as The process of limestone thermal decomposi-
kiln feed. Large pieces of limestone are fed tion into quicklime and carbon dioxide is
into the secondary crushers for reducing the termed calcination of limestone or simply cal-
limestone to a size range of 10–80 mm. After cination. It refers to a reaction wherein lime-
secondary crushing, the limestone is screened stone or dolostone is heated with a resultant
and transported to limestone storage silos change in chemistry and a weight loss. The
(. Fig. 7.9) or stockpiles prior to feeding into
calcination process is conducted in kilns where
the lime kilns by using commonly bucket ele- quicklime or dolime is obtained, being these
175 7
components the raw material used for the rest The basic chemical reactions are as
of the manufactured products. follows:
CaCO3 ( solid ) + heat ® CaO ( solid ) + CO2 ( gaseous ) -
CaMg ( CO3 )2 ( solid ) + heat ® CaMgO2 ( solid ) + CO2 ( gaseous ) -
The product originated in the first reaction is dioxide (carbonation reaction) returns lime to
commonly referred to as quicklime due to its its parent material, that is, limestone. Stated
rapid reaction with water. It should be noted differently, the calcination of limestone
that this reaction is reversible, the heat of dis- results in quicklime; the hydration of quick-
sociation of calcite at 900 °C being about lime produces hydrated lime; and the carbon-
725 Kcal/kg CaO. The recarbonation of ation of hydrated lime changes it to limestone.
quicklime takes place at room temperatures So, it is possible to define a limestone cycle
via surface hydration of the quicklime by (. Fig. 7.11). The second reaction product,

atmospheric water vapor and carbonation of termed dolime or dolomitic lime (calcium and
calcium hydroxide to calcium carbonate and magnesium oxide—CaO.MgO), is generated
water; the water then may hydrate more by the chemical decomposition of dolostone
quicklime. Recarbonation can occur in a and also reacts with water. Nevertheless, the
number of lime-based products and many affinity of CaO for water is clearly higher
times acts as a benefit. For instance, recar- than that of MgO.
bonation increases the strength of the final From the lime burner point of view, the
bond acting as a sealant if any cracking main variables affecting the rate of dissocia-
occurs when the process takes place in lime tion are the following: “(a) the characteristics
mortar. Therefore, the hardening property of of limestone, (b) the particle size distribution,
lime is a consequence of its ability to react (c) the shape of the particles, (d) the tempera-
with the atmospheric carbon dioxide present ture profile in the calcining zone, and (e) the
in the air to form calcium carbonate. Thus, rate of heat exchange between the gases and
the chemical reaction of lime with carbon the particles” (Oates 1998).
.. Fig. 7.11 Limestone
cycle in lime production
and utilization
Heat transfer in lime calcination can be ble or crushed: 64 mm and smaller, (c) ground,
divided into three stages or heat transfer screened or granular: 6.4 mm and smaller, and
zones: (a) preheating zone: limestone is heated (d) pulverized—substantially all passing a
from ambient temperature to about 800 °C by No. 20 (850-μm) sieve.” ASTM C51 also
direct contact with the gases originated in the defines the term run-of-kiln quicklime as
calcining zone, (b) burning zone or calcining “quicklime as drawn or discharged from a
zone: fuel is burnt to produce heat at above kiln.”
900 °C and causing dissociation of the lime-
stone into quicklime and carbon dioxide; 7.4.2.2 Types of Kilns
from 800 to 900 °C, limestone surface begins Production of quality quicklime requires the
to decompose, and (c) cooling zone: quick- selection of an appropriate kiln design because
lime is cooled at temperatures of 900 °C by the physicochemical properties of lime are
direct contact with air, leaving this zone at inherently associated with the type of kiln
temperatures of less than 100 °C. Almost half used for the calcination process. A large vari-
of the weight of limestone is lost as carbon ety of kiln designs has been used over the cen-
7 dioxide. In particular, the result of the process turies. The earliest method used to burn
is a 44% weight loss during the complete calci- limestone probably consists of an uncovered
nation of a pure limestone, that is, in making heap containing alternating layers of wood
1 t of quicklime approximately 1 t of carbon and limestone. Obviously, this system pro-
dioxide is generated, which is incorporated duced small amounts of lime with relatively
into the atmosphere. very poor thermal efficiency. Most of the kilns
The calcium oxide produced by calcina- prior 1935 operated on natural draught, and
tion is in the form of white lumps, sometimes as a result, output rates were low (Oates 1998).
termed pebble lime (. Fig. 7.12). It can either
From 1935 to about 1965, the introduction of
be crushed or ground. The resulting material increased mechanization of existing designs
can be used to obtain other products although of lime kilns improved the overall process,
the most common treatment is the addition of e.g., inclusion of mechanical charging and
water to the quicklime. ASTM C51 defines drawing systems and fans. Different oil crisis
different types of products based on their size: in the last five decades originated the incorpo-
“(a) large lump: 203 mm and smaller, (b) peb- ration of modern kilns, most of them grouped
.. Fig. 7.12 Pebble lime (coin about 3 cm). (Image courtesy of Calcinor)
177 7
Rotary Kilns
.. Table 7.2 Typical production rate and size
of the stone feed for different types of kilns A rotary kiln for limes production consists of
(Schorcht et al. 2013) an inclined tube with a downward slope of
about 3–4%, more or less similar to a cement
Kiln type Abbreviation Output Range kiln, with sizes ranging from 2 m in diameter
range of feed and 25 m long to 6 m and 200 m, respectively.
(t/d) stone
size
It is fed with stone sizes ranging from 40 mm
(mm) to less than 2 mm in diameter. The capacity
varies from 40 to 1400 tons per day and the
Long LRK 160–1500 2–60 size ratio is commonly 1:3 to avoid segrega-
rotary kiln tion. The rotation and the inclination of the
Rotary PRK 150–1500 10–60 kiln allow the material to roll from the top to
kiln with the bottom of the kiln and the quicklime is
preheater discharged from the kiln into a lime cooler
Parallel PFRK 100–600 10–200 where it is used to preheat the combustion air.
flow The stone charge stays in the kiln about
generative 6–8 hours. Unlike vertical kilns, which operate
kiln
fully charged, this type of kilns has 90% of its
Annular ASK 80–300 10–150 volume occupied with flame and hot gases.
shaft kiln Rotary kiln is less efficient than shaft kiln
Mixed feed MFSK 60–200 20–200 since the area of solids exposed is relatively
shaft kiln small. However, rotary kilns can generate a
Other kilns OK 10–200 20–250 wider range of reactivity although the changes
in reactivity tend to be greater than that of
shaft kilns. This type of kilns is commonly
into two main categories: rotary and vertical, used to manufacture distinct product specifi-
being the latter the most used type in Europe. cations such as low sulfur lime or special reac-
Many lime companies use two or more types tive lime/dolime, helping to enhance resource
of kilns employing different sizes of limestone efficiency.
feed and manufacturing several lime qualities.
The main important factors for the selec- Vertical Kilns
tion of a kiln are as follows: “(a) nature of the Vertical kilns, also termed vertical shaft kilns
mineral deposit: characteristics, availability, or shaft kilns, are vertical in design, up to
and quality of the limestone, (b) input granu- 50 m in height, up to 7 m in diameter, and
lometry (. Table 7.2): mechanical properties
generally with a refractory-lined steel shell.
of the kiln feed and presence of fines, (c) cus- The limestone is fed in at the top of the kiln
tomer applications regarding the lime proper- and it moves down through the different
ties, (d) kiln capacity, (e) availability of fuels, zones of the kiln until is discharged at the
including waste fuels, and (f) costs: fuel, bottom as lime. Vertical kilns traditionally
investment, and operation” (Schorcht et al. have burned only larger stone (100–300 mm)
2013). The most significant characteristics with a size ratio of about 1:2 although mod-
common to all kiln designs are charging, ern types are designed to handle smaller sizes
drawing, and combustion. For instance, there (e.g., 20 mm) in order to produce a more reac-
is an optimum air/fuel ratio that generates the tive lime. Capacities range from 10 tons per
maximum efficiency of combustion and this day to in excess of 600 tons per day. Relative
topic is problematic in vertical lime kilns lower fuel consumption is a major advantage
because mixing of gasified fuel and air within of this type of kilns. Since the fuel does not
the packed bed is an inefficient process. In penetrate more than 1 m into the burden in
which concerns combustion, the fuel and air this type of kilns, it limits the effective kiln
must be distributed uniformly across the Kiln. width or diameter to about 2 m, which clearly
restricts its productive capacity. Several Nowadays, the calcination of limestone is

designs of vertical kilns such as mixed feed produced mainly in regenerative kilns with
shaft kiln, annular shaft kiln, or parallel flow parallel current that allow to preheat and to
regenerative kiln are present in the market but recover the combustion gases. This methodol-
the latter is probably the most effective design ogy originates an optimization in energy
(7 Box 7.1: Parallel Flow Regenerative Kiln).
consumption.
Box 7.1
Parallel Flow Regenerative Kiln The fuel is incorporated to only one of the
A parallel flow regenerative shaft kiln (PFRK) two shafts at a time, at the upper side of the
(. Fig. 7.13) consists of two interconnected

burning zone where the material is still uncal-
vertical shafts and a connecting crossover cined and can absorb most of the heat released
channel, being the principle of calcination in by the combustion. Energy is supplied via
7 parallel flow ideal for the production of high- lances that are plunged into the charge. The hot
reactive quicklime. Batches of limestone are combustion gases are transferred through the
charged alternatively to each shaft and while crossover channel to the nonburning shaft
one shaft calcines the product, the other pre- where they preheat the limestone in counter-
heats the stone, that is, when one shaft operates flow at the upper area of the shaft. The flow
in the burning mode, the other shaft operates in direction of the gases is reversed at regular
the regeneration (nonburning) mode. Each intervals, allowing the regenerative preheating
shaft operates for an equal quantity of time in of the stone to take place. In PFR kilns, there is
the burning and regeneration processes. no open flame with a high temperature because
the flames in the kiln are surrounded by mate-
rial with a lower temperature. Thus, the stone
directly absorbs the heat for the calcination
process and the peak flame temperature is
reduced. From the calcining zone, lime is dis-
charged continuously at the bottom end of the
kiln shafts. The shifting between burning and
nonburning modes is termed inversion and
takes place at set intervals.
This type of lime shaft kiln was developed
at the beginning of the 1960s in a lime factory
in Wopfing, Austria, being currently the most
important and most used lime kiln type. In
addition, “with regenerative preheating of the
combustion air, the burning process provides
for the lowest heat consumption of all modern
lime shaft kilns” (Piringer 2017). . Figure 7.14

shows the operating principles and temperature

profile of the PFR lime kiln. Obviously, all pro-
cesses taking place in the kiln are revised in a
software control system (. Fig. 7.15).

The kiln charge (e.g., limestone or d

olomite)
.. Fig. 7.13 Parallel flow regenerative kiln. (Image has a typical grain size between 50 mm and
courtesy of Calcinor) 100 mm, although it can be smaller (15–50 mm)
179 7
.. Fig. 7.14 Operating principles and temperature profile of the PFR lime kiln (Piringer 2017)
.. Fig. 7.15 Software control system. (Image courtesy of Calcinor)
or even larger (60–150 mm). The kiln can pro- the theoretical calcination temperature of the
cess up to 800 tons of burnt lime per day. The kiln charge. The retention time of the kiln
kiln shafts are completely filled with the mate- charge in the burning zone is generally approxi-
rial to be processed and “the kiln charge passes mately 8 hours. Gaseous, liquid, or pulverized
the lime kiln at a speed of approximately one solid fuels such as natural gas, heavy fuel oil,
meter per hour” (Piringer 2017). The typical pulverized coal, liquefied gas, off-gas from steel-
average temperature in the burning zone is making process, wood dust, and waste oil as well
about 950 °C, that is, around 150 °C higher than as different combinations of these may be used.
7.4.3 Quicklime Processing heated. As a standard condition, the reaction

is exothermic for the formation of hydrate;
The main goal of quicklime processing is to that is, it results in the evolution of a large
generate a number of products with the paramount of heat (273 kcal/kg CaO) at 25 °C to
ticle sizes and qualities needed by the diverse originate calcium hydrate. The affinity of
market segments. It includes screening, crush- quicklime for moisture is then satisfied but it
ing, pulverizing, grinding, and air classifying. still retains a strong affinity for CO2. It has
The processing plant must incorporate ade- been long recognized (e.g., Whitman and
quate storage for the different products to Davis 1926) that the most important variables
provide an adequate buffer between the kiln that affect the hydration of quicklime are the
and the dispatches. The quicklime obtained in ratio of water to lime, the temperature of
the kiln in form of white lumps can be crushed hydration, and the degree of agitation. Other
and screened at 5 mm originating a fine frac- important factors affecting the process are the
tion (less than 5 mm) and granular fractions, specific surface area of the particles of cal-
i.e., 5/15 mm and 15/50 mm, since the run-of- cium hydroxide, the particle size distribution,
7 kiln product commonly has a top size in excess and the hydration time. For instance, hydra-
of 50 mm. tion times depend on the reactivity of the
The demand for various qualities of quicklime. Thus, a high-reactive quicklime
ground quicklime includes particle size from will hydrate in 2–3 minutes while a low reac-
relatively coarse products, as an example for tive quicklime will do it in 15–30 minutes.
soil stabilization, to very fine products for spe- The product generated in quicklime hydra-
cialty applications, e.g., more than 90% less tion is termed hydrated lime, which is a widely
than 50 μm. These fine products are generally used term to describe a dry (with moisture
obtained in ball mills and vertical roller press content commonly less than 1%) white pow-
mills using air classification systems. For der produced by adding water to quicklime
instance, pulverized lime is quicklime milled but in a sufficient amount to satisfy the chem-
to less than 0.150 mm for metallurgical, indus- ical reaction of converting the oxides to
trial, chemical, and agricultural applications. hydroxides. The particle density of hydrated
lime is about 2.2 g/cm 3 but due to the high
Finally, quicklime must be stored in silos in
dry conditions to avoid air slaking, which level of particle porosity (around 50%) its
would deteriorate the quality of the product apparent density commonly ranges from 0.3
3
(air slaking is the process of converting CaO to 0.8 g/cm .
to Ca(OH)2 at ambient temperature by mois- The quantity of water is mainly stoichio-
ture present in the air). Thus, it is desirable to metric on a net basis, which means that only
avoid atmospheric exposure during handling the amount required to combine with the
and storage to a minimum. quantity of calcium oxide present is needed,
with the excess water converted to steam
because of the heat originated by the reaction.
In general, the hydration process if done with
7.4.4 Quicklime Hydration exactly the right quantity of water is termed
dry hydration whereas the process is called
The chemical reaction of quicklime hydra- slaking when excess of water is used for hydra-
tion is: tion; the product discharged from a lime
slaker takes the form of a slurry and is termed
CaO + H2 O ® Ca ( OH )2 + heat
slaked lime, milk of lime, or lime putty.
Obviously, these products will not set under
The hydration of lime involves the addition of water because they are nonhydraulic binders.
water to calcium oxide at a controlled rate in a The term milk of lime is used to describe a
reversible reaction to form calcium hydroxide. fluid suspension of slaked lime in water. Milk
It means that the product obtained can thereof lime can contain up to 40% by weight of
fore revert to the previous oxide form when solids and sometimes is termed lime slurry.
181 7
Lime putty is a thick dispersion of slaked lime
in water and can vary in solid content (hydrox-
ide minerals) from 40% to 80%. The main uti-
lization of lime putty is in masonry mortars,
where it is particularly valuable due to the
high degree of plasticity or workability it
imparts to the mortar.
Depending on the type of quicklime used
and the hydrating conditions used, the quantity
of water in chemical combination changes as
follows (Thomson 2005): “(a) high calcium
hydrated lime (normal) – atmospheric hydrat-
ing conditions produces a powder of calcium
hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) containing generally
23–24% percent chemically combined water, (b) .. Fig. 7.16 Illustration of the hydration process (illus-
dolomitic hydrated lime (normal) – atmospheric tration courtesy of Cimprogetti)
hydrating conditions produces a powder of cal-
cium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) with some magne- product of variable quality and required a
sium hydroxide (Mg(OH)2), but also some high-labor input. All hydrated lime is actually
magnesium oxide (MgO) component, generally manufactured in purpose-built plants. Many
containing 15–17% chemically combined water, different types of hydrator designs exist but a
(c) dolomitic hydrated lime (special) – pressure classical nonpressure hydrator design consists
(100–150 psi) hydrating conditions produces of three stages: prehydrator, hydrator, and fin-
calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) and magnesium ishing stage. . Figure 7.16 is an illustration

hydroxide (Mg(OH)2) with no magnesium oxide of the global hydration process.

(MgO), generally containing 25–27% chemi- The prehydrator is the heart of the lime
cally combined water.” An approximate esti- hydration plant. In this stage, the quicklime
mate of the water required for hydration receives the hydration water from the water
reaction is as follows: (a) a dry lime hydrates feed rack and is subject to a strong mixing
with about 500–550 liters per ton quicklime, action. At the end of the first stage, the lime
and (b) a lime putty hydrates with around 1200– falls into the second stage where the hydration
1300 liters per ton quicklime, depending on the reaction is mostly completed. The prehydra-
consistency required. tor is designed as a double-shaft paddle screw
The MgO component of high-calcium to assure that the process material is mixed
quicklime and dolomitic lime is relatively thoroughly with the hydration water and to
unreactive to water and commonly less than avoid caking.
25% of MgO reacts under normal hydration The hydrator is located where the quick-
conditions. If highly hydrated dolomitic lime lime that has been mixed with water reacts
is required, it is manufactured by reaction the completely to produce hydrated lime. It gener-
quicklime with water under high temperature ally consists of rotating paddles that vigor-
conditions, e.g., in an autoclave under steam ously agitate the lime in presence of water. It
pressure and at temperatures of more than provides an average residence time of
100 °C. 10–15 minutes and the heat of reaction gener-
ates most of the surplus water to boil off.
7.4.4.1 Hydrating Plants During the transformation of the calcium
Quicklime was traditionally hydrated by oxide into hydrate, the apparent specific
sprinkling water onto a pile of lime until no weight of the material is reduced approxi-
more water was admitted. Thus, the lime was mately to a half. For this reason, the second
left in a given time period and then was passed stage volume is twice as big as the one of the
over fine sieves. This method originated a first stage.
In the finishing stage, residence time is possible to hydrate completely the magnesium
required to reduce the level of free lime and oxide portion of dolomitic quicklime.
allow surplus moisture to evaporate. This
stage is designed to further homogenize the
finished product or to allow an extra retention 7.5 Properties and Testing
time to complete reaction for medium or low
reactivity quicklime qualities. The plant is Important physical properties of quicklime
kept under slight suction to prevent any dust include specific gravity (3.2–3.4 g/cm3), bulk
emissions throughout the process. density (0.88–0.95 g/cm3 in pebble lime), and
In the pressure hydration system, used to specific heat at 38 °C (0.4 kJ/kg). On the other
convert dolomitic quicklime to the fully hand, lime is typically white with a microcrys-
hydrated compound of Ca(OH)2·Mg(OH)2, talline texture and has either no odor or a
quicklime and water are fed continuously into slightly earthy odor (Krukowski 2006). ASTM
a sealed vessel where the exothermic reaction C110 and C25 standards as well as EN 459-2
of quicklime and water raises the system tem- standard cover all the chemical and physical
7 perature and steam is formed. Only under tests determined in quicklime. As an example,
these conditions of pressure, temperature, and 7 Box 7.2 shows the tests that appear in

continuous mixing of the reacting mass, it is ASTM C110 standard.
Box 7.2
tandard Tests for Physical Testing

S Particle size analysis
of Quicklime, Hydrated Lime, and Limestone Residue and sieve analysis
in ASTM C110 Standard Sieve analysis of dry limestone, quicklime,
Plastic property testing and hydrated lime
Standard consistency of lime putty Fineness of pulverized quicklime and
Plasticity of lime putty hydrated lime by air permeability
Water retention of hydrated lime Particle size of pulverized limestone
Air entrainment Dry screening of hydrated lime, pulverized
Soundness testing quicklime, and limestone by air jet sieving
Autoclave expansion of hydrated and Wet slew analysis of agricultural liming
hydraulic lime materials
Popping and pitting of hydrated lime Density measurement
Application testing Apparent loose density of hydrated lime,
Slaking rate of quicklime pulverized quicklime, and limestone
Dry brightness of pulverized limestone Apparent packed density of hydrated lime,
Limestone grindability determination by the pulverized quicklime, and limestone
laboratory ball mill method Relative density (specific gravity) of hydrated
Settling rate of hydrated lime lime products
The most important property of lime is prob- structure and impurities of the limestone, and
ably reactivity, which is an estimation of the type of kiln and fuel. For instance, shaft kilns
rate at which it reacts in the presence of water. using coke usually manufacture quicklime
The reactivity of lime depends on several with a medium to low reactivity while parallel
parameters related to the raw material and the flow regenerative kilns utilizing gas commonly
manufacturing process such as burning tem- produce high- reactivity lime. Many times,
perature (. Fig. 7.17) and time, crystalline
industrial classifications of lime are carried
7.6 · Types of Lime
183 7
.. Fig. 7.17 Reactivity 90
of quicklime depending
on the burning
temperature (Piringer 80
2007)
70
Temperature in ºC
60
1050 ºC
50 1550 ºC
1850 ºC
40
30
20
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Minutes
out according to its reactivity, e.g., dead from limestone containing 0% to 5% magne-
burned, hard, medium, and/or soft. The sium carbonate, (b) magnesian quicklime:
decrease in this property is commonly accom- derived from limestone containing 5% to
panied by a decrease of the surface and poros- 35%magnesium carbonate, and (c) dolomitic
ity of the lime (sintering). Each type of lime quicklime: derived from limestone containing
has a specific reactivity which is controlled by 35% to 46% magnesium carbonate.” With
the requirements of the application and the respect to hydrated lime (. Fig. 7.18), this

particular process. standard states that depending upon the type

European standard EN 459-2 describes of quicklime used and the hydrating condi-
the method to estimate the reactivity of tions applied, the amount of water in chemi-
ground lime by slaking it in water. This cal combination varies, as follows: “(a)
method uses the time that corresponds to the high-calcium hydrated lime: high-calcium
time a mixture of lime and water, under stan- quicklime produces a hydrated lime contain-
dardized conditions, takes to rise the tempera- ing generally 72% to 74% calcium oxide and
ture from 20 °C to 60 °C. In practice, the 23% to 24% chemically combined water, (b)
higher this time, the lower the reactivity of the dolomitic hydrated lime (normal): under
lime produced. The equipment commonly atmospheric hydrating conditions only the
consists of a 1000 ml capacity Dewar vessel calcium oxide fraction of dolomitic quicklime
complete with cover, 300-rpm electric stirrer, hydrates, producing a hydrated lime of the fol-
paddle, base, stand, and a digital thermome- lowing chemical composition: 46% to 48%
ter 0–100 °C. calcium oxide, 33% to 34% magnesium oxide,
and 15% to 17% chemically combined water,
and (c) dolomitic hydrated lime (pressure):
7.6 Types of Lime this lime is produced from dolomitic quick-
lime under pressure, which results in hydrat-
7.6.1 Nonhydraulic Limes ing all of the magnesium oxide as well as all of
the calcium oxide, producing the following
According to ASTM C51 standard, nonhy- chemical composition: 40% to 42% calcium
draulic quicklime can be available in three oxide, 29% to 30% magnesium oxide, and 25%
forms: “(a) high-calcium quicklime: derived to 27% chemically combined water.”
.. Fig. 7.18 Hydrated
lime. (Image courtesy of
Calcinor)
7
ASTM C207 standard, devoted to
hydrated lime to masonry, covers four types .. Table 7.3 The various grades of calcium lime
of hydrated lime: “(a) type N: normal hydrated according to EN 459-1 standard
lime for masonry purposes, (b) type S: special
Grade CaO + MgO Available lime
hydrated lime for masonry purposes; (c) type [wt.%] [wt.%]
NA: normal air-entraining hydrated lime for
masonry purposes, and (d) type SA: special CL 90 S ≥90 ≥80
air-entraining hydrated lime for masonry pur- CL 80 S ≥80 ≥65
poses,” and includes the following note: “type
S, special hydrated lime, and type SA, special CL 70 S ≥70 ≥55
air-entraining hydrated lime, are differenti-
ated from type N, normal hydrated lime, and
type NA, normal air-entraining hydrated for type N hydrate shall be determined after
lime, principally by their ability to develop soaking for 16 to 24 h.”
high, early plasticity and higher water reten- With respect to European specifications,
tivity, and by a limitation on their unhydrated EN 459-1 standard, devoted to building lime,
oxide content.” defines two types of nonhydraulic lime: (a) cal-
Finally, ASTM C206 standard, which cov- cium lime and (b) dolomitic lime. Both types of
ers the standard specifications for finishing nonhydraulic lime are termed air lime because
hydrated lime, establishes that “ two types of they slowly harden in air by reacting with atmo-
finishing hydrated lime are suitable for use in spheric carbon dioxide. The classes of calcium
the scratch, brown, and finish coats of plaster, lime (CL90, CL80, and CL70) and dolomitic
for stucco, for mortar, and as an addition to lime (DL90, DL85, and DL80) are defined by
Portland cement concrete; the two types of their lime content in percentage (. Table 7.3).

lime sold under this specification shall be des- In addition, the air limes are subdivided based
ignated as follows: (a) type N: normal hydrated on the form of the product: quicklime (Q),
lime for finishing purposes, and (b) type S: hydrated lime (S), lime putty (S PL), or milk of
special hydrated lime for finishing purposes. lime (S ML). The letter S, standing for slaked,
Type N, normal finishing hydrated lime, is dif- identifies hydrated products in powder form.
ferentiated from type S, special finishing For instance, CL90-Q is a quicklime with at
hydrated lime, in that no limitation on the least 90% calcium and magnesium oxide and
amount of unhydrated oxides is specified for CL90-S PL is a lime putty with at least 90%
type N hydrate, and the plasticity requirement calcium and magnesium oxide.
7.6 · Types of Lime
185 7
7.6.2 Hydraulic Limes with the air similar to what occurs with air
lime. Because of this, there are natural and
Chronologically, the first family of hydraulic artificial hydraulic limes (mixing air lime with
binders identified and used as such was the a hydraulic binder).
hydraulic lime. Hydraulic lime was an essen- In the manufacturing process of hydraulic
tial cementitious material before the arrival of lime, heating of argillaceous limestones is car-
Portland cement. Nevertheless, it is little used ried out to produce quicklime with the aim to
nowadays except in conservation work. In promote a chemical reaction between the
developing countries, hydraulic lime is rarely quicklime and the minerals in the clay compo-
produced. As written before, hydraulic lime nent to yield calcium silicate compounds. Kiln
hardens partly by reaction with water and so temperatures for production of hydraulic lime
differs from other types of lime that harden by can be as high as 1200 °C. In general, most
chemical reaction with carbon dioxide in the designs of kilns for the production of quick-
air. It has properties with an intermediate lime should also be suitable for producing
character between quicklime and Portland hydraulic lime. Hydraulic lime can be used in
cement, although it is manufactured in a simi- some applications for which ordinary lime is
lar way to quicklime. In addition to contain- not suitable, specifically where water is pres-
ing calcium hydroxide, hydraulic lime ent, being the main application as a mortar.
incorporates calcium silicates similar to the However, it can also be used as a render or
main cementitious components of Portland plaster, either in new building or in the repair
cement. According to ASTM C141/C141M and maintenance of historic buildings, as a
standard, hydraulic quicklime is “a cementi- filler in bitumen pavements and in soil proper-
tious product obtained by calcining argilla- ties improvement. There is an established mar-
ceous or siliceous limestone, or a mixture of ket for these materials in conservation work.
similar composition to form sufficient free In mortar application, commonly 1 part
lime to permit hydration by slaking.” ISO of hydraulic lime is added to either 2.5, 3, or 4
9652-5 standard points out that: “hydraulic parts of sand by volume. In general, hydraulic
lime is a lime containing sufficient soluble sil- lime mortars exhibit: “(a) lower mechanical
ica, aluminates, etc to enable it to set in the strength, reduced shrinkage, increased work-
presence of water.” ability, and longer time period between the
The raw material for hydraulic lime is a initial and final set than common cement-
limestone with some proportion of clay. Clay based mortars and (b) good adhesion to
may be present, in enough quantity or can be cement substrates” (Costa 2015). The plastic-
added to the limestone. Most limestones for ity of a hydraulic lime mortar is intermediate
hydraulic lime production contain 5–16% sil- between that of ordinary lime and Portland
ica, 1–8% alumina, and 0.5–6% Fe2O3. The cement.
calcium plus magnesian carbonate content In accordance with the European standard
can range between 78% and 92%. Since clay EN 459-1, limes with hydraulic properties are
content and type of clay can significantly divided into three subfamilies: “(a) natural
vary, this results in the preparation of a prod- hydraulic lime (NHL), which is “a lime with
uct showing important variations in proper- hydraulic properties produced by burning of
ties, such as strength and setting time. more or less argillaceous or siliceous lime-
While the calcium oxide portion behaves stones with reduction to powder by slaking
in a manner similar to air lime, the silicate and with or without grinding; it has the property
aluminates portion reacts when it is mixed of setting and hardening when mixed with
with water, producing hydrated silicates and water and by reaction with carbon dioxide
calcium aluminates, that is, a hydraulic reac- from the air (carbonation),” (b) formulated
tion takes place similar to that of cement. lime (FL), which is “a lime with hydraulic
Likewise, the calcium oxide becomes calcium properties mainly consisting of air lime (CL)
hydroxide and a carbonation reaction occurs and/or natural hydraulic lime (NHL) with
added hydraulic and/or pozzolanic material;

.. Table 7.4 Compressive strength requirements
it has the property of setting and hardening for the hydraulic limes (EN 459-2 standard)
when mixed with water and by reaction with
carbon dioxide from the air (carbonation),” Type of 7 days 26 days Final
and (c) hydraulic lime (HL), which is “a lime lime strength strength setting
with hydraulic properties mainly consisting of (MPa) (MPa) times (h)
air lime (CL) and/or natural hydraulic lime
NHL 2, – ≥2 to ≤7 ≤40
(NHL) with added hydraulic and/or pozzola- FL2,
nic material; it has the property of setting and HL2
hardening when mixed with water and by
NHL – ≥3.5 to ≤30
reaction with carbon dioxide from the air 3.5, FL ≤10
(carbonation).” The three subfamilies are 3.5,
classified based on their compressive strength HL3.5
in MPa (the higher the number, the stronger NHL 5, ≥2 ≥5 to ≤15 ≤15
and faster the product will set) (. Table 7.4).

FL5,
7 HL5
7.6.3 Sintered Dolomite

tered dolomite. It is a material manufactured
Raw dolomite or a mixture of raw dolomite through high temperatures in a two-step ther-
with raw magnesite and/or calcite can be used mic process: initial calcination and further sin-
as the raw material in the production of sintering. The chemical reactions are as follows:
( )
CaMg ( CO3 )2 + T about1000° C ® CaO × MgO calcined + 2CO2
a
( )
a
CaO × MgO calcined + T > 2000° C ® CaO × MgO sintered
More in detail, the raw dolomite is charged

.. Table 7.5 Chemical composition of a sin-
into the shaft or rotary kiln and, while pro-
tered dolomite product
gressing through the kiln, the raw material is
decomposed in two steps. In the first stage, Mg 39.35%
CO2 is released from the MgCO3 component
CaO 58.28%
of the dolomite (starting at around 550 °C).
In the second stage, CaCO3 component is SiO2 0.88%
decomposed at temperatures about 800– Fe2O3 0.99%
900 °C. After complete calcination, the mate-
Al2O3 Max 0.5%
rial is heated to the sintering temperature
(about 2000 °C) where the dolomite is almost
melted. At this temperature, the porosity of
the calcined material diminishes, generating upon heating. To obtain a high-quality sin-
an increase in the bulk-specific density of the tered dolomite, it is essential that raw materi-
product (density above 3.3 g/cm3). This als do not have undesirable impurities such as
increase is essential for refractory applications melting oxides SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3.
because guarantees resistance to hydration . Table 7.5 shows a typical composition of a

and chemical stability. The sintering aptitude sintered dolomite product.

of dolomite to manufacture sintered dolomite According to ASTM C71 standard, sev-
is a function of crystal size and decrepitation eral definitions can be outlined to cover all the
187 7
aspects related to sintered dolomite. Thus, ELECTRICITY EMISSIONS PROCESS
EMISSIONS
doloma (fused) is a “refractory-grade material 2%
consisting predominantly of lime and magne-

sia which has solidified from a fused or molten
state.” Doloma (refractory) is “a refractory 30%
manufactured predominantly of dead-burned FUEL COMBUSTION
EMISSIONS
dolomite, synthetic doloma, fused doloma or
combinations of these materials.” Doloma 68%
synthetic is “a refractory-grade doloma which
has been derived from blending magnesia and
lime or dolomite and dead-burning to form a
dense, hydration-resistant material; and hav-
ing a MgO content of 30% to 80% by weight
.. Fig. 7.19 Average shares of CO2 emissions from the
and maximum CaO content of 70% by manufacture of lime (EuLA 2014)
weight.” With regard to ISO standards, ISO
836 standard defines doloma as an “intimate industry, CO2 emissions merit probably care-
mixture of calcium and magnesium oxides ful consideration due to the global warming.
produced by calcination of the naturally Although burning fuels to heat the kilns
occurring or synthetic mixed carbonate or originate about a third of emissions in quick-
hydroxide (the term dolomite is sometimes lime production, the bulk of emissions come
used to describe doloma material but is the from the limestone used as raw material
correct term for naturally occurring uncal- (. Fig. 7.19). As said before, when heated,

cined rock).” limestone is transformed into quicklime and

Sintered dolomite is widely used to manu- CO2 is released, being these process emissions
facture refractory materials in mass and brick inevitable and constant per ton of lime.
form for application in the iron and steel Therefore, options to mitigate the emissions
industry. It is thus used in steelmaking for the are very limited without capturing the carbon.
manufacture of tar dolomite bricks, pitch As in the cement industry, life cycle inventory
impregnated dolomite bricks, or resin bonded (LCI) of quicklime and hydrated lime is essen-
dolomite bricks for the lining of BOF (Basic tial to understand the environmental consid-
Oxygen Steelmaking) vessel, AOD (argon erations of lime production.
oxygen decarburization) vessel, and to a lesser Raw materials entering the kiln have a sig-
extent electric arc furnace. These bricks are nificant effect on air emissions due to their
also used for the lining of the steel ladles. The impurities content. Thus, a careful election of
combination of chemical quality of dolomite raw materials can reduce these emissions at
together with the production process used source. For instance, the variations of sulfur
gives high refractoriness features. and chlorine contents in the limestone/dolos-
tone have an effect on the range of the SO2
emissions in the flue-gas, while the organic
7.7 Environmental Considerations matter has an influence on CO2 emissions.
Since calcination is the most energy-
As the cement sector, lime industry is one of intensive step in quicklime manufacturing, the
the most energy-intensive of all industrial type of kiln has also a major impact on the
manufacturing processes. Oates (1998) estab- energy consumption and the energy efficiency
lished the following environmental effects of of the kiln has a large impact on emissions.
lime production: “(a) dust, (b) sulfur dioxide, The CO2 emissions from the lime industry are
(c) oxides of nitrogen, (d) oxides of carbon, about 0.75 ton of CO2 per ton of lime and
(e) general noise, (f) noise and vibration, (g) 0.80 ton of CO2 per ton of dolime. Small
aqueous discharges, and (h) disposal of solid amounts of indirect CO2 are also emitted dur-
waste.” However, again just like in the cement ing other parts of the manufacturing process,
.. Table 7.6 Overall recyclability rate of lime (European Industrial Minerals Association)
Lime markets Application recycling rate Lime recycling rate
Steel 40% 95% 38%

Environmental applications 14% 90% 13%
Concrete and bricks 5% 60% 3%
Soil stabilization and mortars 12% 75% 9%
Chemistry 8% 70% 6%
Other uses 21%
Total 100% 68%
7 e.g., mining limestone or hydration, but they Slags are reused almost completely and dust
are insignificant in comparison to heat pro- largely. Thus, the recycling rate of lime in steel
duction and process emissions from calcina- application is estimated to be about 95%.
tion. With respect to carbon capture and Other sectors consuming lime outline differ-
storage, that point was already described in ent recycling rates (e.g., the average recycling
the cement chapter. rate of lime in soil stabilization and mortars is
According to the European Lime about 65%). The European Industrial
Association, several options are present for Minerals Association evaluated at 2014 the
reducing energy use: “(a) fuel savings, being overall recyclability rate of lime; results are
the main methods of increased fuel efficiency shown in . Table 7.6.

the following: switching from horizontal to

vertical kilns, Installing heat exchangers in
horizontal kilns, switching from vertical kilns
to vertical kilns Parallel flow regenerative 7.8 Markets and Applications
kilns, or improved use of waste heat; other
measures such as efficient kiln insulation lin- Lime is probably the most versatile natural
ing or optimized combustion processes could chemical for a wide range of processes. Thus,
also lead to increased fuel efficiency, and (b) the list of lime applications is impressive.
electricity savings: changing the fuel mix is Although the distribution of lime utilization
one of the possible ways to reduce the emis- among the main market sectors changes
sions, switching to less carbon intensive fuels widely from one country to another, the main
sources such as natural gas or increase the use application of lime products in industrialized
of biomass or waste materials; other methods countries is undoubtedly in steelmaking fol-
include the use of gas instead of solid fossil lowed by construction market. . Figure 7.20
fuels, the use of waste and/or biomass as a shows the main markets and applications of
fuel, the use of electricity to heat kilns, and lime and their relative percentages in Europe.
the utilization of solar heat.” Lime products have the following benefits: (a)
The European Industrial Minerals breathability and flexibility, (b) sustainability,
Association states that “lime recycling is an (c) durability, (d) anti-bacterial, and (e) aes-
effective method to reduce the environmental thetic appeal. In short, five principal markets
aspects of lime production.” For instance, for lime products can be described: metallurgy
lime is usually used as a flux in purifying steel (iron and steel as well as other metals such as
in the electric arc furnace (EAF) and basic copper or alumina), chemical industry, envi-
oxygen furnace (BOF). End of life for lime in ronmental protection and agriculture, con-
these applications in the large majority is as struction and building, and other uses, e.g.,
part of the slag and to a lesser extent as dust. food or paper sectors.
7.8 · Markets and Applications
189 7
EXPORT
OTHER INDUSTRIAL
CUSTOMERS IRON AND STEEL
- Removing impurities from sugar - Removing impurities
- Glass and paper production 5% - Enhancing productivity
CHEMICAL INDUSTRY
- Feedstock for calcium
carbide
- Versatile filler in paint,
14%
pharmaceutical and PVC
AGRICULTURE
- Nutrient in fertilizer 7% 39%
- Animal nutrition
- Animal hygiene: Prevent
diseases
3%
ENVIRONMENTAL
PROTECTION
- Drinking water treatment: 16%
remove heavy metals
- Wastewater treatment:
remove impurities
- Flue gas purification
11% CONSTRUCTION
Lightweight and high
CIVIL ENGINEERING 7% insulation construction
- Improving stability and load bearing materials aggregate, filler
capacity of soil and bonding agent
- Improve durability asphalt
.. Fig. 7.20 Principal markets and applications of lime and their relative percentages in Europe (EuLa 2014)
7.8.1 Construction and Building lime include roads, runways, parking lots,

temporary haul roads, landfills, and building
Lime can be used to treat soils in order to foundations and/or footings.
improve their workability and load-bearing In road paving, hydrated lime is com-
features. Quicklime and hydrated lime are monly used in hot mix asphalt to reduce
used to stabilize fine-grained soils in place of moisture sensitivity and stripping. Stripping
materials that are used as sub-bases, e.g., is generally defined as a loss of adhesion
hydraulic clay fills or otherwise poor-quality between the aggregate surface and the asphalt
clay and silty materials. Lime can modify cement binder in the presence of moisture.
almost all fine-grained soils to some extent, The addition of 1–1.5% of hydrated lime to
but the best improvement is carried out in clay asphalt hot mixes has a number of advan-
soils of moderate to high plasticity. Clay must tages in road construction because lime sig-
be present for lime to react with the available nificantly increases pavement life and
silica and alumina in the soil to form complex serviceability. Lime acts as a mineral filler
cementing phases that bind the soil into a that increments the viscosity of the binder,
hard, stable mass that is not sensitive to water increasing the stiffness, tensile strength, com-
saturation. The plasticity of the soil is clearly pressive strength, and resistance to water
reduced as well as shrinkage and swell. Thus, stripping. Lime-charged asphalt mixes pre-
the application of lime for soil stabilization vent oxidation of the asphalt binder and the
provides soils that are homogeneous, imper- effects of aging, such as brittleness and crack-
meable, and stable. Soil stabilization with lime ing. Hydrated lime also helps to reduce
also reduces soil plasticity and density is also asphalt pavement rutting and increases
modified. In addition, lime applied to soils fatigue resistance to heavy wheel loads, which
will increment soil compressibility, tensile cause pavement cracking. Hot lime slurry is
strength, and flexural strength. Sites that are now being added to the asphalt emulsion in
good candidates for soil stabilization using cold in-place recycling of distressed asphalt
pavements because it provides a smooth base tars, plasters, and renders for many years, both
for the new asphalt surface. The addition of as the only binder material, and also more
lime results in superior cold recycled mixtures recently in conjunction with other binders that
with much greater early strength and resis- were usually used with the aim of obtaining
tance to moisture damage. faster set and strength gain (7 Box 7.3: Lime

In the building sector, lime is one of the in Masonry Mortars, Plasters, and Renders).
oldest building materials over the world, mor- Quicklime is also used to produce building
tar being used since Roman times or even products such as sand lime brick and auto-
before. Lime has been used in masonry mor- claved aerated concrete (AAC).
Box 7.3
L ime in Masonry Mortars, Plasters, thetics, (c) longer life of the building, and (d)
and Renders ease and low cost of maintenance.
7 Lime is used in the renovation of old structures The utilization of lime in masonry mortars
built with lime-based mortars (previous to the allows moisture vapor to escape at the same
introduction of Portland cement mortars) and time as preventing water penetration into the
is nowadays used in historical buildings as part building fabric, contributing to better moisture
of the renovation process. Mortars made with control within the structure and in the building.
cement as the only binder ingredient tend to be In addition, lime mortars are able to accommo-
hard, impermeable, and brittle, which can lead date minor movements due to thermal or settle-
to issues with cracking, water penetration, and ment forces without permanent large cracking
poor durability. Because lime is still the most or separation from the masonry (. Fig. 7.21).

used plasticizer for mortar since it is workable During construction, lime-based mortars are
and cohesive, to incorporate an appropriate commonly more fluid as well as being more
proportion of hydrated lime into a cement- cohesive, which gives a long working life and
based mixture improves plasticity and work- easy working properties. In order to get these
ability, making the product easier to handle. benefits, at least 20% by mass of the binder in
Hydrated lime also increases water retention the masonry mortar should be air lime.
that helps to enhance the contact and bond . Table 7.7 suggests some mix proportions for

with the substrate. According to European general masonry applications.

Lime Association, masonry structures built A similar application for lime is found in
with lime-based mortars contribute to (a) a plasters, commonly mixed with gypsum.
healthy indoor environment, (b) improved aes- Internal plastering is used to cover up differ-
.. Fig. 7.21 On left: high strength nonlime mortar (thermal and shrinkage movements cause cracking and
separation); on right: mortar containing lime (natural movements accommodated without damage)
7.9 · Questions
191 7
.. Table 7.7 Suggested mix proportions for .. Table 7.8 Mix proportions for a three-
general masonry applications layer render
Type of Volume Typical Type of Volume Typical

masonry proportions compressive layer proportions compressive
Cement: strength Cement: strength
Lime:Sand Lime:Sand
Internal 1:2:9 2.5 MPa Final coat 0:1:3 ≤1 MPa

masonry (3–5 mm)
External 1:1:6 5 MPa Final coat 1:3:10 1 MPa

masonry (3–5 mm)
External 1:0.5:4.5 10 MPa Under coat 1:2:9 2.5 MPa

masonry (15 mm)
below
Base coat 1:1:6 5 MPa
ground
(5 mm)
ences in level and to provide a surface that is Lime is also applied in renders as a mixture
suitable for the final decorative finish. The use with Portland cement and sand in different pro-
of lime with cement in internal plastering proportions. Lime enhances properties of the ren-
vides a quick, strong, and easily applied process der, such as good workability, plasticity, high
of coating durable plaster. The ability of lime to water retention and extends the working time
promote the healing of cracks helps to assure its of fresh mortar, increasing cost effectiveness of
durability by reducing water penetration and construction. Lime reduces the thermal expan-
the high alkalinity of the plaster inhibits the sion coefficient of renders, thus lowering sensi-
corrosion of iron and steel. Because of their tivity to temperature changes. If small cracks
physical structure and vapor permeability, lime- form in the render, lime provides the ability to
based plasters are able to maintain the humidity fill and seal the cracks by the action of natural
levels within an indoor environment. They moisture movements in the render layer.
absorb water vapor when humidity is high, and Proposed mix proportions for a three-layer ren-
release it again when the humidity becomes low. der are summarized in . Table 7.8.

In autoclaved aerated concrete, quicklime is 7.9 Questions

mixed with cement, sand, water, and alumi-
num powder to prepare a slurry that rises and ??Short Questions
sets to form blocks, having these blocks excel- 55 Explain the terms quicklime and hydraulic
lent thermal and sound insulation properties. lime.
Dolomite lime and/or modified quicklime can 55 What is the meaning of the term slaked
be added to decrease excessive shrinkage and/ lime?
or cracking. Decorative finishes can be created 55 Why dolostone is used in dolime
with lime washes. Lime wash is a traditional manufacture?
method of painting walls with a color base 55 What is lime putty?
that allows the masonry to breathe, providing 55 Explain the temperature required to
both protection and aesthetic appeal. Lime produce quicklime.
wash is also widely used in agricultural build- 55 Enumerate the main fuels used in lime
ings due to its germicidal qualities linked to its production.
extreme ease of application and low cost.
55 How many tons are needed to manufacture Thomson M (2005) Properties of lime mortar. Structure
one ton of lime? Magazine May 2005, 26–29
Whitman WG, Davis GHB (1926) The hydration of
55 What is the most important type of kiln
lime. Ind Eng Chem 18(2):118–120
used in lime manufacturing?
55 What are white lumps? Standards
55 What mills are used to obtain fine products ASTM C1097 – 19. Standard specification for hydrated
in quicklime processing? lime for use in asphalt cement or bituminous paving
55 How the sintered dolomite is manufactured? mixtures
55 Define the most important property of ASTM C110 – 16. Standard test methods for physical
testing of quicklime, hydrated lime, and limestone
lime.
ASTM C1271 – 99(2012). Standard test method for
55 What are the main environmental effects of X-ray spectrometric analysis of lime and limestone
lime production? ASTM C1301 – 95(2015). Standard test method for
55 Enumerate the main applications of lime. major and trace elements in limestone and lime by
55 What is the principal application of lime in inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spec-
troscopy (ICP) and atomic absorption (AA)
building sector?
ASTM C1318 – 15. Standard test method for determina-
7 tion of total neutralizing capability and dissolved
calcium and magnesium oxide in lime for flue gas
??Long Questions desulfurization (FGD)
55 Describe how quicklime is manufactured. ASTM C141/141M – 14. Standard specification for
55 Enumerate the EN classification of hydrated hydraulic lime for structural purposes
ASTM C1489 – 15. Standard specification for lime putty
nonhydraulic lime and discuss briefly the
for structural purposes
main features of each type. ASTM C1529 – 19. Standard specification for quick-
lime, hydrated lime, and limestone for environmen-
tal uses
References ASTM C206 – 14. Standard specification for finishing
hydrated lime
ASTM C207 – 18. Standard specification for hydrated
Corathers LA (2019) Lime U.S. Geological Survey, lime for masonry purposes
Mineral Commodity Summaries, February 2019, 2p ASTM C25 – 19. Standard test methods for chemical
Costa C (2015) Hydraulic binders. In: Goncalves MC, analysis of limestone, quicklime, and hydrated lime
Margarido F (eds) Materials for construction and ASTM C270 – 19. Standard specification for mortar for
civil engineering. Springer International Publishing, unit masonry
pp 1–52 ASTM C400 – 19. Standard test methods for quicklime
EuLA (2014) A competitive and efficient lime industry – and hydrated lime for neutralization of waste acid
cornerstone for a sustainable Europe. The European ASTM C5 – 18. Standard specification for quicklime for
Lime Association, Brussels, 27 p structural purposes
James PN, Jones B (2016) Origin of carbonate sedimen- ASTM C50/C50M – 13(2019). Standard practice for
tary rocks. John Wiley & Sons, West Sussex, 320 p sampling, sample preparation, packaging, and
Krukowski ST (2006) Lime. In: Kogel JE, Trivedi NC, marking of lime and limestone products
Barker JM, Krukowski ST (eds) Industrial minerals ASTM C51 – 18. Standard terminology relating to lime
& rocks. Commodities, markets and uses. Society and limestone (as used by the industry)
for Mining, Metallurgy and Exploration, Inc., ASTM C593 – 19. Standard specification for fly ash and
Colorado, pp 561–580 other pozzolans for use with lime for soil stabiliza-
Oates JAH (1998) Lime and limestone—chemistry and tion
technology, production and uses. Weinheim, Wiley- ASTM C602 – 19. Standard specification for agricul-
VCH Verlag GmbH, 455 p tural liming materials
Piringer H (2017) Lime shaft kilns. Energy Procedia ASTM C71 – 12(2018). Standard terminology relating
120:75–95 to refractories
Schorcht F, Kourti I, Scalet BM, Roudier S, and Sancho ASTM C821 – 14. Standard specification for lime for
LD (2013) Best Available Techniques (BAT) use with pozzolans
Reference Document for the Production of Cement, ASTM C911 – 19. Standard specification for quicklime,
Lime and Magnesium Oxide. Reference Report by hydrated lime, and limestone for selected chemical
the Joint Research Centre of the European and industrial uses
Commission, 505 p
References
193 7
ASTM C977 – 18. Standard specification for quicklime Dugall SK (2008) Construction materials. New Age
and hydrated lime for soil stabilization International (P) Ltd., Publishers, New Delhi, 525 p
ASTM D5050 – 08(2015). Standard guide for commer- Gambhir ML, Jamwal N (2014) Building and construc-
cial use of lime kiln dusts and portland cement kiln tion materials – testing and quality control. McGraw
dusts Hill Education (India) Private Limited, New Delhi,
ASTM D6276 – 19. Standard test method for using ph 566 p
to estimate the soil-lime proportion requirement for Varghese PC (2015) Building materials, 2nd edn. PHI
soil stabilization Learning Private Limited, New Delhi, 308 p
EN 459-1: 2015. Building lime – part 1: definitions, spec-
ifications and conformity criteria Useful Links
EN 459-2: 2010. Building lime – part 2: test methods
British Lime Association. britishlime.org
ISO 28901: 2011. Soil quality – guidance for burial of
Calcinor. www.calcinor.com
animal carcasses to prevent epidemics
Carmeuse. www.carmeuse.com
ISO 836: 2001. Terminology for refractories
European Lime Association. www.eula.eu
ISO 9652-5: 2000. Masonry – part 5: vocabulary
Graymont. www.graymont.com
International Lime Association. www.internationallime.org
Further Reading Lhoist. www.lhoist.com
Corathers LA, Apodaca LE (2019) Lime. 2016 Minerals Mississippi Lime. mississippilime.com
yearbook. US Geological Survey, 14 p The National Lime Association. www.lime.org
195 8
Gypsum Products
Contents

8.3.1 atural Gypsum – 199
N
8.3.2 Synthetic Gypsum – 201
8.4 Calcined Gypsum Manufacturing Process – 203
8.5 Properties of Gypsum – 205

8.5.1 F ire Properties – 206
8.5.2 Acoustic Properties – 207
8.5.3 Thermal Properties – 208
8.5.4 Other Properties – 208
8.6 Gypsum Products and Applications – 208

8.6.1 lasters – 208
P
8.6.2 Plasterboards – 210
8.6.3 Other Products – 212
References – 214

196 Chapter 8 · Gypsum Products
Summary
This chapter reviews the complex market
of gypsum-based products. It begins with
definitions, according to ASTM, EN, and
ISO standards, of the most common prod-
ucts such as gypsum plaster or gypsum
plasterboard. The next heading establishes
the two main sources of raw materials for
manufacturing gypsum products: natu-
.. Fig. 8.1 Big gypsum crystals. (Image courtesy of
ral and synthetic gypsum, e.g., flue-gas- María Ángeles Bustillo)
desulfurization (FGD) gypsum. Moreover,
the different geological occurrences of
gypsum are summarized. Gypsum plaster The word gypsum is derived from the
manufacturing process as well as the main Greek (gypsos), which means chalk or plaster.
properties of gypsum and gypsum products Pure gypsum is a white translucent c rystalline
(fire, acoustic, thermal, and other proper- mineral with a density of about 2.3 g/cm3,
8 ties) are described. Gypsum products and
applications are taken into account in the
though impurities can give the mineral a gray,
brown, or pink coloration. It is found fre-
last heading of the chapter, including items quently as well-formed crystals (. Fig. 8.1);

specifically devoted to plaster and plas- crystals with a diameter of several meters,
terboard. For every product, main char- weighing 55 tons, have been discovered in
acteristics as well as the manufacturing 2000 at Cueva de los Cristales (Chihuahua,
processes are discussed. Other important Mexico). Gypsum is one of the softest min-
gypsum-based products such as glass fiber erals and one of the first minerals to crystal-
reinforced gypsum, gypsum blocks, or gyp- ize as seawater evaporates. Thus, gypsum is
sum tiles are also considered. a naturally occurring water-soluble mineral.
Gypsum mineral content in the sedimentary
rock termed gypsum varies from 75% to 95%,
8.1 Introduction the rest being formed of chalk and/or clay. The
chemical name of gypsum is calcium sulfate
Gypsum is a very important binding agent dihydrate (two molecules of water in chemi-
used as building material since ancient times. cal combination) and the chemical formula is
The earliest known use of gypsum as a build- CaSO4•2H2O. Gypsum turns into anhydrite
ing material in construction and decoration in (CaSO4) with increasing pressure and/or tem-
the form of plaster and alabaster was in perature. Gypsum also includes alabaster, a
Anatolia about 6000 B.C. Gypsum has been fine-grained and translucent white material
found on surfaces used as mortars within the commonly used in decoration and construc-
great pyramids in Egypt. There are records of tion as an ornamental rock, e.g., alabaster
old Roman laws requiring builders to plaster windows in the Cathedral of Our Lady of the
their construction to prevent fire spread Angels at Los Angeles, USA (. Fig. 8.2).

(Gypsum Association 1972) and the use of When gypsum is heated at about 150–
gypsum plaster by the Minoan civilization is 160 °C, it loses approximately three-quar-
well documented. It was a traditional building ters of its water in a partial dehydration
material in the Mediterranean and Middle process and becomes hemihydrate gypsum
East countries, being introduced into Europe (CaSO4•½H2O) or calcined gypsum; it is
as a plaster in the thirteenth century. Beautiful also known as beta gypsum (alpha gypsum is
decorations and artistic works were made of made by processing batches of gypsum under
this product. Since that time, the range of elevated pressure). Calcined gypsum or beta
construction-related applications of gypsum gypsum is soft and may easily be ground,
has continuously increased. forming a powder termed hemihydrate gyp-
8.1 · Introduction
197 8
the material will revert back to the original
composition of gypsum. This is because gyp-
sum powder has affinity for water. The advan-
tage of gypsum plaster deals with its fast
setting, that is, there is not long-term curing
reaction as in the case with Portland cement.
The process can be repeated almost indefi-
nitely, which has important implications for
recycling.
The slurry form of hemihydrate gypsum
plaster may be poured between two adhesive
layers to manufacture wallboard, placed into
molds, or can be used to fill cracks. Thus, cur-
rent utilization of gypsum as a construction
component was discovered in 1888 when
Augustine Sackett invented a machine to pro-
duce wallboards formed by layers of paper
.. Fig. 8.2 Alabaster windows in the Cathedral of Our with gypsum in-between. Nowadays, the utili-
Lady of the Angels at Los Angeles. (Image courtesy of zation of this product is increasing worldwide.
Martin Scharwtz)
Gypsum is a perfect building and con-
struction material since it is abundant, eco-
sum plaster or sometimes Plaster of Paris; nomical, fire resistant, strong, and versatile.
it is because of the presence of vast beds of On the other hand, it can lower sound trans-
gypsum in Paris that were extensively mined mission and its utilization shows many other
at quarries in the Montmartre district, and environmental advantages, e.g., decreasing
processed to manufacture this product (the waste delivered to landfills. Thus, people and
cemetery of Montmartre is located exactly properties protection against fire as well as
in an abandoned quarry of gypsum). This correct thermal and acoustic isolation depends
product is sometimes called stucco although on the specific properties of gypsum.
this term can be extremely confusing because Gypsum is one of the most widely used
it can include components such as Portland minerals and the most common sulfate min-
cement or lime, being used mainly in exte- eral. It can be classified into natural and syn-
rior finishes. If gypsum is heated to at higher thetic. Both natural gypsum and industrially
temperatures than 150–160 °C, the resulting produced gypsum are characterized by full
product is anhydrous calcium sulfate. This recyclability and absence of pollutants.
substance is used to manufacture some types Natural gypsum deposits (anhydrite is com-
of plasterboards and as an interior plaster. monly mined in conjunction with gypsum)
For instance, the so-called Keene’s cement is occur in many countries of the world. They
(ASTM C11 standard) “an anhydrous gyp- are extracted mainly in quarries (. Fig. 8.3)

sum plaster characterized by a low mixing although underground mining is also present
water requirement and special setting proper- (. Fig. 8.4) whereas synthetic gypsum is gen-

ties, primarily used with lime to produce hard, erated as a by-product of industrial processes.
dense finish coats.” Synthetic gypsum originated by different
The mixture of hemihydrate gypsum pow- industrial processes is essential to substitute
der with water forms a slurry or paste that will mined gypsum in all gypsum applications. As
dry and set rock hard. The term plaster is gen- a rule, the most frequent source of synthetic
erally used to describe the powder generated gypsum is FGD (Flue Gas Desulphurization)
by calcination of gypsum and the slurry made systems, which are used to decrease sulfur
when mixing with water. As the plaster and dioxide emissions generated in coal-fired
water mixture dries, water will chemically power stations. These systems not only main-
recombine with the hemihydrate gypsum, and tain the air clean but they can also generate a
In 2017, world mining production of crude

gypsum was 160 million tons (rounded)
(Crangle Jr. 2019), the United States being the
main producer with about 21 million tons.
According to Eurogypsum, “world reserves of
natural gypsum probably exceed trillions of
tons,” sufficient to meet future demand. The
rise in consumption of synthetic gypsum is
slowing the rate at which natural gypsum
reserves are mined. In 2018, synthetic gypsum
accounted for more than 50% of the total
domestic gypsum supply (Crangle Jr. 2019).
Moreover, another factor to diminish in the
.. Fig. 8.3 Gypsum quarry. (Image courtesy of Placo future the demand of natural and synthetic
Saint-Gobain) gypsum would be the increasing amount of
recycled wallboards. Approximately 700,000
tons of gypsum scrap was generated in 2017 in
the United States by wallboard manufactur-
8 ing (Crangle Jr. 2019). Specialized recycling
companies process this waste to produce new
gypsum.
8.2 Definitions
Terms and definitions related to gypsum-

based products are impressive. These products
include not only base materials such as gyp-
sum binders and plasters but also the myriad
of manufactured elements. For this reason,
this heading only includes the definition of
the most basic products manufactured with
gypsum; other definitions will be incorporated
.. Fig. 8.4 Gypsum underground mining. (Image cour- in more specific headings dealing with appli-
tesy of EuroGypsum) cations of gypsum. An example of the com-
plex gypsum products world is the varied
sustainable, ecologically sound source of very definition of a gypsum product. Thus, accord-
pure gypsum. ing to ISO 6873 standard, gypsum product is a
In developed countries, most gypsum is “dental product composed essentially of a
used to manufacture plaster and wallboard hemihydrate of calcium sulfate and any neces-
products for homes and commercial buildings sary modifiers” while ASTM C1546 standard
as well as a retardant in Portland cement man- states that gypsum product is “a building mate-
ufacturing (there is presently no substitute for rial intended for use in radian heated ceiling
gypsum in this application). Gypsum is also construction, containing gypsum in its com-
extensively employed in other applications position or construction.”
such as a soil conditioner on large tracts of Once established the definition of gypsum:
land in suburban areas and in agricultural “the mineral consisting primarily of fully
regions, as a mold material, as an ingredient hydrated calcium sulfate, CaSO4•2H2O or
in many patching compounds, as a modeling calcium sulfate dehydrate” (ASTM C11 stan-
material for tooth restorations, and much dard) or “calcium sulfate in its fully hydrated
more. phase” (ISO 6707-1 standard), a next defi-
199 8
nition incorporates the concept of gypsum to form flat rectangular boards; this composi-
binder: “gypsum binder may be obtained tion allows them properties that make gypsum
by calcination of calcium sulfate dehydrate plasterboards particularly suitable for use in
(CaSO4•2H2O) and consists of calcium sulfate situations where fire protection, sound, and
in its various hydration phases, for example thermal insulation are required.” ISO 3009
hemihydrate (CaSO4•½H2O) and anhydrite standard points out that fire-resistant gypsum
(CaSO4); when mixed with water, gypsum board is “a gypsum board with increased fire
binder is used to hold particles together in resistance as a result of additives to the for-
a coherent mass by a setting process” (EN mulation.” ASTM C11 standard defines
13279-1 standard). gypsum panel products, an umbrella term, as
Gypsum plaster is another term to be “the general name for a family of sheet prod-
defined: “gypsum plaster (premixed gypsum ucts consisting essentially of gypsum,” gyp-
plaster) is used as a generic term to include sum board as “the generic name for a family of
all kinds of gypsum building plaster, gypsum- sheet products consisting of a noncombusti-
based building plaster, and gypsum-lime ble core primarily of gypsum with paper sur-
building plaster used in buildings,” being gyp- facing,” gypsum wallboard as “a gypsum board
sum building plaster a “gypsum plaster con- used primarily as an interior surfacing for
sisting of at least 50% calcium sulfate as the building structures” and gypsum sheeting as
principle active binding component and not “a gypsum board used as a backing for exte-
more than 5% lime (calcium hydroxide)” and rior surface materials, manufactured with
gypsum-based building plaster a “gypsum plas- water-repellant paper and may be manufac-
ter consisting of less than 50% calcium sulfate tured with a water-resistant core.”
as the principle active binding component and
not more than 5% lime (calcium hydroxide)”
(EN 13279-1 standard). Alternatively, ISO 8.3 Raw Materials
6707-1 standard defines plaster as a “mix-
ture used to obtain an internal finish, based As written before, there are two main sources
on one or more binders, e.g. gypsum, which, of raw materials for manufacturing gyp-
after the addition of water, is applied while sum products: natural gypsum and synthetic
plastic and hardens after application” and gypsum. It is also viable to recycle gypsum
ISO 11375 standard points out that plastering from urban mining source (termed end-of-
unit for gypsum mortars is a “plastering unit life (EoL) gypsum or post-consumer gypsum
designed for carrying out plaster work using waste) although the use of this product is still
gypsum mortars.” ASTM C11 standard states low (Jiménez-Rivero and García-Navarro
that plaster is “the generic name for a family 2017).
of powdered cementitious products consisting
primarily of calcined gypsum with additives
to modify physical characteristics, and having 8.3.1 Natural Gypsum
the ability, when mixed with water, to produce
a plastic mortar or slurry which can be formed Gypsum is an abundant sedimentary rock
to the desired shape by various methods and commonly mined from numerous deposits
will subsequently set to a hard, rigid mass.” worldwide. The formation of gypsum depos-
Finally, the last term to be defined in this its generally involves deposition of the cal-
heading is a product with many commercial cium sulfate mineral anhydrite, which is then
names: gypsum plasterboard, gypsum board, hydrated to form gypsum. The depth of hydra-
gypsum wallboard, gypsum drywall, etc. tion can range from the surface of the deposit
According to EN 520 standard, gypsum plas- down to several hundred meters, depending
terboards “are composed of a plaster core on climate, topography, and the structure of
encased in, and firmly bonded to paper liners the deposit.
.. Fig. 8.6 Great Salt Lake in Utah. (Image courtesy

of José Pedro Calvo)
.. Fig. 8.5 Sabkha at the Union of Arabian Emirates.

(Image courtesy of SEPM Strata) latter case the gypsum, occurring mainly as
nodules and/or lenses, is named secondary
8.3.1.1 Geology gypsum. Marine brines resulting in the pre-
Natural gypsum occurs worldwide in a large cipitation of gypsum also extend in shallow
8 number of geological formations embracing coastal lakes or lagoons of the Arabian Gulf,
most of the Phanerozoic stratigraphic stages. the southern Mediterranean coasts, the Red
In those formations, gypsum is associated Sea, Baja California, the Texas coast, and
with a variety of evaporite materials such as southern Australia.
sodium chlorides (mostly halite), sodium and With regard to nonmarine brines, present-
calcium sulfates (thenardite and glauberite), day gypsum deposits are usually formed in
and many other specific and rare salts. shallow lakes of all continents. The composi-
Gypsum is mainly precipitated after concen- tion of the lake waters is strongly variable
trated solutions (termed brines), which result depending on the lithologies of the drainage
from the chemical evolution of either marine area (Eugster and Hardie 1978). Lakes giving
or nonmarine brines. Marine brines evolve place to the formation of gypsum deposits
after seawater dominated by sodium and chlo- contain water saturated in sulfate and cal-
ride with lesser amount of sulfate and cations cium. Similar to the marine environments,
(Mg, Ca, K) as well as carbonate or bicarbon- gypsum in lakes can be primary and second-
ate anions. Gypsum precipitates at the time ary and, accordingly, the structures and tex-
the seawater evaporates up to four to five tures of the gypsiferous sediments are very
times its initial concentration (from about 35 varied: lenticular, nodular, chicken-wire, lami-
to 130–160‰) and the brine density reaches nated gypsum, stromatolite-like, selenite-like
values up to 1.13 g/cm3 (Warren 2016). gypsum, etc. (see Tucker 2001 and Warren
Evaporative conditions for marine brines 2016 for a review of the several occurrences of
are attained in many places around the world, gypsum). Great Salt Lake in Utah (. Fig. 8.6),

mainly in tropical to subtropical regions. The Lake Tyrell in southern Australia, Gallocanta
Trucial Coast of the Arabian Gulf is one of Lake in Spain, and Lake Tchad in central
the best studied regions where natural gypsum Africa, among others, are good examples of
is currently formed (Tucker 2001). In this lakes where gypsum is currently precipitated.
area, gypsum precipitates in the so-called sab- Both texture and structure of the gypsum
khas (. Fig. 8.5), an Arabian name used to
deposits formed at the Earth’s surface usually
describe large coastal tidal flats submitted to change when they become buried. Most com-
extremely high temperatures so that the evap- mon process of gypsum after burial deals with
oration process is highly effective. Under these de-hydration, being transformed into anhy-
conditions, gypsum forms whether as a pri- drite (CaSO4). If the evaporite formation is
mary precipitate from the brine or within the later uplifted, the anhydrite is dissolved and/
sediment impregnated with seawater; in the or re-hydrated giving place to gypsum whose
201 8
features are very distinct to those of the initial
sulfate phases and the gypsum is called recrys-
tallized gypsum.
Most of the gypsum-anhydrite deposits giv-
ing place to thick evaporite successions occur in
large intracratonic (tectonically-passive sedi-
mentary basins) developed throughout several
stratigraphic stages. The oldest sedimentary
basins containing evaporites are those of the
McArthur Group (Mid- Proterozoic) and
Amadeus Basin (Late Proterozoic), both in
Australia. During Phanerozoic times, the
Siberian salt (northwestern Russian Federation)
and some other occurrences in southern Asia .. Fig. 8.7 Nodular appearance of gypsum. (Image
were accumulated in the Cambrian. Devonian courtesy of Esther Sanz)
evaporites are largely developed in basins of
Canada and the United States (Elk Point, World gypsum reserves are huge.
Willinston, and Salina basins) as well as in the Important to say is that besides natural gyp-
Moscow Basin in Eastern Europe. During the sum, the use of the by-product derived from
Permian (upper Paleozoic), the Delaware Basin several industrial processes (e.g., power plants
in the United States, the Zechstein of central and fertilizer industry) accounts for a signifi-
and northern Europe, and Permian evaporite cant amount of this raw material. In many
formations in the Andes are excellent examples countries, in particular Great Britain and the
of sedimentary basins with evaporites, and of Netherlands, by-product gypsum is widely
course gypsum. The so-called Keuper facies of used in construction.
the Triassic contain important deposits of gyp-
sum and anhydrite in several regions of Europe.
In the last years, the Cretaceous formations 8.3.2 Synthetic Gypsum
with evaporites in the South Atlantic reached
great relevance as they are seals trapping huge Synthetic gypsum is the name used to describe
oil fields. The aforementioned evaporite depos- a variety of gypsum by-products of industrial
its formed after marine brines, which is also the processing. It has the same characteristics as
case for the gypsum deposits of the Paleogene natural gypsum, being a high-quality and
of Poland and the Paris Basin as well as the environmentally friendly product. To manu-
Neogene formations of the Mediterranean facture synthetic gypsum has different eco-
(Tucker 2001). nomic and environmental advantages. From
Nonmarine sedimentary basins containing an economic viewpoint, using synthetic gyp-
gypsum spread out in many regions around sum generates revenues from a material that
the world. Examples include lake basins of otherwise incurred waste management costs.
western United States, gypsum sequences Thus, material is kept out of landfills and
developed in closed lake basins of Peru, environmental pollution is reduced. On the
Bolivia and Argentina, several large basins in other hand, increased utilization of synthetic
China, and relatively thick gypsum succes- gypsum conserves natural gypsum resources
sions in Spain. Most of the referred examples decreasing the need to mine.
are Neogene in age. The Spanish gypsum suc- The most common gypsum by-product is
cessions spread out in the three main Neogene flue-gas-desulfurization (FGD) gypsum
continental basins of the Iberian Peninsula, (7 Box 8.1). When explaining synthetic gyp-

and in some minor interior basins of the sum, it is often referred to FGD gypsum
country. . Figure 8.7 shows one of these suc-

although there are other possibilities of syn-
cessions where the gypsum occurs mainly thetic gypsum created through various acid-
under a nodular appearance. neutralizing industrial processes. These
additional types of synthetic gypsums include, gypsum is created), (d) titanogypsum, a

among many others: (a) citrogypsum, a by- by-product from the production of titanium
product of citric acid manufacturing, (b) fluo- dioxide, and (e) other gypsum products recov-
roanhydrite, a waste product of hydrofluoric ered “by the production of some organic acids
acid industry, (c) phosphogypsum, a by-prod- such as tartaric, lactic, formic, and oxalic
uct of processing phosphate ore to make acid. In addition, all processes that end with
phosphoric acid (for every 1 ton of phos- the sub-product sulfuric acid are potential
phoric acid made about 5 tons of phosphogypsum producers” (Prasad 2016).
Box 8.1
FGD Gypsum undergo forced oxidation, driven by air pumped

Fossil-fueled power plants utilize different air into the chamber during the reaction” (EPA
pollution control machines, commonly referred 2014). Thus, the chemistry of this process is the
to as flue gas desulfurization units or scrubbers, following: sulfur dioxide in the flue gases reacts
to decrease sulfur dioxide emissions (sulfur with the calcium carbonate to produce calcium
sulfite (CaSO3), and this calcium sulfite is con-
8 dioxide from power plants is the leading cause
verted into calcium sulfate dihydrate (gypsum)
of acid rain). Although these devices can differ
in how they remove sulfur dioxide, all of them by oxidizing it with water. The gypsum crystals
produce flue gas desulfurization waste. This are finally extracted of the suspension as a
waste varies from a dry powder to a wet sludge. moist, fine crystalline powder with the aid of
FGD gypsum (. Fig. 8.8) is a subset of the

centrifuges or filters.
wet sludge generated by FGD units, having FGD gypsum can be used as a substitute
higher purity (gypsum content of 96%) than for mined gypsum in wallboard since the pri-
most natural gypsum (80%). mary component (calcium sulfate dehydrate) is
Of the flue gas desulphurization processes the same in both materials as well as compara-
available, limestone-based scrubbing processes ble in its constituent elements and characteris-
have proved the most popular. FGD gypsum is tics. However, FGD gypsum may contain some
produced through a chemical reaction in the impurities that are not found in mined gypsum.
chemical scrubbers that remove sulfur from the The type and amount of impurities show the
flue gases of coal- fired power plants greatest impact on qualifying the utilization of
(. Fig. 8.9). Chemical scrubbers remove sulfur

synthetic or natural gypsum. Examples of these
dioxide (SO2) from power plant emissions by impurities are residual carbonates, fly ash, sil-
passing the flue gases through a slurry of lime- ica, calcium sulfite, soluble salts, trace elements,
stone or calcium carbonate (CaCO3). The and organic impurities (e.g., citric and lactic
chemical composition of the resulting sludge acid) (Henkels and Gaynor 1996). For instance,
“is dependent on the amount of oxygen avail- the presence of fly ash can result “in accelerated
able during the reaction. In the absence of oxy- wear to the production machinery and physical
gen, the reaction produces calcium sulfite defects in the final products; as a result, com-
hemihydrate (CaSO3•½H2O). In the presence mon market specifications (e.g. established by
of oxygen, the reaction produces gypsum North American wallboard manufactures)
(CaSO4•2H2O). To convert as much of the limit the amount of fly ash allowed in the FGD
sludge to gypsum as possible, the sludge may gypsum used in wallboard” (EPA 2014).
8.4 · Calcined Gypsum Manufacturing Process
203 8
.. Fig. 8.8 FGD gypsum
.. Fig. 8.9 Schematic illustration of FGD generation (EPA 2014)
8.4 Calcined Gypsum mills, reduce the rock further to about

Manufacturing Process 10–15 mm in diameter. . Figure 8.10 shows

the basic principles of gypsum processing

Gypsum rocks are open pit and/or under- (EuroGypsum).
ground mined, commonly using drilling and After primary crushing, gypsum rock may
blasting, then moved to a primary crusher be sent through the dryers. Because 5 mm
near to the quarry/mine location. In the pri- crushed gypsum is difficult to handle (particu-
mary crusher, e.g., jaw crusher, raw material larly if wet), drying commonly is required to
size is reduced to around 100 mm or less. assure the free flow of material in subsequent
Crushed rock is later sent to a secondary steps. Gypsum rock has commonly about 3%
crushing device and conveyed to the mill or free moisture content and, at this moisture
stockpiled. Secondary crushers, e.g., hammer content level, it can by-pass the dryer.
Synthetic Gypsum
(according to specs)
Extracted Gypsum
Gypsum powder
Calcium Sulphate Dihydrate
Crushing & milling
Heating (dehydration)
Stucco powder
Crushing & milling Calcium Sulphate Hemihydrate
(recycling) CaSO4.1/2H2O
or Anhydrite / Calcium
Gypsm body
Calcium Sulphate Dihydrate Mixing with water (setting)
Products ready
8 for use
.. Fig. 8.10 Basic principles of gypsum processing (EuroGypsum)
However, if the moisture content is higher intended products. In this calcination process,
(usually up to 10%), as it is often the case if 1 ton of gypsum calcines to about 0.85 ton of
the raw material has been stockpiled outside, calcined gypsum. The primary uses of gyp-
some drying process is necessary in order to sum depend upon the hydraulic properties of
reduce moisture content to below 3% level. the products obtained by this treatment with
Thus, the raw material can be dried in a rotary heat; hence, the calcining process is vital to the
dryer or a heated roller mill. The drying pro- industry. Thus, calcination is probably the
cess must be carefully controlled so that the most important step of the gypsum manufac-
temperature of the rock does not exceed about turing process, existing different types of
50 °C, the point at which dissociation of com- equipment in the market. The calcining pro-
bined water begins to take place. Raw material cess is an important factor in the control of
dried in a rotary dryer is conveyed to a roller the product characteristics, because it sub-
mill, where it is ground to the extent that 90% stantially affects the plaster’s crystal structure
of it is less 150 micrometers (μm). The raw and the phase composition.
material is sometimes dried in the roller mill The choice of calciner depends on the
by heating the gas stream, so that drying and desired product quality and on factors such as
grinding are accomplished simultaneously availability, the cost of fuel and electrical
and no rotary dryer is needed. energy, the degree of automation required,
Calcination is the practice of dehydrating the plant size, and operating mode as well as
gypsum into plaster through a batch or con- the raw material available. By choosing the
tinuous process that includes heating the gyp- suitable manufacturing process, the quality of
sum to evaporate the crystalline water. plaster can be influenced in the production
Typically, free water is removed in an initial stage in such a way as to reduce the rather
process at approximately 45 °C and crystalline costly addition of additives such as retarders
bound water is removed in a second process at or accelerators (Sander 2014).
150–160 °C. When Keene’s cement is made in In the early history of making gypsum
a rotary kiln, higher temperatures are neces- plaster, pieces of gypsum rock simply were
sary. Many systems additionally include heated in an open wood fire to bring about
options for grinding capacity before, during, dehydration. Today, in most plants, commer-
and after calcination, depending on the cial equipment to perform the calcination
8.5 · Properties of Gypsum
205 8
process includes rotary calciners, flash calcin- directly contacted with hot gases, being the
ers, and kettle calciners to make beta plaster final product collected at the bottom of the
or autoclave calciners to make alpha plaster. calciner. At some gypsum plants, drying,
The various calciner systems have different grinding, and calcining are performed in
capacities, residence times, and efficiencies heated impact mills. In the mills, hot gas con-
and produce different plaster properties that tacts gypsum as it is ground. The gas dries and
dictate their most appropriate utilization. The calcines the raw material and then conveys the
energy efficiency of rotary kilns is similar to product to a cyclone for collection. The use of
continuous kettles, while that of flash calcin- heated impact mills eliminates the need for
ers is reported to be slightly better. rotary dryers, calciners, and roller mills.
Although several designs are available, the In the manufacture of plasters, the product
basic principle in kettle calciners involves an is ground further in a tube or ball mill to obtain
externally heated cylindrical vessel with a size up to 0.2 mm and then batch mixed with
height greater than its diameter, enclosed retarders and stabilizers to produce plasters
within a refractory shell. Thus, the gypsum is with specific setting rates. The thoroughly
indirectly heated by hot combustion gas mixed plaster is fed continuously from inter-
passed through flues in the kettle; the product mediate storage bins to a bagging operation or
is then discharged in a place located below the to silos. . Figure 8.11 shows an overall view

kettle. Kettle calciners may be operated in of calcined gypsum manufacturing process.

either batch or continuous mode. Gypsum
calcining kettles often operate batch-wise
because plaster produced in continuous oper- 8.5 Properties of Gypsum
ation has somewhat shorter setting time due
to the product containing particles that are The main properties of gypsum and gypsum
not completely calcined. A rotary gypsum products can be arranged in four groups: (a)
kiln is similar to those used in the cement fire properties, (b) acoustic properties, (c)
industry; in flash calciners, the gypsum is thermal properties, and (d) other properties.
.. Fig. 8.11 Overall view of calcined gypsum manufacturing process. (Images courtesy of Placo Saint-Gobain)
8.5.1 Fire Properties noncombustible and capable to delay the spread

of fire up to 4 hours according to the number of
Fire resistance is an essential asset for the use of plasterboards in the corresponding system.
gypsum in building construction. Gypsum is a Thus, gypsum acts as a fire barrier and decrease
fire-guarding product, which means that it is home or business fire damage (7 Box 8.2).

Box 8.2
Gypsum Fire Resistance exceed 100 °C. This temperature is well below

Gypsum plasters and plasterboards provide that at which materials used in building will
good fire protection in buildings due to the ignite and far below the critical temperature for
unique behavior of gypsum when exposed to fire. structural components. Once the gypsum layer
Gypsum board is an excellent fire-resistive build- is completely calcined, when all the water has
ing material. According to EN 13501-1 standard, been released from its core, the residue (calcium
gypsum plasterboard is termed class A2, that is, sulfate) continues to act as an insulating layer
noncombustible products with extremely limited for as long as it remains intact. Thus, gypsum
8 contribution to the propagation of uncontrolled board continues acting as a barrier to protect
fire. For this reason, this gypsum product is the the underlying structural members from direct
most commonly used interior finish in many exposure to flames.
countries worldwide where fire resistance classifi- As expressed in the Fire Resistance Design
cations are required. Gypsum is about 20% by Manual published by the Gypsum Association
weight chemically combined water and around (GA-600-2018), Gypsum “can, in a sense, be
80% calcium sulfate, which is inert below a tem- compared to what happens when a blowtorch is
perature of 1200 °C (one square meter of plas- turned on a block of ice. Although the ice is
terboard of 15 mm thickness contains being melted, one can hold a hand on the
approximately three liters crystal water). Water opposite side without being burned. Even
acts under high heat as a fire extinguisher, being though the ice gets very thin it effectively blocks
slowly released as steam and retarding effectively the transfer of the intense heat and one’s hand
the transfer of heat and the spread of fire. This would not be burned until the ice is melted.”
process absorbs the incident heat energy from the Moreover, tests conducted according to ASTM
fire, considerably reducing the transmission of E 84 standard show that gypsum board has a
heat through the gypsum plaster, thus protecting low flame-spread index and a low smoke-
the underlying materials. In fact, the material density index. When installed in combination
under fire attack remains at constant tempera- with other materials in laboratory-tested wall
ture around 100 °C as long as water is released and ceiling assemblies, gypsum board serves to
from the gypsum. effectively protect building elements from fire
The covering of the calcined gypsum for prescribed periods.
formed on the exposed faces adheres tena- There are two main types of fire perfor-
ciously to the uncalcined material and serves to mance that plasterboard contributes to (a)
retard the calcination process, which becomes reaction to fire: is a measure of how a product
progressively slower as the thickness of cal- contributes to the development and spread of
cined material increases. While the process con- a fire, being characteristic of the individual
tinues, the temperature directly behind the plasterboard product itself and related to the
plane of calcination is only slightly higher than combustibility and behavior of the element in
that of boiling water (100 °C). Therefore, until the early stages of a fire, and (b) fire resistance:
all the water of crystallization has been liber- protection against fire for a specified period of
ated, the temperature of materials adjacent to, time; the purpose in providing the structure
or in contact with, the unexposed side will not with fire resistance is to reduce the risk to the
8.5 · Properties of Gypsum
207 8
occupants, to decrease the risk to firemen, and where fire-resistance rated systems are speci-
to decrease the danger to people near the fied, type X gypsum board is typically required
building. to achieve the rating.” The inclusion of fibers
ASTM C 1396/1396M standard defines two (e.g., glass fibers) and shrinkage inhibitors
types of gypsum board (regular and type X), within the gypsum core of some plasterboards
each with different degree of fire resistance. increases the cohesiveness and fire integrity of
Thus, Regular Gypsum Board is “a gypsum the material. This allows higher fire protection
board with naturally occurring fire resistance to be attained in comparison to standard wall-
from the gypsum in the core” and Type X board. Fire resistance classifications in the
Gypsum Board is “a gypsum board with spe- United States are the results of tests conducted
cial core additives (e.g. mineral fiber - either in accordance with ASTM E119 standard on
rock or slag wool products-) to increase the systems made up of specific materials put
natural fire resistance of regular gypsum board; together in a specified manner.
8.5.2 Acoustic Properties insulation since it is designed to afford a

physical barrier sound, incorporating a sound
All building types need acoustic performance break and minimizing reverberation. This is
in their internal spaces to be carefully consid- because there is an air cavity between the two
ered, specifically when taking into account the sides of the gypsum board, which interrupts
intended activities of the occupants in the the flow of sound. This applies irrespective of
various parts of the building. Unwanted noise whether or not additional insulation material
from outside the building, from adjacent is incorporated. Because the two sides of the
buildings, or from other internal spaces can partition are separated, it is harder for impact
produce a detrimental effect on the environ- sound to pass through. Consequently, plaster-
ment quality. The first essential for airborne board system assists with acoustic specifica-
sound insulation using any system is to close tions in two forms: through sound insulation
off air leaks and/or flanking paths by which and sound absorption. In this respect, perfo-
noise can go through or around the system. In rated boards enable effective sound-absorbing
this sense, there are four types of acoustic systems to be built. . Figure 8.12 shows

functions: “(1) sound insulation: it refers to an example of gypsum panels designed for
the ability of a material or partition/ceiling acoustic insulation.
system to stop or reduce airborne sound; it
can be internal or external, (2) sound absorp-
tion: is the ability of a material to absorb
sound within a room, (3) flanking: is the
transfer of noise through paths around a
building element, and (4) impact: is the
resistance of structure borne sound (e.g. gen-
erated by people walking or creating other
impacts onto the floor/ceiling above a space)”
(FRAMECAD 2013).
Gypsum has an advantageous impact on
noise depletion because it offers special acous-
tic grade gypsum board that provides greater
sound attenuation (2–4 dB; the decibel—dB—
is the unit used for sound level measurement). .. Fig. 8.12 Gypsum panels designed for acoustic insu-
Thus, gypsum board provides effective sound lation
8.5.3 Thermal Properties example, to construct an internal wall, a frame

is erected, plasterboard is fitted to it, joints are
The importance of good thermal insulation in filled, and the wall is created, being the opera-
buildings with the aim to reduce heating costs tion clean, dry, and uncomplicated.
cannot be over-emphasized. Thus, lightweight
building techniques (plasterboard on frame-
work) can supply excellent thermal perfor- 8.6 Gypsum Products
mance since the construction has a cavity that and Applications
can be filled with the required amount of
insulation. Thanks to the low thermal con- European legislation, EN 12859 standard
ductivity of the gypsum, the interior plaster- among others, subdivides gypsum-based prod-
board protects the insulating material and ucts into three main groups (. Fig. 8.14): (a)

contributes, together with the vapor barrier, in factory-mixed gypsum plasters, (b) gypsum
preventing indoor humidity from getting in, plaster for special purposes, and (c) prefabri-
or being trapped in, the insulation material. cated elements. The first two groups constitute
Moreover, gypsum equilibrates humidity and the diverse world of plasters whereas differ-
heat peaks since it is capable of storing humid- ent products form the third group, probably
8 ity when a room is humid and automatically plasterboards being the most representative
releasing this humidity if the indoor air components.
becomes too dry. Plasterboard has also a heat-
storing ability (small temperature increases
are absorbed and radiated back later when the 8.6.1 Plasters
temperature in the room decreases).
The calcined gypsum described above is the
raw material used to manufacture plasters.
8.5.4 Other Properties Gypsum plasters have been used as an interior
wall and ceiling finish for thousands of years
Other properties of gypsum and gypsum throughout the world. It is probable that gyp-
products such as good aesthetics (. Fig. 8.13)

sum plaster was the earliest deliberately man-
and design or ease of installation are also ufactured cementitious binder. Gypsum
essential in building construction. A richness plasters are softer and more absorbent than
of forms can be created in plasterboard and lime plasters. It is essential to bear in mind
one of the principal reasons for the quick that gypsum plaster is a nonhydraulic setting
growing of plasterboard sales in the last binder. That is to say that even after the gyp-
30 years is its facility of installation. For sum plaster has set, it is still slightly soluble in
water. As a result, they are only recommended
for use on interior walls.
Gypsum plasters are mainly made of
binders (gypsum or gypsum plus lime), some-
times including mineral fillers (clean and very
fine siliceous or calcareous sand), admixtures
(setting retarders, hardeners, plasticizers,
water retainers, among others), water, and
often other additions such as pigments or
fibers. Lightweight aggregates like vermicu-
lite, perlite, or pumite produce a stronger
material as well as efficient sound absorption
surface. In classic gypsum plasters, natural
pigments are manufactured with oxides, sul-
.. Fig. 8.13 Gypsum design for aesthetic purpose. fites, carbonates, and metallic or from plants
(Image courtesy of Placo Saint-Gobain) or animals.
8.6 · Gypsum Products and Applications
209 8
Raw gypsum
Gypsum binders for direct uses or futher processing
Direct use on site Further processing
Gypsum plasters : Gypsum plasters for special Manufactured elements,

purposes : e.g. :
— Gypsum building plaster — Gypsum plaster for — Gypsum blocks
— Gypsum based building fibrous plasterworks
plaster — Gypsum bricklaying — Fibrous plaster
— Gypsum lime building plaster products
plaster — Acoustic plasters
— Lightweight gypsum building — Thermal insulation — Ceiling tiles
plaster plasters
— Lightweight gypsum based — Fire protection plaster — Plasterboards
building plaster — Thin coat plaster
— Lightweight gypsum lime — Gypsum boards with
building plaster fibrous renforcement
— Gypsum plaster with
enhanced surface hardness
.. Fig. 8.14 Family of gypsum binders and gypsum products (EN 12859 standard)
With respect to the complex world of mentation of the solid constituents during
admixtures, traditional gypsum plasters com- stocking, (f) antifoam (e.g. octyl alcohol): to
monly include, among others, setting retarders prevent the formation of foam during applica-
(dextrin, glue, concentrated sodium silicate, tion, (g) anti-skin (e.g. hydroquinone): to pre-
hydraulic gypsum), hardeners (alum, zinc sul- vent the formation of skins on the surface, of
fate, potassium silicate), and traditional set- the products during stocking, and (h) drying
ting retarders and hardeners (strong glue, fish (e.g. lead naphthenates): to shorten the time
gum, and gelatin) while the admixtures used in needed for the coatings to dry”(Brito and
premixed plasters can be classified as: “(a) dis- Flores-Colen 2015).
persant (e.g. lecithin): to facilitate the disper- The main advantages of gypsum plasters
sion of products in the liquid phase, (b) wetting are the following: (1) setting times may be eas-
(e.g. oleic acid): to favor the enveloping of ily monitored, (2) time delay between succes-
solid constituents by dispersion by decreasing sive coats can be small, (3) different surface
the interfacial stress between the solid and the textures and hardness may be generated, (4) if
liquid phases, (c) thickeners (e.g. colloidal sil- plastering method is adequate, gypsum plas-
ica): to increase the consistency of the prod- ter does not shrink as cement-based plasters,
ucts in paste, (d) fungicides and anti-molds and (5) these products are excellent fire resis-
(e.g. copper acetoarsenic): to stop the attack tance. However, gypsum plasters are obvi-
of the coating by fungi or molds, (e) anti-sedi- ously not suitable for exterior uses except very
mentation (e.g. bentonite): to prevent sedi- effective permanent protection is provided.
8 .. Fig. 8.15 Methods of applying gypsum plasters: a manually; b spraying. (Illustrations courtesy of Placo Saint-
Gobain)
Moreover, it should not be used in spaces gypsum drywall, etc. In general, gypsum
where adequate environmental control cannot board or drywall is commonly used in the
be obtained. United States while plasterboard is the most
Regarding the method of applying, gyp- popular term in Europe. Both terms refer to a
sum plasters made with products premixed board made of gypsum plaster sandwiched
in factory go to the labor site in powder bags between paper layers. According to EN 520
and only the mixing water amount indicated standard, “gypsum plasterboards are com-
by the manufacturer is added. After mixing posed of a plaster core encased in, and firmly
process, some of the products can be applied bonded to paper liners to form flat r ectangular
by spraying and others are applied manually boards.” This composition “allows them
(. Fig. 8.15). In manual projection, the paste
properties that makes gypsum plasterboards
is spread with a metal trowel whereas in the particularly suitable for use in situations
second case, it is done using a spraying device. where fire protection, sound, and thermal
Spraying application has benefits for coating insulation are required.” The liner paper used
big areas because planning assures work con- in the manufacture of this product can be bio-
tinuity, increasing the rate of application, and degradable and made from 100% recycled
reducing the labor required. paper; thus, the environmental advantage may
Many standards control the quality of this be very high. Moreover, standard plaster-
big group of products. Examples of ASTM board is not classified as hazardous and is
standards are C28/C28M, C35, C59/C59M, nontoxic and nonflammable. In the 1940s to
C61/61 M, C472, C587, C631, C842, and 1950s, plasterboard progressively substitute
C843. For their side, the main EN standards plaster as the material of election to finish
for gypsum plasters are EN 13279-1 and EN interior walls and ceilings. Thus, gypsum plas-
13279-2. terboard is nowadays one of the most impor-
tant building materials for wall (. Fig. 8.16),

ceiling, and partition systems in residential,

8.6.2 Plasterboards institutional, and commercial structures. It is
manufactured for providing a continuous sur-
As aforementioned, gypsum plasterboard has face suitable for most types of interior decora-
many commercial names: gypsum plaster- tion when joints and fastener heads are
board, gypsum board, gypsum wallboard, covered with a joint treatment system. An
211 8
vapor permeability, flexural strength (break-
ing load), impact resistance, and thermal
resistance. It is important to note that expo-
sure of plasterboard to excessive or continu-
ous moisture and extreme temperatures
should be avoided, not being recommended
this product for use in solar or other heating
systems when board will be in direct contact
with surfaces exceeding 52 °C.
According to Georgia-Pacific Company,
the typical process of manufacturing gypsum
board can be summarized in the following
.. Fig. 8.16 Gypsum board on horizontal wall.
(Source: GharPedia)
steps (. Fig. 8.17): “(1) raw materials: gyp-

sum rock is extracted at quarries near plants,

(2) crusher: large rocks are crushed into small
impressive list of both ASTM and EN stan- pieces; (3) grinding mill: it reduces small
dards controls the different plasterboard types rocks to a very fine powder called land plaster,
and related products. (4) calcine system: land plaster is heated in
EN 520 also states that: “gypsum plaster- large kettles to remove most of the water
boards are selected for use according to their from the plaster, (5) product holding tank:
type, size, thickness, and edge profile; the calcined land plaster, sometimes also called
boards may be used for example to provide stucco (see 7 Chap. 11), is fed from a holding

dry lining finishes to walls, to fixed and sus- bin to the mixer by a screw conveyor, (6)
pended ceilings, to partitions, or as cladding mixer: water is added back to the calcined
to structural columns and beams.” Common land plaster to form a slurry; foam is added to
sizes of plasterboard are 2400–3600 mm or the slurry to make the wallboard more light-
more in length, 1200 mm in width, and weight, (7) forming: the board forming line
9–15 mm in thickness. Gypsum plasterboard starts with two large rolls of recycled paper or
can also be used as a sub-base for the floating fiberglass mats; the slurry is poured onto the
layer of an acoustic floor and as a ceiling lin- bottom sheet and is immediately covered by
ing on the underside where separating floors the facing sheet from the other roll; this sand-
are required. wich product passes through a pair of form-
Gypsum board may be further subdivided ing plates or rolls which determine the
into: “(a) regular gypsum board: a gypsum thickness of the board; the face paper or mat
board with naturally occurring fire resistance wraps around the sides of the sandwich to
from the gypsum in the core, and (b) type X enclose the edges of the board, (8) board line:
gypsum board: a gypsum board with special the board travels down a long conveyor line in
core additives to increase the natural fire resis- a single continuous piece; in this process,
tance of regular gypsum board”(ASTM C11 water rehydrates the calcined land plaster
standard). For instance, exfoliated vermiculite causing it to harden, (9) cut-off: at the end of
and fiberglass strands can be added in the the line, a blade cuts the hardened board into
gypsum core to increase fire resistance. Other various lengths, (10) transfer table: the cut
additives generally used in plasterboard pro- lengths are turned f ace-side up to protect the
duction are lignosulfates to improve the flow face paper or mat, then fed into the kiln, (11)
of the slurry in the manufacture process, kiln: the board kiln completes the drying pro-
potassium sulfate to precipitate out the gyp- cess, leaving the gypsum board virtually
sum more quickly, foaming agents to obtain a moisture-free. and (12) bundler and stacker:
less dense plaster, and silicone because plas- the bundler put two pieces of gypsum board
terboard is inherently vulnerable to moisture. together with the face on the inside and the
Performance characteristics of plasterboard pairs of boards are taped together to further
include the following: reaction to fire, water protect the board face.”
8
.. Fig. 8.17 Process of production of gypsum board. (Illustration courtesy of Georgia-Pacific Gypsum)
8.6.3 Other Products such as glass fiber reinforced gypsum

(7 Box 8.3), gypsum blocks, or gypsum tiles

Although the most important applications of for ceilings are commonly used in the home
gypsum are in the production of plaster and interiors construction industry.
plasterboards, other gypsum-based products
Box 8.3
Glass Fiber Reinforced Gypsum materials and the environmental impacts asso-
Glass fiber reinforced gypsum (GRFG or sim- ciated with their acquisition and transporta-
ply GRG) (. Fig. 8.18) is a nontoxic and

tion.
incombustible composite of alpha gypsum
reinforced with glass fibers (5% typical) and
sometimes polymers that can be molded into
virtually any shape or size. Glass fibers provide
tensile and flexural strength and polymers
improve toughness, being a product with a high
strength to weight ratio. This material is not
only thin, but also lightweight (it weighs
approximately 10 kg/m2) and strong. Typically,
the end product is used for indoor applications
with minimal exposure to moisture. The use of
recycled material, the fact that GRG castings
are made to size and designed to minimize
excessive framing, makes this product a favor-
able choice in green constructions projects. .. Fig. 8.18 Glass fiber reinforced gypsum. (Image
Thus, GRG reduces the utilization of raw courtesy of Placo Saint-Gobain)
213 8
GRG is a versatile material that facilitates be cut as per dimensions and requirements of
the creation of modern artistic designs the building planned. The glass fiber content
(. Fig. 8.19). Today, GRG is used to achieve
is about 800 gram per m2, using glass fibers
different shapes on walls and ceiling, in addi- randomly distributed of approximately
tion to traditional architectural shapes. It is 30–35 cm in length (Shukla et al. 2016). The
used in a range of applications such as column principal application of GRG is in the con-
covers, decorative wall panels, ceilings, domes, struction of walls but it may be also used in
capitals and bases, fireplace surrounds, bulk- floor and roof slabs, many times combined
heads, light coves, complicated geometric with reinforced concrete.
shapes, and many other decorative elements.
GRG is field finished or can be factory finished
depending on the specific application. Since
GRG parts are commonly provided unfinished,
it can be painted with any commercial quality
coating suitable for plaster surfaces. Different
ASTM standards such as C1381, C1467, and
C1355 control the quality of the product.
One of the most used products manufac-
tured with GRG is the GRG panels, which is
also known in the industry as rapid wall. This
product is suitable for quick mass-scale build-
ing construction. A GRG panel is usually
produced with a thickness of 124 mm, a .. Fig. 8.19 Design using glass fiber reinforced
length of 12 m, and a height of 3 m and can gypsum. (Image courtesy of Intexforms, Inc)
According to EN 12859 standard, a gyp-

sum block is a “factory-made building element
that is produced from calcium sulfate and
water, that may incorporate fibers, fillers,
aggregates, and other additives as far as they
are not classified as dangerous substances,
and that may be colored by pigmentation” or
simply “a cast gypsum building unit” (ASTM
C11 standard). Gypsum blocks (. Fig. 8.20)

are construction products with even and

smooth visible sides for the manufacture of
building components that no longer need to
be plastered. The preferred sizes for thickness
are 60 mm, 80 mm, and 100 mm; 400 mm, .. Fig. 8.20 Gypsum block. (Image courtesy of Multi-
500 mm, and 666 mm in length, and 500 mm Gips)
in height. Constructions made of these ele-
ments are joined using gypsum-based adhe- nonload-bearing interior partitions or apart-
sive for gypsum blocks. The components ment dividing walls with separate shells. The
retain their structural stability thanks to a constructions made of gypsum blocks are
composite sandwich design as well as their basically used in public, private, or commer-
connection to adjacent components. cial buildings to achieve nonload-bearing par-
Structures made of gypsum blocks are pri- tition walls, freestanding plasterboard facings,
marily re-aliased as single- or double-layer and as cladding for supports. Gypsum blocks
8.7 Questions
??Short Questions
55 What is gypsum?
55 What is hemihydrate gypsum?
55 Define gypsum plaster and gypsum
plasterboard.
55 Where do gypsum deposits are located?
55 List the different types of synthetic gypsum
55 Explain briefly the production process of
.. Fig. 8.21 Gypsum ceiling tile. (Image courtesy of calcined gypsum
KM Ceilings and Partitions) 55 What are the main properties of gypsum?
55 List the components of gypsum plasters.
55 Define Glass fiber reinforced gypsum.
are not used to build ceilings. EN 12859 stan- 55 What is a gypsum block?
dard points out that “the performance char-
acteristics of the product are reaction and ??Long Questions
8 resistance to fire, direct airborne sound insula- 55 Explain the fire resistance of gypsum-based
products.
tion, release of dangerous substances, and
thermal resistance.” 5 5 Explain the manufacturing process of
With respect to gypsum tiles for ceilings, gypsum board.
sometimes called gypsum elements for sus-
pended ceilings (EN 14246 or ASTM
C1396/1396M standards), they are factory- References
made cast gypsum elements, for which the
main intended uses are the construction of sus- Brito J, Flores-Colen I (2015) Gypsum plasters. In:
Goncalves MC, Margarido F (eds) Materials for
pended ceilings under universal substrates. construction and civil engineering. Springer
Gypsum elements for suspended ceiling are International Publishing, pp 123–181
composed of gypsum plaster and are used for Crangle Jr RD (2019) Gypsum. U.S. Geological
suspended ceilings for interior applications as Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, February
2019, 2 p
units or tiles and to hang below a structural
EPA (2014) Coal combustion residual beneficial use
ceiling. The dropped ceiling is installed as a evaluation: fly ash concrete and FGD gypsum wall-
grid system that attaches to the structural ceil- board. United States Environmental Protection
ing. After the grid is installed, it is filled with Agency, Office of Solid Waste and Emergency
gypsum ceiling tiles (. Fig. 8.21). Suspended

Response, 91 p
ceilings are often used in offices and commer- Eugster HP, Hardie LA (1978) Saline lakes. In: Lerman
A (ed) Lakes: geology, chemistry, physics. Springer,
cial buildings. Different gypsum ceiling tile New York, pp 237–293
designs provide different acoustical and aes- FRAMECAD (2013) Gypsum board technical guide.
thetic qualities and they are available in many FRAMECAD Ltd., 24 p
varieties. Product performance characteristics Gypsum Association (1972) Manual of gypsum - lathing
and plastering (GA 101-72). Gypsum Association,
include the following: reaction to fire, water
Chicago, 40 p
vapor permeability, flexural strength (expressed Henkels PJ, Gaynor JC (1996) Characterizing synthetic
as breaking load), and thermal resistance gypsum for wallboard manufacture. ACS Division
(expressed as thermal conductivity). of Fuel Chemistry, Preprints 41(2):569–574
References
215 8
Jiménez-Rivero A, García-Navarro J (2017) ASTM E119 - 12. Test methods for fire tests of building
Characterization of quality recycled gypsum and construction and materials
plasterboard with maximized recycled content. EN 520: 2009. Gypsum plasterboards—Definitions,
Mater Constr 67(328):10 p requirements and test methods
Prasad MNV (2016) Resource potential of natural and EN 12859:2011. Gypsum blocks. Definitions, require-
synthetic gypsum waste. In: Prasad MNV, Shih K ments and test methods
(eds) Environmental materials and waste. Elsevier, EN 13279-1: 2008. Gypsum binders and gypsum plas-
Amsterdam, pp 307–338 ters—Part 1: Definitions and requirements
Sander E (2014) Grinding and calcining of gypsum with EN 13279-2: 2004. Gypsum binders and gypsum plas-
Pfeiffer grinding plants. ZKG, 11:8–11 ters—Part 2: Test methods
Shukla A, Afaque Khan M, Kumar A (2016) A review EN 13501-1: 2018. Fire classification of construction
of research on building system using glass Fiber products and building elements. Classification using
Reinforced Gypsum Wall Panels. Int Res J Eng data from reaction to fire tests
Technol (IRJET) 3(2):1443–1449 EN 14246:2006. Gypsum elements for suspended ceil-
Tucker ME (2001) Sedimentary petrology, 3rd edn. ings. Definitions, requirements and test methods
Blackwell Science, Oxford, 260 p ISO 3009:2003. Fire-resistance tests -- Elements of
Warren JK (2016) Evaporites - A geological compen- building construction -- Glazed elements
dium, 2nd edn. Springer, Heidelberg, 1035 p ISO 6707-1:2017. Buildings and civil engineering
works -- Vocabulary -- Part 1: General terms
Standards ISO 6873:2013. Dentistry -- Gypsum products
ISO 11375:1998(en). Building construction machinery
ASTM C11 - 13. Terminology relating to gypsum and
and equipment — Terms and definitions
related building materials and systems
ASTM C28/C28M - 10. Specification for gypsum plasters
ASTM C35 - 2009. Specification for inorganic aggre- Further Reading
gates for use in gypsum plaster Dugall SK (2008) Construction materials. New Age
ASTM C59/C59M - 11. Specification for gypsum cast- International (P) Ltd., Publishers, New Delhi, 525 p
ing plaster and gypsum molding plaster Gambhir ML, Jamwal N (2014) Building and construc-
ASTM C61/C61M - 11. Specification for gypsum Keenes tion materials – testing and quality control. McGraw
cement Hill Education (India) Private Limited, New Delhi,
ASTM C472 - 09. Test methods for physical testing of 566 p
gypsum, gypsum plasters and gypsum concrete Guelberth C, Chiras D (2009) The natural plaster book:
ASTM C587 - 09. Specification for gypsum veneer earth, lime, and gypsum plasters. New Society
plaster Publishers, Toronto, 304 p
ASTM C631 - 09. Specification for bonding compounds Sampson DH (ed) (2011) Gypsum: properties, produc-
for interior gypsum plastering tion, and applications. Nova Sciences Publisher,
ASTM C842 - 10. Standard specification for application New York, 371 p
of interior gypsum plaster Scharff R (1995) Drywall construction handbook.
ASTM C843- 12. Standard specification for application McGraw-Hill, New York, 343 p
of gypsum veneer plaster USG (2014) The gypsum construction handbook, 7th
ASTM C1355/C1355M – 96(2015). Standard edn. Wiley, New Jersey, 576 p
Specification for Glass Fiber Reinforced Gypsum
Composites Useful Links
ASTM C1381/C1381M - 13. Standard Specification for
British Gypsum. www.british-gypsum.com
Molded Glass Fiber Reinforced Gypsum Parts
European Gypsum Industry. www.eurogypsum.org
ASTM C1396/1396M - 13. Specification for gypsum
Georgia Pacific Building Products. www.buildgp.com
board
Gypsum Association. gypsum.org
ASTM C1467/C1467M - 16. Standard Specification for
Gypsum Products Development Association. www.
the Installation of Molded Glass Fiber Reinforced
gpda.com
Gypsum Parts
Saint Gobain. www.saint-gobain.com
ASTM C1546 14. Standard Guide for Installation of
Gypsum Products in Concealed Radiant Ceiling
Heating Systems
217 9
Concrete
Contents
9.2 Constituent Materials – 221

9.2.1 Cement – 221
9.2.2 Aggregates – 221
9.2.3 Water – 224
9.2.4 Admixtures – 225
9.2.5 Additions and/or Supplementary
Cementitious Materials – 229
9.3 Properties and Tests – 230

9.3.1 Fresh Concrete – 230
9.3.2 Hardened Concrete – 235
9.4 Concrete Mix Design – 238
9.5 Specifying Concrete – 241
9.6 Production of Concrete – 241

9.6.1 Handling, Batching, and Mixing – 242
9.6.2 Transportation and Placing – 244
9.7 Compaction – 245
9.8 Curing – 248

9.9.1 Sulfate Attack – 251
9.9.2 Acid Attack – 252
9.9.3 Alkali-Aggregate Reaction – 253
9.9.4 Frost Attack—Freeze-Thaw Damage – 254
9.9.5 Erosion/Abrasion – 255
9.9.6 Fire – 255
9.9.7 Durability of Steel in Concrete – 256

9.10 Precast Concrete – 258
9.10.1 Structural Elements – 259
9.10.2 Nonstructural Elements – 260
9.10.3 Precast Concrete Systems – 262
9.11 Reinforced Concrete – 262
9.12 Prestressed Concrete – 268

9.12.1 Methods of Prestressing – 269
References – 272
9.1 · Introduction
219 9
within which are embedded particles or frag-
Summary ments of aggregate” (ASTM C125 standard),
This chapter introduces concrete as a con- and as a “material formed by mixing cement,
struction material. Currently, it is the most coarse and fine aggregate and water, with or
widely used building material in the build- without the incorporation of admixtures
ing and construction industry. Definitions and additions, which develops its properties
of the term according to ASTM, ISO, and by hydration of the cement (EN 206-1 stan-
EN standards are presented. Constituent dard).” These are the definitions of concrete
materials of concrete (mainly cement, based in the most important regulatory stan-
aggregates, and water) are then discussed, dards worldwide. More in detail, concrete is
including the definitions and types of a mixture of cement, water, fine aggregate
admixtures, which nowadays contribute (sand), and coarse aggregate (gravel or crushed
to the production of cost-effective and rocks) in which cement and water have hard-
durable concrete structures. Additions and/ ened by a chemical reaction (hydration) to
or supplementary cementitious materials bind the nonreactive aggregate. Other mate-
complete the list of constituent materials. rials that can often be added to the previous
A subsequent section is devoted to prop- mixture are additions, which are fine powders
erties and tests of concrete, with emphasis that substitute some of the cement, and small
on workability and compression strength, quantities of chemicals, known as admixtures,
the most important properties of fresh which mainly improve some properties.
and hardened concrete, respectively. The Concrete is the most widely used building
proportion of each constituent, named material in the construction industry. It is used
concrete mix design, is then summarized. in all types of buildings (from residential to
Production of concrete, i.e., handling, office blocks) (. Fig. 9.1) and in infrastructure

batching, mixing, transportation, plac- projects (roads, bridges, dams—. Fig. 9.2,
ing, compacting, and curing, accounts for etc.), being a vital component of our society. In
the next group of headings of the chapter.
Durability of concrete is briefly described.
Thus, sulfate and acid attack, alkali-
aggregate reaction, frost attack—freeze-
thaw damage, erosion/abrasion, fire, and
corrosion are properly explained. The next
section describes precast concrete elements,
which are units cast and cured in a place
other than the final location in the works.
It includes a brief description of structural
and nonstructural elements. Subsequently,
reinforced concrete, which revolutionized
the construction industry in the last cen-
tury, is introduced. Prestressed concrete
closes the chapter, taking into account the
two distinct systems of prestressing, preten-
sioning, and post-tensioning.
9.1 Introduction
Concrete can be defined as “a mixture of

aggregate, cement, and water, which hardens”
(ISO 6707 standard), “a composite material
that consists essentially of a binding medium .. Fig. 9.1 Building concrete structure
220 Chapter 9 · Concrete
.. Fig. 9.2 Hoover dam (USA). (Image courtesy of .. Fig. 9.3 Roman Colosseum. (Image courtesy of
Luis Fueyo) Manuel Jorge Bustillo)
fact, it is impossible to understand modern used for flooring and consists of quicklime
world without the existence of this construc- mixed with water and stone, hardened to form
tion material. Concrete, which essentially is a concrete. Many of the Roman, Greek, and
man-made stone, can take virtually any shape Egyptian concrete structures can still be seen
9 and form because it is like a heavy liquid when today. The longevity of these structures attests
produced and poured into a mold, thus being to the durability of these materials. The
an extremely versatile building material. Its Egyptians used early forms of concrete over
versatility and ready availability have assured 5000 years ago to build pyramids. The earliest
that concrete is and will continue to be of known illustration of concrete work can be
increasing importance for all types of construc- seen in a mural of Thebes (Egypt), dated
tion throughout the world. about 1950 BC, that shows various steps in
The major factors responsible for wide uti- the production and use of concrete.
lization of concrete are moldability, early The utilization of concrete spread from
hardening, high early compressive strength, Egypt around the eastern Mediterranean and
development of required properties with by 500 BC was used in Ancient Greece. The
admixtures to be used in complex and adverse Greeks used lime as a binder between stone
situations, and durability. Moreover, the con- and brick and as a rendering material over
crete properties can be controlled within a porous limestones usually used in the con-
broad range by using appropriate components struction of their temples and palaces. It is
and by special mechanical, physical, and possible that the Romans copied the idea of
chemical processing techniques. Concrete manufacturing concrete from the Greeks since
meets an extensive group of requirements early Roman concrete works have been found
related to its consistency, which ranges from dating back to 300 BC.
dry to very fluid, or its compressive strength, Concretes produced by combining cement
which can take values between 0.5 MPa to (a mixture of lime and pozzolan—volcanic
more than 800 MPa. This wide array of values ash from Pozzuoli) with aggregates were used
is almost impossible to obtain with any other in many of the great Roman structures, for
type of construction material. instance in the foundations and columns of
The idea of utilizing mixtures of stones aqueducts, in the arches of the Colosseum
and sand with a binder is perhaps as old as (. Fig. 9.3) and in the dome of the Pantheon

humankind. Concrete has been successfully in Rome. In fact, the word concrete has its
used in many cultures and civilizations. The roots in the Latin word concretus, meaning
oldest concrete discovered dates from around grown together or compounded. Vitruvius
7000 BC, founded during the construction of was a prominent and widely celebrated Roman
a road at Yiftah El in Galilee, Israel. It was architect (. Fig. 9.4), and its book on archi-

9.2 · Constituent Materials
221 9
.. Fig. 9.4 Vitruvius Roman architect. (Source:

7 famous-architects.org)

tecture (De Architectura) from the first cen- .. Fig. 9.5 Bars for reinforced concrete
tury BC discusses the construction technology
and materials, e.g., concrete, used in those a mixture is approximately 10–15% cement,
times n by the Romans. It is important to note 60–80% aggregates and 15–20% water. In
that the adoption of concrete as a construc- many concrete mixtures, entrained air can
tion material transformed world architecture also sum about 5–8%.
throughout the Roman Empire.
After the Roman Empire, the use of burned
lime and pozzolan was greatly reduced, build- 9.2.1 Cement
ing practices were much less refined, and the
quality of cementing materials deteriorated. Cement is an essential component of concrete
From the fourteenth century to the mid-eigh- (although it occupies the smallest proportion
teenth century, the use of cement gradually by volume). Cement, when hydrated, binds
returned. Nevertheless, it was not until the the aggregates together. This process of hydra-
early stages of the Industrial Revolution, in tion can take place both in air or under water.
the second half of the eighteenth century, that “Minimizing the amount of paste helps to
a revival of interest in calcium silicate-based minimize the amount of cement, which is the
cements brought technical innovations and most expensive ingredient of the mixture,
scientific discoveries that led to the use of con- because it requires a large amount of energy
crete as a leading material in construction. in its manufacture” (Setareh and Darvas
Thus, from the closing years of the nineteenth 2017). There are many different kinds of
century, most concrete was manufactured cements (see 7 Chap. 6) but the cement most

using Portland cement; the invention of this commonly used in concrete production is
type of cement is one of the most important Portland cement. Each type of cement will
milestone in concrete’s history. Other innova- produce concrete with different properties.
tions such as the reinforced concrete using Cements with special properties should not be
bars (. Fig. 9.5) or the utilization of admix-

required unless special characteristics are
tures or fibers in concrete production made requested.
concrete the most widely used construction
material worldwide in the last two centuries.
9.2.2 Aggregates
9.2 Constituent Materials Concrete aggregates (sand and gravel) consti-

tute about 80% of the concrete weight and
Mixing cement, aggregates, water, and 70% of the concrete volume. The aim is to uti-
admixtures and additions, if required, make lize as much aggregate as possible to bind the
concrete. These ingredients, carefully propor- elements together with the hardened cement
tioned, are combined in a mixer. Generally, paste. Thus, aggregates form the skeleton of
.. Fig. 9.6 Rounded aggregates
the concrete. Porosity within the skeleton

must be occupied with cement as complete as
.. Fig. 9.7 Angular aggregates (object about 10 cm)
possible. It means that the largest possible
aggregate size should be used and a continu-
ous range of particle sizes from fine sand up
9 to coarse stones is desirable. The optimum uti-
lization of the aggregate size improves the
concrete quality. It could be said that “min-
eral characteristics of aggregates affect the
physical properties of the concrete in its hard-
ened state, while the geometric characteristics
mostly influence concrete’s behavior in its
fresh state” (Vieira 2015). Aggregates can act
chemically, affecting the integrity of the con-
crete if they are reactive to alkalis, e.g., alkali-
silica reaction—ASR—see 7 Sect. 9.9.3.
Concrete aggregates should have a strong

bond with the hardened cement paste, should .. Fig. 9.8 Fine aggregate (sand) used in concrete
not interfere with the cement hardening, and (object about 10 cm)
should not have negative effect on concrete
durability. Aggregate in concrete acts as a
filler, reduces cost, provides strength and In Europe, aggregates for concrete are
durability, and reduces the change in volume defined in EN 12620 standard. It defines two
caused by the hydration and/or drying pro- main size groups: fine aggregate (sand)
cesses. Aggregate used in concrete production (. Fig. 9.8) and coarse aggregate (gravel)

can be natural, manufactured, and recycled (. Fig. 9.9). Fine aggregate is the designation

(see 7 Chap. 2). In concrete, rounded aggre-

for size fractions with size lower than 4 mm,
gates (. Fig. 9.6) give a more workable mix
that is, the particles pass a 4 mm sieve, and
while angular aggregates (. Fig. 9.7) make coarse aggregate is the designation for size
concrete harder to place, work, and compact. fractions greater than 4 mm, that is, particles
For an adequate concrete mixture, aggregate are retained in a 4 mm sieve. It is important to
requires to be clean, hard, and strong parti- remember that aggregates, according to their
cles. Moreover, these particles must be free of density, are also classified in lightweight, nor-
absorbed chemicals or clay coatings as well as mal, and heavyweight aggregates (see 7 Chap.
other fine materials that could generate the 2). In general, the maximum particle size of
deterioration of concrete. coarse aggregate can be 10, 20 or 40 mm.
223 9
Concrete producers commonly fill most of (sand and gravel) and then mix them in desir-
the concrete volume with the cheapest ingre- able proportions. In the resulting particle dis-
dients, that is, the aggregates, so they first tribution, the successively smaller particles fill
carefully separate the different grain sizes the voids between the larger parts, this being
referred as good gradation. ASTM C33/33 M
standard for concrete aggregates defines the
requirements for grading and quality of fine
and coarse aggregate for their utilization in
concrete. . Figure 9.10 shows the limits for

fine aggregate and for one specific size of

coarse aggregate in the standard cited.
ASTM C330/330 M, C331/331 M, and
C332 standards cover “the requirements of
lightweight aggregates intended for use in dif-
ferent types of concrete applications in which
prime consideration is reduced density while
maintaining the compressive strength of the
concrete.” These specifications cover “two
.. Fig. 9.9 Coarse aggregate (gravel) used in concrete main types of lightweight aggregates: (a)
(pen about 14 cm) aggregates manufactured by expanding, pel-
.. Fig. 9.10 Curves indicate the limits specified in ASTM C33 standard for fine aggregate and for one commonly
used size number (grading size) of coarse aggregate. (Kosmatka and Wilson 2011)
letizing, or sintering products such as blast-

.. Table 9.1 Optional chemical limits for mix-
furnace slag, clay, diatomite, fly ash, shale, or ing water present in ASTM C1602/1602
slate, and (b) aggregates prepared by process- M standard
ing natural materials such as pumice, scoria,
or tuff.” ASTM C637 standard specification Chemical or type of Maximum
for aggregates for radiation-shielding concrete construction concentration, ppm
covers special aggregates used in radiation-
Chloride, as Cl
shielding concretes. In these situations, the
composition of the aggregates and their high Prestressed concrete or 500
concrete in bridge decks
specific gravity, or both, are essential and of
prime consideration. Finally, ISO 19595 stan- Other reinforced 1000
dard points out the properties and require- concrete in moist
environments or
ments of aggregates obtained by processing
containing aluminum
natural materials and mixtures of these aggre- embedments or
gates for their utilization in concrete. dissimilar metals or with
stay-in-place galvanized
metal forms
9.2.3 Water Sulfate, as SO4 3000
Alkalies, as 600
Water is an essential component in the prepa-
9 ration of concrete because it intensively takes
(Na2O + 0.658 K2O)
Total solids by mass 50,000
part in the chemical reaction with cement.
Therefore, the amount of water in the con-
crete composition defines the concrete’s
behavior, specifically its strength, since an be used for non-reinforced concrete but is not
excess in water content leads to lower strength. suitable for reinforced or prestressed concrete,
On the other hand, the quality of the mixing and (f) waste water: not suitable for concrete.”
water for production of concrete can influ- This standard points out that “the water must
ence the setting time, the strength develop- first be analyzed for traces of oil and grease,
ment of concrete, and, if it contains chlorides, foaming agents (detergents), suspended sub-
the protection of the reinforcement against stances, odor (e.g. no odor of hydrogen sulfide
corrosion. after adding hydrochloric acid), acid content
The adequacy of water for concrete manu- (pH ≥ 4), and humic substances.”
facture depends mainly on its origin. EN 1008 ASTM C1602/1602 M standard covers
standard lists the following types of water: “mixing water used in the production of
“(a) drinking water: suitable for concrete and hydraulic cement concrete; it defines sources
does not need to be tested, (b) water recovered of water and provides requirements and test-
from processes in the concrete industry (e.g. ing frequencies for qualifying individual or
wash water): generally suitable for concrete combined water sources.” Potable and nonpo-
but some requirements listed in Annex A of table waters are permitted to be used as mix-
the standard must be met (e.g. the additional ing water in concrete although different
weight of solids in the concrete occurring performance requirements for mixing water
when water recovered from processes in the are needed (e.g., density of water or chemical
concrete industry is used must be less than 1% limits for chloride, sulfate, alkalis, and total
of the total weight of the aggregate contained solids). . Table 9.1 shows the optional chem-

in the mix), (c) ground water: may be suitable ical limits for mixing water present in ASTM
for concrete but must be checked, (d) natural C1602/1602 M standard. ISO 12439 standard
surface water and industrial process water: specifies the requirements for water that is
may be suitable for concrete but must be suitable for making concrete and describes
checked, (e) sea water or brackish water: may methods for assessing its suitability.
225 9
ing placing through increased fluidity (e.g.
Self-Compacting Concrete -SCC-), (f) pre-
serves natural resources: water and primary
aggregates, and (g) delivers cost-benefits to
the producer and the user.” Thus, admixtures
are nowadays accepted as materials that con-
tribute to the production of cost-effective and
durable concrete structures. Admixtures are
usually subdivided based on their mode of
action rather than by their chemical compo-
nents.
Admixtures for concrete are regulated by
EN 934-2 standard. It categorizes eight main
.. Fig. 9.11 Admixtures dosed in aqueous solution groups of concrete admixtures: according to
form. (Image courtesy of CEMEX) their mode of action: (a) water-reducing/plas-
ticizing: “admixture which, without effecting
9.2.4 Admixtures the consistence, permits a reduction in the
water content of a given concrete mix, or which,
Admixtures are “material added during the without affecting the water content increases
mixing process of concrete in small quantities the slump/flow or produces both effects simul-
related to the mass of cement to modify the taneously,” (b) high-range water- reducing/
properties in the fresh or hardened state” (EN superplasticizing: “admixture which, without
206-1 standard). This does not include pig- effecting the consistence, permits a high reduc-
ments and silica fume, which are additions. tion in the water content of a given concrete
Admixtures can act chemically and/or physi- mix, or which, without affecting the water
cally. They are normally supplied as aqueous content increases the slump/flow consider-
solutions (. Fig. 9.11) of the chemical for
ably or produces both effects simultaneously,”
convenience of dispensing and dispersion (c) water retaining: “admixture which reduce
through the concrete during mixing. the loss of water by a reduction of bleeding,”
Successful use of admixtures is based on the (d) air-entraining: “admixture which allows a
utilization of the most appropriate methods controlled quantity of small, uniformly dis-
of batching and concreting. Most admixtures tributed air bubbles to be incorporated dur-
are supplied in ready-to-use liquid form and ing mixing which remain after hardening,” (e)
are added to the concrete at the plant or at the set accelerating (+ nonalkaline set accelerat-
jobsite. The admixtures can be added to the ing) and hardening accelerating: “admixtures
concrete at up to 5% on cement weight, which accelerate the set by decreasing the time
although most types are generally added at when the mix changes from the plastic to the
less than 1.5%. rigid state and or which accelerate the harden-
According to the European Federation of ing by increasing the early strength gain,” (f)
Concrete Admixtures Associations (EFCA), water resisting: “admixture which reduces the
the major reasons for using admixtures in capillary adsorption of hardened concrete,”
concrete production are the following: “(a) (g) set retarding: “admixture which extends
improves strength and reduces porosity thus the time to commencement of transition of
increasing the durable life of the concrete, (b) the mix from the plastic to the rigid state,”
reduces damage from harsh environments: and (h) viscosity modifying agent (stabilizer/
including marine, freeze-thaw and sub-zero sit- water retaining admixture): “admixture which
uations, (c) improves quality: better finish and reduces the loss of mixing water by reduction
reduced service life repair, (d) reduces embod- of bleeding of the fresh concrete.”
ied carbon dioxide and energy by enhancing The admixture can perform one function
the effectiveness of the cement component, (e) or be multifunction, which means that affects
reduces noise and energy requirements dur- several properties of fresh and/or hardened
concrete by performing more than one of the Water-reducing/plasticizing admixture

main functions. In a multifunction admixture, with a typical dosage of 0.2–0.8% by weight
the primary function is the single function of cement improves the dispersion of cement
designated by the manufacturer while the sec- particles resulting in an increment in work-
ondary function is the additional function. As ability. Plasticizer increases the workability
a rule, water reducers, plasticizers, and super- at a given water/cement ratio with no loss
plasticizers are the most commonly used of strength or durability. Alternatively, these
admixtures because they allow the water con- admixtures can be used to reduce water con-
tent in a given concrete to be decreased with- tent in a range of 5–12%. This reduction
out affecting consistency, or they allow the gives significant durability enhancement and
fluidity of a concrete to be increased without strength increase for a constant cement con-
increasing water dosage, or both effects at tent. High-range water-reducing/superplas-
once. In general, water reducer admixtures are ticizing admixture, like plasticizers, improves
used in producing practically all types of con- the dispersion of cement particles resulting
crete because they allow to obtain a very fluid in a large increase in workability (7 Box 9.1:
fresh concrete even with low water content. Superplasticizers).
Box 9.1
9 Superplasticizers Superplasticizers can be used to increase signif-

icantly slump without adding more water, or to
From the late 1970s, the use of a new class of
greatly decrease water content without a loss in
chemical admixture has increased substantially
slump, being categorized as a high-range water-
in different segments of the concrete industry.
reducing admixture (. Fig. 9.12). They were

.. Fig. 9.12 Benefit can be taken for both purposes of a high-range water-reducing admixture where design-
ing concrete. (Kosmatka and Wilson 2011)
227 9
originally marketed in Germany and Japan

a
in the late 196Os. Actually, the utilization of
superplasticizers is vital for the development of
high-quality/high-performance concrete (e.g.,
high-strength concrete or self-compacting con-
crete—SCC) (see 7 Chap. 10). Thus, they are

used on all major construction projects world-

wide. In general, superplasticizers can reduce
mixing water up to 30%, producing high-
strength concrete with a low water/cement ratio
that can be placed at normal levels of workabil- b
ity or can be added to a mix to produce flowing
concrete with increased strength.
Superplasticizers meet requirements of
ASTM C494/494 M standard Type F or G or
ASTM C1017/1017 M standard Type 1 or 2.
Chemical composition of superplasticizers has
seen a great change during the last few decades.
In the past, the most common superplasticizers
were formed of products commonly referred to c
as melamine or naphthalene based chemicals.
Although these components remain in use, a
new generation of chemicals called polycarbox-
ylates has come onto the market. They have
more water-reducing rate than melamine or
naphthalene based superplasticizers with better
slump retention. They are formed by a main
carbon chain with carboxylate groups and poly-
ethylene oxide side chains. . Figure 9.13 shows

d
the mechanism of steric hindrance of polycar-
boxylate admixtures: “(A) the superplasticizer
is dissolved in water and the polar chain is
absorbed at the solid-water interface, (B) the
long side chains physically help hold the cement
grains apart allowing water to totally surround
the cement grains (steric hindrance), (C) addi-
tionally, the polar chain imparts a slight nega-
tive charge causing the cement grains to repel
.. Fig. 9.13 Mechanism of steric hindrance of
one another (electrostatic repulsion), and (D) as
polycarboxylate admixtures. (Thomas and Wilson
the electrostatic repulsion dispersing effect 2002)
wears off due to cement hydration, the long side
chains still physically keep the cement dis-
persed” (Kosmatka and Wilson 2011). ratio much more effectively than plasticizers
The superplasticizers are adsorbed on the and leading to a high workability and easier
cement particles and act as dispersants by elec- placing and compaction. Their dosage is gener-
trostatic and/or steric repulsion effects, increas- ally between 0.8% and 4.0% by weight of
ing the workability at a given water/cement cement and their effect lasts only 30–60 min-
utes. When adding superplasticizers to concrete, Superplasticizers are generally recom-

standard slumps of 60 mm to 100 mm can be mended in: (a) concrete where control of work-
increased from 100 mm to 250 mm depending ability and setting time is critical, (b) concrete
on the workability required. Alternatively, they where high flowability is required (e.g., form-
can be used to give large reductions in water work congested with reinforcing steel), (c) con-
content with reduction values ranging from crete where increased stability, high early
15% to 40%. This reduction generates very sig- strengths and improved durability are needed,
nificant durability enhancement and big and (d) concrete where shrinkage cracking is a
strength increase at both early and later ages. concern.
Water retaining admixtures are used to sensitive against frost damage. Calcium chlo-
improve the stability of a concrete mixture ride (CaCl2) is the most frequent component
with poor quality aggregates. Through this used in set accelerating admixtures, specifi-
mechanism, the separation of water (bleed- cally in nonreinforced concrete.
ing) can be reduced so that the durability of Retarding admixture is used to slow down
concrete is increased. Water resisting admix- the speed of the reaction between cement and
9 ture is used to decrease the amount of water water by slowing down the growth of the
adsorbed by the hardened concrete due to hydration products and/or reducing the rate
capillary suction. Thus, concrete directly in of water penetration to the cement particles.
contact with water or in a wet environment It is commonly used in hot weather (above
will have an increased durability. 20 °C) to prevent early stiffening, to increase
Air entrainer admixture can be used to workability time (when used in conjunction
produce a large number of small air bubbles with plasticizers), to place concrete in several
in the concrete with diameters less than 300 layers, for mass concrete to reduce maximum
micron, the air bubbles being homogeneous temperature, and to extend the time between
and stable after the mixing process. The incor- mixing and placing, e.g., in long transport
poration of air bubbles has several effects on time.
both the fresh and the hardened concrete. In Viscosity modifying admixture (VMA) is
the fresh state, the concrete mixture is stabi- generally used in self-compacting concrete
lized and the workability may be increased, (SCC) with the aim of improving segregation
especially in low cement content or dry mix- resistance (bleeding), incrementing thus the
tures. In the hardened state, the remaining air viscosity in the mixture. VMA is also known
bubbles interrupt the porous system of the as stabilizer or viscosity improver. These are
concrete, reducing the capillary suction (water often used as antiwashout admixtures for
adsorption). Thus, the bubbles act as an concrete placed underwater. These admix-
expansion area for freezing water in the pore tures increment the cohesiveness of concrete
system leading to incremented freeze-thaw to a level that enables limited exposure to
resistance. water with little loss of cement paste.
Accelerators are used to increase the initial There are large groups of concrete admix-
rate and speed of the chemical reaction tures with specific functions that are not cov-
between cement and water. They produce a ered by the EN 934-2. Some examples of these
faster stiffening of the concrete (set accelerat- admixtures are as follows: “(1) shrinkage
ing admixture) or faster hardening and reducing or shrinkage controllers admixtures:
strength development (hardening accelerating reduces early age drying shrinkage of the con-
admixture) or both. Moreover, hardening crete in order to prevent drying shrinkage
accelerating admixture can be used to decrease cracks, (2) pumping aid admixtures: improve
the period during which the fresh concrete is the stability of the fresh concrete and easy
229 9
pumping of concrete, (3) corrosion inhibiting to achieve special properties.” Somewhat con-
admixtures: produce a protective layer on the fusingly, “there are a number of alternative
steel reinforcement in reinforced concrete, (4) names favored in different countries and at
admixtures to control alkali-silica reaction: different times: cement replacement materials,
control alkali-silica reaction (ASR) in high- fillers, mineral additives, mineral admixtures,
alkali concrete, or (5) fungicidal, germicidal, supplementary cementing materials, cement
and insecticidal admixtures: control bacterial substitutes, cement extenders, latent hydraulic
and fungal growth and/or in hardened con- materials or, simply, cementitious materials”
crete” (Kosmatka and Wilson 2011). (Domone 2010). Additions are offered either
According to ASTM regulations, con- as separate components added to the concrete
crete admixtures are described as chemi- at mixing, e.g., pigments, or as preblended
cal admixtures (C494/494 M standard), with the cement, e.g., ground granulated blast-
air-entraining admixtures (C260/260 M stan- furnace slag.
dard), corrosion inhibiting admixtures (C1582 EN 206-1 standard lists two types of addi-
standard), cold weather admixture systems tions: “(a) nearly inert additions (type I),
(C1622/1622 M standard), and shotcrete and (b) pozzolanic or latent hydraulic addi-
admixtures (C1141/1141 M standard). ASTM tions (type II).” Type I additions are virtually
C494/494 M standard states the following inactive materials such as lime fillers, quartz
eight types of admixtures: “(a) water-reducing dust, and color pigments (. Fig. 9.14). For

admixtures, (b) retarding admixtures, (c) accel- instance, pigmented metal oxides (mainly iron
erating admixtures, (d) water-reducing and oxides) are used to color concrete, being added
retarding admixtures, (e) water-reducing and at levels of 0.5–5% of the cement weight. In
accelerating admixtures, (f) water- reducing, ASTM regulations, C979/979 M standard
high range admixtures, (g) water- reducing, covers specifically “the basic requirement for
high range, and retarding admixtures, and colored and white pigments in powder form
(h) specific performance admixtures (e.g. to be used in concrete for producing inte-
slump retaining admixtures, which are used grally colored concrete.” With regard to type
to improve and extend workability time of II, it includes pozzolanic or latent hydraulic
freshly mixed concrete without negative effect materials such as natural pozzolans, fly ash,
on setting times).” metakaolin, and silica dust as well as ground
ISO 19596 standard specifies definitions granulated blast-furnace slag (see 7 Chap. 6).
and requirements of admixtures for use in Standard dosages of silica dust are from 5%
concrete. This document includes up to 15 to 10% of the cement weight. In ASTM regu-
different admixtures, including antiwash- lations, supplementary cementitious materi-
out admixture (“admixture that significantly als (SCM) are defined as fly ash and raw or
reduces the washout of cement during under-
water placing and hardening of concrete”)
and antifreezing admixture (“admixture
which allows concrete to set and develop
compressive strength at temperatures below
freezing”).
9.2.5 Additions and/or

Supplementary
Cementitious Materials
According to European Standard, concrete
additions are defined as (EN 206-1 standard):
“finely divided inorganic material used in con-
crete in order to improve certain properties or .. Fig. 9.14 Bags of pigments
.. Table 9.2 The impact of supplementary cementing materials on the fresh properties of concrete (Kos-
matka and Wilson 2011)
Fly ash Slag Silica Natural pozzolans

Class F Class C cement fume Calcined shale Calcined Metakaolin
clay
Water demand ↓ ↓ ↓ ↑ ↔ ↔ ↑
Workability ↑ ↑ ↑ ↓ ↑ ↑ ↓
Bleeding and ↓ ↓ ↕ ↓ ↔ ↔ ↓
segregation
Setting time ↑ ↕ ↑ ↔ ↔ ↔ ↔
Air content ↓ ↓ ↔ ↓ ↔ ↔ ↓
Heat of ↓ ↕ ↓ ↔ ↓ ↓ ↔
hydration
Key: ↓ Lowers ↑ Increases ↕ May increase or lower ↔ No impact
9 calcined natural pozzolan (ASTM C618 stan-

dard), ground granulated blastfurnace slag
(ASTM C989/989 M standard), and silica
fume (ASTM C1240 standard). . Table 9.2
summarizes general effects that additions have

on the fresh properties of concrete mixtures.
9.3 Properties and Tests
The characterization of concrete is carried

out based on its state, that is, fresh concrete
(. Fig. 9.15) or hardened concrete. ASTM

C125 standard states that “fresh concrete pos-

sesses enough of its original workability so
that it can be placed and consolidated by the
intended methods,” ISO 22965-1 standard
that fresh concrete is a “fully mixed concrete
that is still capable of being compacted by the
intended method,” and fresh concrete in EN
206-1 standard is a “concrete which is fully
mixed and still in a condition that is capable
of being compacted by the chosen method.” .. Fig. 9.15 Fresh concrete
For its part, standardized definitions of hard-
ened concrete are the following: (a) “concrete 9.3.1 Fresh Concrete
that has developed sufficient strength to serve
some defined purpose or resist a stipulated Although the period in fresh state is very short
loading without failure” (ASTM C125 stan- compared to total lifetime, many operations
dard), (b) “concrete that is in a solid state and are carried out in this state, i.e., mixing, trans-
which has developed a certain strength” (ISO porting, compacting, and curing: the behavior
22965-1 and EN 206-1 standards). of the concrete during fresh state influences
9.3 · Properties and Tests
231 9
the quality of the concrete structure. This is tent. The workability of concrete increases
because it affects the degree of compaction, with water content although this increment in
strength, homogeneity, the appearance of its turn lowers concrete strength. This is because
surfaces, waterproofing, etc. The essential water is the most fluid constituent of concrete,
property of fresh concrete is its workability increasing the distance between particles, so
since this establishes the facility with which making easier for the mixture to move. If more
fresh concrete may be placed. Other impor- water is added, the cement content should be
tant properties in fresh state include density, also proportionately increased.
air content, setting time, and resistance to seg- For big size aggregate, the total surface
regation. area to be wetted is less and also less paste is
needed for lubricating the surface to reduce
9.3.1.1 Workability internal friction. For a given water content,
Workability can be defined as “that property big size aggregate provides high workability.
of freshly mixed concrete that affects the ease The type and form of aggregate also condition
with which it can be mixed, placed, consoli- workability, since for a given water content,
dated, and struck off ” (ASTM C125 stan- round and cubical shape aggregates are more
dard) while maintaining its homogeneity workable than rough, angular, and flaky aggre-
throughout these operations. Thus, a work- gates. Properly graded aggregates are more
able concrete is the one that exhibits very little workable. Thus, wide particle size distribution
internal friction between particle and particle. leads to better workability since smaller parti-
Characterizing workability should consider cles produce a lubricating effect. This also pre-
the specific conditions of the concrete struc- vents segregation. The relative proportions of
ture to be made. It is common to use the con- fine and coarse aggregates are determined
cept of consistency to characterize workability from the shape of the aggregates and the gra-
because it is a relative parameter mainly dation. For instance, a large rock size coarse
defined by the consistency. Workability is not aggregate that is mainly crushed will permit
a property intrinsic to concrete since it also the use of larger size sand particles and main-
takes into consideration other factors such as tain good workability. Well-rounded gravel
local conditions or the methods used to trans- will have better workability with finer sand,
port and compact the concrete. which is needed to fill the smaller void areas.
Consistency is related to the material’s Another factor affecting workability is the
capacity to keep its form after being molded aggregate/cement ratio because a greater
or “the relative mobility or ability to flow” quantity of cement originates more fluidity.
(ASTM C125 standard). In other words, This is because paste may be regarded to be
consistency defines the behavior of the fresh the “liquid phase” of the mix. In this sense,
concrete. It is essential to bear in mind that the fineness of the cement is proportional to
consistency continually decreases after con- the loss of workability. The use of admixtures
crete has been mixed, although it remains such as entrained air has a large influence on
sufficiently workable for handling and plac- workability, since air forms bubbles on which
ing for some time. This is due to the follow- the aggregate fraction slides past each other
ing factors: (a) water being absorbed by the augmenting the workability. On the other
aggregate, (b) evaporation of the water, (c) hand, air-entraining agents are surface active,
early hydration reactions, and (d) interactions reducing the internal friction between the par-
between admixtures (particularly plasticizers ticles. Finally, environmental conditions,
and superplasticizers) and the cementitious namely temperature, also have an important
constituents of the mixture. impact on workability because an increment
The main factors affecting workability in temperature leads to a quick loss of work-
are water content, size, shape, and grading ability caused by an increasing hydration rate
aggregates, aggregate/cement ratio, use of and evaporation.
admixtures, and temperature conditions. The The consistency tests are generally among
most important of these factors is water con- the concrete control parameters defined in
preliminary tests for concrete applications. izing concrete consistency is the slump test
The following tests are generally used to mea- (7 Box 9.2: Slump test). This is because this

sure workability, e.g., ISO 1920-2 standard: test is simple to conduct but also because it is
slump test, degree of compactability test, flow appropriate for the majority of concrete types.
test, Vebe test, flow-table test, and slump-flow However, it is not specially recommended for
test. The most common method for character- very wet or very dry concrete.
Box 9.2
Slump Test
The slump test is an empirical test that plays
an essential role in assuring immediate con-
crete quality, being used almost in every con-
struction site. Slump test is very popular due
to the simplicity of apparatus used and simple
procedure. It also demands comparatively less
equipment and can be done in a short period
of time. These advantages have made its utiliza-
tion very common all over the world. The test is
9 suitable for concretes of medium to high work-
ability. The slum test can be used either in labo-
ratory or at site of work, being standardized
in ASTM C143/143 M, EN 12350-2, and ISO
1920-2 standards (with minor differences in the
details of performing the test). It is also used
to establish differences in consistency between
individual batches.
The procedure described in EN 12350-2
standard “requires a cone-shaped mold mea-
suring 20 cm in diameter at the base, 10 cm at
the top, and 30 cm in height” (. Fig. 9.16).

This mold is called “Abrams cone,” existing one .. Fig. 9.16 Abrams cone
of these cones in all work sites worldwide. The
test measures the resulting behavior of a completely filled with concrete, it is removed imme-
pacted inverted cone of concrete under the diately by raising it slowly and carefully in a
action of gravity. To decrease the influence on vertical direction. This allows the concrete to
slump of the variation in the surface friction, subside and the slump is measured immediately
the inside of the mold and its base must be (. Fig. 9.18) by determining the difference

moistened at the beginning of every test. between the height of the mold and that of the
The cone is placed on a hard nonabsorbent highest point of the specimen being tested; the
surface and is filled with fresh concrete in sev- subsidence is termed slump and is recorded in
eral (e.g., three) stages, being the fresh concrete terms of millimeters of subsidence of the spec-
duly compacted. Thus, each layer is tamped imen. The slumped concrete can display differ-
with a standard steel rod (. Fig. 9.17),
ent shapes. According to the profile of these
rounded at the end. When the mold is com- shapes, the slump is named true slump, shear
233 9
.. Fig. 9.17 Tamping procedure. (Image courtesy .. Fig. 9.18 Height measurement. (Image cour-
of LafargeHolcim) tesy of LafargeHolcim)
slump, or collapse slump. Only true slumps are

permitted, otherwise another fresh sample .. Table 9.3 Classes for slump test
should be taken and the test repeated. according to EN 206-1 standard
Five slump classes are defined in EN 206-1
Slump Slump in mm
standard (. Table 9.3). For very liquid mixes,

the flow-table test is performed, e.g., EN SI 10–40

12350-5 standard. It is comparable to the slump
S2 50–90
test, excepting that the diameter of the mix
originated by the fresh concrete is measured. S3 100–150
For very cohesive concrete, the method pro- S4 160–210
vided is the Vebe test, e.g., EN 12350-3 stan-
S5 ≥220
dard.
9.3.1.2 Density of cement and aggregate, lower fresh concrete

To measure the density of concrete is very density indicates a lower concrete strength
important for controlling fresh concrete, espe- because the density falls as the water and void
cially if lightweight or heavyweight aggregates content increases. The fresh concrete density
are used. It is also used to check if the con- falls as the water content and/or the void
crete components are in the needed propor- content increases. The fresh concrete den-
tion. Fresh concrete density can be defined sity increases as the cement content rises, as
as the mass in kilogram per cubic meter of the water/cement ratio decreases, and as the
fresh, usually compacted concrete, including void content decreases. Factors that contrib-
its remaining voids. Given the same quantity ute to a high-density concrete are: (a) use of
ell-graded aggregate of the largest possible

w
maximum size, (b) minimum water content
consistent with good workability, (c) mini-
mum air content consistent with adequate
durability, and (d) thorough consolidation
during placement.
Determination of the fresh concrete den-
sity is carried out according to EN 12350-6,
ASTM C138/138 M, and ISO 1920-2 stan-
dards. The procedure for checking density
involves compacting fresh concrete into a
rigid, sealed receptacle, with a known volume,
which is then weighed. The concrete is com-
pacted mechanically with a poker or table
vibrator or manually with a bar or tamper.
The quotient between the concrete weight and
the receptacle volume is the density.
Hardened concrete can be classified in
three main types according to its oven-dry
density (EN 206-1 standard): “(a) normal-
9 weight concrete: concrete having an oven-dry
density greater than 2000 kg/m3 but not
exceeding 2600 kg/m3, (b) light-weight con- .. Fig. 9.19 Device for pressure equalization method
crete: concrete having an oven-dry density of
not less than 800 kg/m3 and not more than
2000 kg/m3, and (c) heavy-weight concrete: air at a known pressure is merged in a sealed
concrete having an oven-dry density greater air test container with the unknown volume
than 2600 kg/m3.” of air in the concrete sample. The dial on the
pressure gauge is calibrated in terms of per-
9.3.1.3 Air Content centage of air for the resulting pressure” (EN
All concretes contain voids. Even after careful 12350-7 standard).
compaction, the remaining air content is
about 2% by volume using a maximum parti- 9.3.1.4 Segregation
cle size of 32 mm in the aggregate or even a Segregation may be defined as “the unin-
residual air content of 4% by volume in fine tentional separation of the constituents of
aggregate concrete. As a rule, high air content a cementitious mixture, or particles of an
in concrete may lead to lower strength. aggregate, causing a lack of uniformity in
However, it is important to note that the air their distribution” (ASTM C125 standard),
void content in the concrete can be artificially so that the concrete is no longer considered
improved with air-entraining admixture to to be homogeneous. A good concrete has all
improve the frost and freeze/thaw resistances. the ingredients adequately distributed to gen-
EN 12350-7, ASTM 138/138 M, and ISO erate a homogeneous mixture. Segregation in
1920-2 standards control the procedure to concrete is observed when there is a concen-
determination of air void content. This is car- tration of coarse aggregates in the lower part
ried out with two test methods that utilize of the elements. In this case, the concrete is
devices that operate using the same principle said to be showing the tendency for segrega-
(Boyle-Mariotte’s Law): water column method tion. Such concrete is not only going to be
and pressure gauge method. The latter weak but also lack of homogeneity induces all
(. Fig. 9.19) is more commonly used and the undesirable properties in the hardened con-

principle is as follows: “a known volume of crete. Segregation can arise for many reasons:
235 9
“(a) inadequate workability, that is, very dry 9.3.2.1 Compressive Strength
or very fluid concrete, which leads to disag- Compressive strength provides a general idea of
gregation or separation of the constituents, the concrete quality because it is related to the
respectively, (b) an excessive quantity of coarse structure of the hydrated binder. In addition,
aggregate, which increases the difference in compressive strength of concrete is an essential
densities between solid and liquid phases, (c) variable in structural calculations, being also
lack of fine aggregate, which reduces the vis- established for checking the conformity of the
cosity of the paste, and/or (d) and inadequate concrete. Compressive strength is also essential
compaction (e.g. concrete falling from a great since it is related to other important characteris-
height or excess of vibration)” (Vieira 2015). tics of the concrete that are more difficult to
One particular case of segregation is bleed- measure directly. As a consequence, a quick
ing, which is “the autogenous flow of mixing strength test can offer an adequate approxima-
water within, or its emergence from, a newly tion of these concrete properties.
placed cementitious mixture caused by the In practice, compressive strength, with the
settlement of the solid materials within the same type of constituents and for a specific
mass” (ASTM C125 standard). Bleeding gen- age and cure in water, depends mainly on two
erates the rise of water up to the top surface factors: the water/cement ratio and the degree
of the concrete. An excess of bleeding causes of compaction. Both factors affect the porous
the decrease of the amount of the paste acces- concrete structure. “Not all water is fully used
sible to bind the aggregates. Bleeding com- in the cement hydration reactions, and the
monly takes place because of low cement or remaining water present in the paste creates
high water containing mixes. Concretes a porous structure; deficient compaction does
“including fly ash commonly exhibit less not allow air bubbles to be expelled, making
bleeding and segregation than plain concretes; the paste and its bonding with the aggregates
this effect makes the utilization of fly ash more fragile” (Vieira 2015). Thus, a poorly
especially valuable in concrete mixtures made compacted concrete has a larger number
with aggregates that are deficient in fines” of voids inside it. Therefore, the higher the
(Kosmatka and Wilson 2011). water/cement ratio, the lower the compres-
sive strength. The fineness of the cement also
influences the increment of strength because
9.3.2 Hardened Concrete finer cement renders a larger particle surface
to be hydrated, increasing all the reactions
After concrete sets down, it begins to gain in the concrete. In this sense, the use of silica
strength and harden. In hardened state, the fume can increase strength in concrete at ear-
concrete no longer has plastic behavior and lier times due to the high fineness of its par-
instead has essentially elastic characteristics. ticles.
As a result of the hydration reaction, while The most frequent test carried out on
there is water and nonhydrated cement are still hardened concrete is the compression test.
available, concrete characteristics continue to This is caused because it is a simple test to
change, stabilizing over time. For this rea- perform and, as commented previously,
son, comparisons between different concretes because most of the convenient concrete
must be carried out under similar test condi- properties are qualitatively in relationship to
tions and for the same age. By far, the most its compressive strength. The strength test is
important property of hardened concrete is performed in accordance with ASTM
its mechanical strengths (concrete is relatively C39/39 M, EN 12390-3, and ISO 1920-4 stan-
strong in compression and weak in tension), dards. The compression test is carried out
especially compressive strength, although 28 days after casting on specimens cubical or
other characteristics such as maximum pen- cylindrical in shape (. Fig. 9.20). The speci-

etration of water in concrete specimens are mens are tested up to their rupture in a single-
also measured. axis compression machine (. Fig. 9.21),

.. Fig. 9.20 Cubical and cylindrical samples for com- .. Fig. 9.22 Curing chamber. (Image courtesy of
pression test. (Image courtesy of LafargeHolcim) LafargeHolcim)
.. Fig. 9.21 Single-axis compression machine. (Image .. Fig. 9.23 Compression test (break occurs). (Image
courtesy of Pacadar) courtesy of Sika)
recording the maximum load supported by (. Fig. 9.22). The testing machine has two

the specimen. This value, divided by the cross- heavy platens (through which the load is
sectional area, is used for measuring the com- applied to the concrete) and the test specimen
pressive strength of the concrete sample. The is placed between them, being applied the
concrete in the mold is fully compacted by compressive force until break occurs
external vibration or hand tamping and the (. Fig. 9.23). At the end of the test, the type

top surface troweled smooth. After demold- of break should be assessed (. Fig. 9.24).
ing when set, the cube is normally cured under The compressive strength of concrete varies
water at constant temperature until testing with time and adequate cured concrete
237 9
monly adopted equipment for measuring the
concrete surface hardness. This is probably
the easiest test to carry out of the all usu-
ally allowed nondestructive tests, being used
on laboratory samples and on in situ con-
crete. Because it is a nondestructive test, it
does not require the removal of a concrete
sample. The device for the test is constituted
by a spring control hammer that slides on a
plunger within a tubular housing. The ham-
mer impacts to concrete and the spring con-
trol mass rebounds, generating the so-called
rebound number. The test can be conducted
horizontally, vertically—upwards or onwards
or at any intermediate angle. In general, there
is an adequate correlation between com-
pressive strength of concrete and the results
obtained with this test, that is, with suitable
correlation the test can provide an estimate of
in situ strength. However, Schmidt’s rebound
hammer test has serious limitations and these
must be recognized. For example, the test only
.. Fig. 9.24 Correct type of specimen break estimates the property of the surface part of
the concrete, to a depth of around 30 mm.
This test is controlled by ASTM C805/805 M
and EN 12504-2 standards.
9.3.2.2 Tensile Strength

If loaded in tension, concrete fails at a stress
much lower than compression, that is, con-
crete is a very weak material in tension.
Typically, tensile strength is only about 10%
of the compressive strength and the ratio of
tensile to compressive strength is greater in
low-compressive-strength concrete than it is
in high-compressive-strength concrete.
Because of this low value of tensile strength,
concrete is generally reinforced with steel bars
(see 7 Sect. 9.11) (. Fig. 9.5).

Three test methods for tensile strength

.. Fig. 9.25 Schmidt’s rebound hammer. (Image cour- estimation are available: direct tensile strength
tesy of María José Varas) test, diametric compression strength test, and
direct flexural strength test. Direct measure-
increase most of its compressive strength ment of tensile strength of concrete, testing
within the first 28 days. Most commercially rectangular specimens under direct tension, is
produced concrete has compressive strengths difficult. Neither samples nor testing device
between 20 and 50 MPa. are intended to ensure adequate distribution
55 Schmidt’s Rebound Hammer of forces applied to the concrete. Therefore,
the other two, both indirect tensile strength
Schmidt’s rebound hammer (. Fig. 9.25) estimation methods, are the most commonly
was developed in 1948 and is one of the com used.
.. Fig. 9.26 Brazilian test .. Fig. 9.27 Apparatus for penetration of water test.
(Image courtesy of LafargeHolcim)
The cylinder splitting tension strength test
is performed in accordance with ASTM
C496/496 M, EN 12390-6, and ISO 1920-4
standards. This test is also referred as Brazilian
test since it was developed in Brazil in 1943.
9 The test is carried out by placing a cylindrical
specimen (of the type used for compression
testing) horizontally between the loading sur-
faces of a compression testing machine
(. Fig. 9.26). The test specimen is then sub-

jected to a compressive force applied immedi-

ately adjacent along its longitudinal axis and
the resultant tensile force causes the test speci-
men to break under tensile stress. The cylinder
splitting test is easy to carry out, giving more .. Fig. 9.28 Water front marked on the concrete speci-
uniform results than other tension tests. men after penetration of water test. (Image courtesy of
LafargeHolcim)
Moreover, the results obtained with this
method are closer to the real tensile strength
of concrete than the results originated with (72 ± 2) hrs. During the test, the appearance
the modulus of rupture (flexural strength). of the surfaces of the test specimen not
This test generates approximately 4–10% exposed to the water pressure shall be observed
higher value than the direct tensile strength. periodically to note the presence of water.
Flexural tensile strength is also considered to Finishing the test period, the specimen is split
estimate tensile strength in concrete. In the and the maximum depth of water penetration
corresponding test (ASTM C78/78 M, EN is estimated. For this purpose, the specimen is
12390-5, and ISO 1920-4 standards), a bend- split in half, perpendicularly to the face on
ing moment is exercised on test specimens which the water pressure was applied. When
using a load transmission in the upper and the water penetration front is clearly defined,
lower rollers. it is marked in the test specimen (. Fig. 9.28).

9.3.2.3 Penetration of Water

In EN 12390-8 standard, pressure water is 9.4 Concrete Mix Design
applied to the hardened concrete surface. The
sample shall be placed in the device The composition of the concrete, previous to
(. Fig. 9.27) and a water pressure with
its production, must be studied to establish
(500 ± 50) kPa value shall be applied for the amount of each constituent for respond-
9.4 · Concrete Mix Design
239 9
ing to the preestablished requirements (con- crushed/uncrushed. The relative density of
crete mix proportions are expressed in terms the aggregates, the cement composition, and
of volume—e.g., one cubic meter-). details of any additions and/or admixtures to
Consequently, mix design can be defined as be used will also be required. The most impor-
“the process of choosing suitable ingredients tant mix design variable is the weight ratio
of concrete and determining their relative between water and cement, referred to as the
quantities with the object of producing as
water/cement (w/c) ratio. There is a theoreti-
economically as possible concrete of certain cal minimum amount of water needed for the
minimum properties, notably strength, dura- cement to hydrate, which can be determined
bility, and a required consistency” (Neville using the equations of hydration chemistry.
2011). Thus, mix design includes the defini- Any excess water creates pores, which together
tion of the amounts of cement, water, fine and with any air-filled pores, do not contribute to
coarse aggregates and, if used, additions and gain material strength. The result is a drastic
admixtures. The goal is to manufacture a con- decrease in strength as a function of increas-
crete mix with the needed fresh and hardened ing the w/c ratio. On the other hand, too low
properties. It is clear that the proportions are w/c ratios cause poor workability of the con-
controlled by factors governing the plastic crete. For practical reasons, the w/c ratio typi-
state and the hardened state. cally varies between 0.4 and 0.5.
As a consequence, mix design should Conventional nominal mix proportioning
ensure that the concrete: (a) complies with the often specified by rule of thumb has very lim-
specification of structural strength, com- ited significance. A more realistic approach is
monly defined using the value of the com- to specify a minimum strength for the con-
pressive strength on standard test specimens, crete and to choose the proportions of cement,
(b) the mix is workable so that it can be ade- fine aggregate, coarse aggregate, and water-
quately mixed, transported, compacted, and cement ratio. Thus, the principal methods
cured as efficiently as possible, (c) complies used in scientific proportioning of mixes are
with the durability requirements, and (d) is as based upon the relationship between proper-
economical as possible, that is, minimizing ties and the ratio of water to cement in the
the final costs of the concrete product. mix. It is not possible to predict the strength
Because cement is the most expensive compo- and other concrete properties solely based on
nent in the mixture, the proportion used com- the properties and proportions of the mix
monly aim at the least quantity of cement components. Therefore, mixes are designed on
required to achieve the design objectives. an empirical basis, often with the help of trial
Durability requirements of different regula- mixes.
tions worldwide often impose additional lim- There is a considerable number of system-
its on some mix proportions such as a atic methods of varying complexity that can
minimum cement content or maximum water/ be used to estimate the best proportion of the
cement ratio (. Table 9.4). In some cases,
constituent materials, e.g., the UK method
these regulations can also demand the utiliza- and the ACI method. The utilization of these
tion of an air-entraining agent or a particular methods involve making preliminary and trial
type of aggregate. Proportioning methods mixes, conducting tests on them, and making
have progress from arbitrary volumetric adjustments in the proportions based on the
methods at the beginning of the twentieth test results. The first step of the testing process
century to the current weight and absolute- to check the mix properties is generally a trial
volume methods. mix on a small scale in a laboratory. The test
With respect to the constituent materials, results will commonly show that the required
at least the fine and coarse aggregate size, type properties have not been obtained accurately
and grading, and the cement type must be and other adjustment is necessary, e.g., a
known. For instance, the aggregates are decrease in the water/cement ratio if the
broadly classified as angular/rounded and strength is too low. A second trial mix with
9
240
Chapter 9 · Concrete
.. Table 9.4 Minimum cement content and maximum water/cement ratio for different types of concrete and exposure classes in Spanish legislation
Dose parameter Type of concrete Exposure classes

I IIa IIb IIIa IIIb IIIc IV Qa Qb Qc H F E
Maximum water/cement ratio Conventional 0.65 – – – – – – 0.50 0.50 0.45 0.55 0.50 0.50
Reinforced 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.50 0.50 0.45 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.45 0.55 0.50 0.50
Prestressed 0.60 0.60 0.55 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.45 0.50 0.45 0.45 0.55 0.50 0.50
Minimum cement content (kg/m3) Conventional 200 – – – – – – 275 300 325 275 300 275
Reinforced 250 275 300 300 325 350 325 325 350 350 300 325 300
Prestressed 275 300 300 300 325 350 325 325 350 350 300 325 300
9.6 · Production of Concrete
241 9
the revised mix proportions is therefore car- properties and additional characteristics are
ried out, being the process repeated until a specified to the producer who is responsible
mix satisfactory in all respects is obtained. for providing a concrete conforming to the
Some methods have been proposed that required properties and additional character-
deal with the minimization of voids or the istics,” being the most common way to specify
maximization of the packing density of aggre- concrete. Prescribed concrete is a “concrete
gates because one of the most common for which the composition of the concrete and
approaches to mix design is based on the con- the constituent materials to be used are speci-
cept of particle packing density, first intro- fied to the producer who is responsible for
duced by Feret in 1892. The aim of particle providing a concrete with the specified com-
packing density concept is to minimize the position.” EN 206-1 standard also considers
inter-particle voids between the constituents the standardized prescribed concrete, which is
of concrete in order to reduce the paste a “prescribed concrete for which the composi-
demand. Another approach to maximizing tion is given in a standard valid in the place of
the packing is by means of developing a use of the concrete.”
method to design an ideal particle size distri- If the significant features of designed con-
bution curve. The idea of composing an ideal crete must to be given in abbreviated form, the
particle size distribution curve for aggregates following format such be used, e.g., according
was first introduced by Fuller and Thompson to EN-206-1 standard: (a) reference to the
in 1907. A dense mixture may be obtained European Standard (EN 206-1), (b) compres-
when this particle size distribution follows sive strength class, (c) exposure class, (d) max-
Fuller’s law that is expressed as: imum chloride content, (e) maximum nominal
upper aggregate size, (f) density, and (g) con-
n
d sistency.
p 100
D
Where p is the percent by weight of the total
9.6 Production of Concrete
mixture passing any given sieve sized, D is the
size of the largest particle in the mixture, and
Ready-mixed concrete refers to concrete that
n is the parameter depending on the shape of
is batched for delivery from a central plant
the aggregate (0.5 for perfectly rounded par-
(. Fig. 9.29) instead of being mixed on the

ticles). Based on this law, Fuller-Thompson

job site. EN 206-1 standard considers ready-
gradation charts were developed by adjusting
mixed concrete as “concrete delivered in a
the parameter n for fineness or coarseness of
fresh state by a person or body who is not the
aggregates.
9.5 Specifying Concrete
Specification of concrete is the compilation of

documented technical specifications given to
the manufacturer with reference to composi-
tion or performance. Therefore, it means to
establish the specifications that concrete must
satisfy, which can be behavioral or composi-
tion requirements. In general, concrete can be
specified in two main situations (see, for
instance, EN 206-1 standard): designed con-
crete or prescribed concrete. Designed con- .. Fig. 9.29 Central plant to manufacture concrete.
crete is a “concrete for which the required (Image courtesy of Holcim)
user.” According to European Ready Mixed in cubic meters. There are various types of
Concrete Organization (ERMCO), the total ready-mixed concrete plants, most of them
annual production of ready-mixed concrete in designed for specific requirements although
Europe in 2017 was 366 million of m3 while they have the same basic layout: constituents
the production was about 270 million of m3 in storage (. Fig. 9.32), batchers (the weighing

USA. Ready-mixed concrete is produced in a of cement, water, and aggregates takes place

plant based on a set recipe or as per specifica- separately), dust collection system, feed sys-
tions of the customer at a batching plant. tem, and some sort of mixer (truck mixer or
Nowadays, the bulk of ready-mixed concrete stationary mixer). The most important aspect
is nowadays produced under computer-
controlled operations (. Fig. 9.30). In gen-

eral, automatic plants are electrically operated

on a punched card system. . Figure 9.31
shows an illustration of a common ready-

mixed concrete plant.
9.6.1 Handling, Batching,

and Mixing
9 Concrete production process carried out in
measured batches (a batch is the quantity of
fresh concrete produced in one cycle of opera-
.. Fig. 9.30 Computer-controlled operations in a cen-
tions of a mixer—e.g., three cubic meters-) is tral plant to manufacture concrete. (Image courtesy of
called batching, being the concrete produced LafargeHolcim)
.. Fig. 9.31 Illustration of a common ready-mixed concrete plant. (Kosmatka and Wilson 2011)
9.6 · Production of Concrete
243 9
400 m3/h, depending of their characteristics
(portable plants or permanent plants). In
general, the production capacity of a batch
plant is determined by a combination of the
materials handling system, bin size, batcher
size, and mixer size and number.
Thorough mixing is essential for the pro-
duction of uniform, quality concrete.
Concrete must be mixed until it is homoge-
neous in appearance, with all components
evenly distributed. Consequently, equipment
and methods should be capable of effectively
mixing concrete materials. If concrete is prop-
.. Fig. 9.32 Aggregate storage. (Image courtesy of erly mixed, samples taken from different parts
LafargeHolcim) of a batch have basically the same proportion
of the different components and the same
density, air content, and slump.
The two main methods of producing
ready-mixed concrete are called wet batching
(produced in a central mixing plant that
includes a stationary mixer to mix de con-
crete) and dry batching (manufactured in a
truck mixing plant that places all unmixed dry
materials into a truck mixer). Therefore, truck
mixing is a process by which previously pro-
portioned concrete materials from a batch
plant are charged into a ready-mixed truck for
mixing and delivery to the construction proj-
ect. Truck mixing plants are simpler and less
.. Fig. 9.33 Ready-mixed concrete truck. (Image cour- expensive than central mix plants because
tesy of LafargeHolcim) they do not have a stationary mixer. It means
less machinery and less potential problems,
but central mixing plants deliver more con-
of mixer performance is batch-to-batch uni- crete with fewer trucks because a mixing truck
formity of the concrete. can hold more completely mixed concrete
Cementitious materials and aggregates than unmixed concrete.
are fed from the silos, storage bins, or hop- In the wet batching method, accurately
pers, and batched by weight. Water and measured amounts of all constituents
admixtures may be dispensed whether by vol- (. Fig. 9.34) are fed to a mechanical mixer.

ume or by weight although most chemical The resultant mixed concrete is then trans-
admixtures are delivered in liquid form. ported in its fresh state to the final site where
Specifications usually require that materials it is placed and compacted into position.
be measured for individual batches within the There are different mixer sizes that range from
following percentages of accuracy: cementi- 0.8 m3 to 9 m3. Careful attention should be
tious material ±1%, aggregates ±2%, water paid to the required mixing time. Many speci-
±1%, and admixtures ±3%. The predeter- fications consider a minimum mixing time of
mined quantities of all components are fed 1 minute plus 15 seconds for every cubic
either to the plant mixer or, in the dry state, meter. Shorter mixing times may result in
to the ready-mixed concrete truck nonhomogeneous mixtures, poor distribution
(. Fig. 9.33). Concrete plants can deliver
of air voids, and poor strength gain. This
concrete in quantities ranging from 30m3/h to method has various advantages such as
.. Fig. 9.34 Dosing cement amount in a wet batching .. Fig. 9.36 Components of the concrete are dis-
concrete production plant charged separately to the truck in a dry batching plant.
(Image courtesy of Holcim)
consecutively and stop automatically when

reaching the designated mass of each material.
The dry batching process differs from wet
9 batching only in that the constituents materi-
als are weighed and then discharged directly
(in a dry way) into the drum (. Fig. 9.36) of

the vehicle used to transport the mix. Thus,

this method produces uniform concrete mix
through the mixing action of the truck mixer.
Water and admixtures are added simultane-
ously with aggregates and cement and then
the mixing process is carried out in the trans-
port vehicle.
9.6.2 Transportation and Placing

Concrete can be transported through a vari-
ety of methods and equipment such as pipe-
line, truck mixers, and bucket and crane. The
method of transportation should efficiently
deliver the concrete to the point of placement
.. Fig. 9.35 Discharging concrete into a truck
without losing mortar or altering the desired
properties of concrete, e.g., slump, air con-
improved production capability, improved tent, and homogeneity. Transportation in
concrete quality, improved consistency, and trucks is one of the most common methods
less wear on the truck mixer drums. and the ready-mixed concrete trucks deliver
The batching equipment consists basically the freshly mixed concrete in the correct
of a weigh hopper loaded from overhead bins amounts to the customer’s site in a specified
by gravity, which discharges either into the time. Certain limits are generally established
truck below (. Fig. 9.35) or onto a belt that
for the interval between mixing and final com-
goes to the mixer. Batching equipment is compaction of concrete into place to assure that
monly automatic and is charged by devices that the hydration can proceed undisturbed to
begin the weighing process of all constituents produce a durable concrete. This restricts to
9.7 · Compaction
245 9
.. Fig. 9.37 Pumping concrete
some degree the maximum haulage distance

for ready-mixed concrete trucks. Several con-
ditions should be considered when selecting a
method of transportation: mix ingredients
and proportions, type and accessibility of
placement, required delivery capacity, loca-
tion of batch plant, and weather conditions.
Special vehicles with rotating drums are .. Fig. 9.38 Bucket to transport concrete
generally used for the delivery of fresh concrete
to the location. The truck mounted drums
commonly have a capacity of between 5 m3
and 10 m3 and rotate slowly when travelling to Buckets (. Fig. 9.38) are mainly used

maintain the homogeneity of the mix. Mixing with cranes or cableways for conveying con-
speed varies from 5 rpm to 20 rpm and, after crete directly from central discharge point to
mixing, drum revolves at agitating speed of 2 formwork or to secondary discharge point.
to 6 rpm. In general, the ready-mixed concrete This is one of the right equipment for trans-
must be discharged before 1.5 hours. To achieve porting concrete above ground level; there
thorough mixing, “total absolute volume of all exist buckets with a wide range of capacities.
ingredients batched in a revolving drum truck Needed to say that it is not enough that con-
mixer should not exceed 63% of the drum vol- crete must be correctly designed, batched,
ume” (ASTM C94/94 M standard). mixed, and transported; it is of outmost
Pumping concrete (. Fig. 9.37) is also a
importance that the concrete must also be
common method for transporting concrete as placed in a systematic manner to yield opti-
it is versatile and allows the concrete to be cast mum results.
at great distances from its arrival point. This
method delivers concrete in continuous stream
and the pump can move concrete both verti- 9.7 Compaction
cally and horizontally. For the concrete to be
pumped, constant supply of freshly mixed After concrete is placed at the targeted loca-
concrete is needed with average consistency tion, next step is compaction, except for self-
and without any tendency to segregate. In compacting concrete (see 7 Chap. 10). This is

order to assure these characteristics, the dos- because during placement large quantities of
age of fine aggregates must be sufficient, the air are entrapped in the mixture, which
ratio between coarse and fine aggregates decrease the strength of the hardened con-
should be low (there is a maximum aggregate crete. Thus, much of the air must be extracted
size for this method -¼ of the tube diameter-). using compaction.
Compaction is the process that expels forms, by reducing the air voids to a minimum.
entrapped air from freshly placed concrete Insufficient compaction increases the perme-
and packs the aggregate particles together to ability of concrete, resulting in easy entry for
increase the density of concrete. Concrete aggressive chemicals in solution. The chemical
compaction is a two-stage process: (a) first, attacks concrete and reinforcement, reducing
the aggregate particles are set in motion and the durability of concrete. Nevertheless, care
slump to fill the form giving a level top sur- must be taken to avoid excessive vibration;
face, and (b) secondly, entrapped air is otherwise, it may lead to segregation of the
expelled. According to CCAA (2006), “it is concrete, that is, the heavy aggregate particles
important to recognize the two stages in the settle down and the light mixing water rises to
compaction process because, with vibration, the surface.
initial consolidation of the concrete can often The compaction of concrete can be
be achieved relatively quickly. The concrete achieved by hand or mechanically by vibra-
liquefies and the surface levels, giving the tion. Hand compaction is adopted in case of
impression that the concrete is compacted. unimportant concrete work of small magni-
Entrapped air takes a little longer to rise to tude, that is, on small nonstructural concrete
the surface. Compaction must therefore be placements. Sometimes, hand compaction
prolonged until this is accomplished (until air is also applied where a large quantity of
bubbles no longer appear on the surface).” reinforcement is used, which cannot be nor-
Compaction makes easier to lay the con- mally compacted by mechanical methods.
9 crete on site, allowing for better filling of the Hand compaction may be generally used for
molds, better-molded surfaces, and adherence mixtures with any workability, excepting for
between concrete and reinforcements. It has very fluid or very plastic ones. The thickness
been found that “5% voids in hardened con- of the layer of concrete is limited to about
crete reduce the strength by over 30 and 10% 15 to 20 cm. With respect to compaction
voids reduce the strength by over 50%” using vibration, this is the most typical and
(Dugall 2008). The density and, as a conse- broadly used method of compacting con-
quence, the strength and durability of concrete for all structural element (7 Box 9.3:

crete basically depend upon the degree of Compaction by Vibration). Compaction by

compaction. vibration is a two-stage process. First, the
Compaction is achieved by imparting vibrator creates pressure waves that sepa-
external work over the concrete to overcome rate aggregate particles, reducing friction
the internal friction between the particles between them. In the second stage, almost
forming the concrete, between concrete and simultaneously, entrapped air bubbles rise
reinforcement and between concrete and to the surface.
Box 9.3
Compaction by Vibration vibrators, surface vibrators, and vibrating

Vibration consists of subjecting freshly placed tables. Each method has its own specific appli-
concrete to rapid vibratory impulses. This pro- cation, although many times is common for
cess liquefies the mortar and drastically dimin- one to complement the other, that is, under
ishes the internal friction between aggregate some conditions a combination of two or more
particles. There are two types of methods of consolidation methods gives the best results.
compaction by vibration: internal compaction Needle vibrator (. Fig. 9.39), also known

methods, using needle—poker—vibrators, and as immersion, internal, or poker vibrator, is

external compaction methods. External vibra- placed directly into the concrete mix and may
tors can mainly be further divided into form be used in all types of concrete works. The
9.7 · Compaction
247 9
.. Fig. 9.40 Formwork vibrator. (Image courtesy

of Prefabricados Pujol)
of the surrounding concrete to prevent over-

heating. Internal vibrators are considered com-
paratively efficient since all the work is done
directly on the concrete, unlike other types of
vibrators.
External vibrators attach directly to the
.. Fig. 9.39 Needle (poker) vibrator. (Image cour- form wall and consolidate without actu-
tesy of Pacadar) ally touching the concrete (hence, external).
Formwork vibrators (. Fig. 9.40) are attached

method consists of a steel tube with an eccen- to the outside of the form or mold resting on
tric vibrating element inside it, a flexible shaft, an elastic support, so that both the form and
and a power unit. The effectiveness of a needle the concrete are vibrated. As a result, a con-
vibrator is based on its frequency and ampli- siderable proportion of the work done is spent
tude, the latter being dependent on the size of in vibrating the formwork. The principle of
the head, the eccentric moment, and the head an external vibrator is the same as that of an
weight (the larger the head, the larger the internal one. External vibrators are used for
amplitude). The needle diameter varies from 20 precast or thin in situ sections of such shape
to 150 mm and its length from 250 to 500 mm, or thickness that an internal vibrator cannot
having a radius of action between 100 and be conveniently used. They are also useful with
600 mm. The frequency of vibration varies up complicated members or where the reinforce-
to 20,000 rpm in pneumatic pokers. ment is highly congested. Concrete sections
Needle vibrators must be inserted vertically as thick as 600 mm and up to 750 mm can be
into concrete, as rapidly as possible, and then effectively vibrated by form vibrators in the
held stationary until air bubbles finish to rise to precast concrete industry. For deeper place-
the surface. This process spends generally ments, it may be necessary to supplement a
approximately 10–20 seconds, depending on form vibrator with internal vibration.
the consistency of the mix (up to 2 minutes may Surface vibrators are applied to the top sur-
be required in some mixes). Needle vibrators face of concrete and act downwards from there,
are easily moved from place to place during being useful for compacting slabs, industrial
concreting operation, being these movements floors, road pavements, and similar flat sur-
repeated until all the concrete has been com- faces. In respect of vibrating table, it normally
pacted. Internal vibrators can also be used in consists of a steel or reinforced concrete table
difficult positions and situations. In most cases, with external vibrators rigidly mounted to the
internal vibrators depend on the cooling effect supporting frame.
It is common to vibrate concrete imme- this process is to maintain the concrete satu-
diately after placing so that consolidation is rated or nearly saturated until the originally
usually completed before the concrete has water-filled space in the fresh cement paste
stiffened. Revibration sometimes is carried has been filled to the desired extent by the
out into compacted concrete. Thus, revibra- products of hydration of cement. This pro-
tion can be defined as the intentional sys- tection called curing is an essential part of
tematic vibration of concrete that has been any successful concreting operation and
compacted some time earlier. It should not must be carried out for at least 2 or 3 weeks
be confused with the double vibration, and never for less than 10 days. The length of
which sometimes occurs with the haphaz- adequate curing time depends mainly of fac-
ard utilization of immersion vibrators or tors such as mix proportions, specified
multiple passes of a vibrating-beam screed. strength, weather conditions, and future
While it is generally agreed that revibration exposure conditions.
of concrete can be beneficial to its strength, EN 13670 standard establishes the dura-
its bond to reinforcement and its surface tion of curing based on the development of
finish, the practice is not widely used, partly concrete properties in the surface area, being
due to the difficulty of knowing just how this development described in terms of curing
late it can be applied. Moreover, “revibra- classes. These classes should be prescribed in
tion obviously involves an additional step the technical specifications for the execution
in the production of concrete, increasing project and are defined by the duration of cur-
9 cost; on the other hand, if applied too late, ing or by the concrete’s strength level, depend-
revibration can damage the concrete” ing on the percentage of its characteristic
(Neville 2011). strength at 28 days. Detailed information of
curing aspects may be found in ACI docu-
ments such as ACI 305 (hot weather concret-
9.8 Curing ing) and ACI 306 (cold weather concreting),
which contain state-of-the-art recommenda-
According to Portland Cement Association tions regarding these topics.
(USA), “curing is the process in which the In general, there are two main groups of
concrete is protected from loss of moisture curing methods based on their main func-
and kept within a reasonable temperature tions: (a) maintaining mixing water in con-
range; this permits the chemical reactions crete during the early hardening process
between cement and water to take place.” In supplying additional moisture—water curing,
order to obtain good-quality concrete, the and (b) preventing the loss of mixing water
placing of an appropriate mix must be fol- from the surface of the concrete. The first
lowed by curing in a suitable environment for method is that of providing water that can be
the first few days of hardening, so that hydra- imbibed by the concrete. This requires that the
tion of cement may continue until the desired surface of the concrete be continuously in
properties are developed to a sufficient degree contact with water for a specified length of
to meet the requirement of service. For time. Such conditions can be achieved by the
instance, in hot or dry weather is very com- following principal methods: (1) continuous
mon that large exposed surfaces lose water by spraying and fogging (. Fig. 9.41), (2) pond-

evaporation, diminishing thus the amount of ing or immersion, or (2) using saturated wet
water required for the complete hydration of coverings. Spraying and fogging are used
the cement paste. where the ambient temperatures are well
In fact, curing is a control of temperature above freezing and the humidity is low.
and of the moisture movement from and Ponding is generally used to cure flat surfaces
into the concrete. As a result, strength and on smaller jobs while immersion is mainly
resistance to abrasion are increased and per- used in the laboratory for curing concrete test
meability is decreased, both of which specimens (. Fig. 9.42). The latter includes

improve durability. In particular, the aim of the use of wet coverings saturated with water.
9.8 · Curing
249 9
.. Fig. 9.43 Application of a liquid curing compound

that forms a membrane. (Image courtesy of Tindall Cor-
poration)
These should be used after concrete has hard-

ened enough to prevent surface damage and
they should be kept constantly wet.
The second big group of curing methods is
based on the use membranes, the so-called
membrane curing or water-barrier method. It
.. Fig. 9.41 Curing concrete by continuous spraying. relies on the prevention of loss of water from
(Image courtesy of EFR Specialist Contracting) the surface of the concrete without the possi-
bility of utilization of external water. The
techniques include covering the surface of the
concrete with overlapping membranes (e.g.,
polyethylene sheeting or with reinforced
paper) or the utilization of spray-applied cur-
ing compounds which form a membrane (e.g.,
solutions of synthetic hydrocarbon resins in
high-volatility solvents) (. Fig. 9.43). ASTM

C309 and C1315 standards give specifications

for liquid membrane-forming curing com-
pounds whereas ASTM C171 standard covers
the specifications for sheet materials. It is
important to bear in mind that even if the
membrane curing system is developed, it is
important that some of water curing is added
previous the concrete is covered with mem-
branes.
With respect to the advantages of the cur-
ing method, Neville (2011) suggested that “for
concrete with a water/cement ratio lower than
about 0.5, and certainly lower than 0.4, wet
curing should be used, but only if it can be
applied thoroughly and continuously. If such
an assurance is not possible, then membrane
.. Fig. 9.42 Curing concrete test specimens by immer- curing is preferable, but that, too, has to be
sion. (Image courtesy of Pacadar) well executed.” Finally, curing can be also car-
ried out accelerating strength gain using heat performance of the concrete in the structure
and additional moisture with live steam will be kept at a level compatible with the fulfil-
(steam curing at ordinary pressure or high- ment of the performance requirements of the
pressure steam), heating coils, electrical heated structure, provided it is properly maintained”;
forms or pads, or concrete blankets. Moreover, ISO 13823 standard defines service
life as “actual period of time during which
a structure or any of its components satisfy
9.9 Durability the design performance requirements without
unforeseen major repair.” As a rule, structures
According to Portland Cement Association, designed and constructed to a high durability
durability of concrete may be defined as “the standard require regular inspection and rou-
ability of concrete to resist weathering action, tine maintenance (. Fig. 9.44). Some con-

chemical attack, and abrasion while maintain- crete structures built by the Romans served
ing its desired engineering properties.” ISO for over 2000 years. A durable material helps
13823 standard states that durability is the the environment by conserving resources and
“capability of a structure or any component decreasing the generation of waste and the
to satisfy, with planned maintenance, the environmental impacts of repair and replace-
design performance requirements over a spec- ment. Durability problems are an issue of
ified period of time under the influence of the global concern since durability threatens eco-
environmental actions, or as a result of a self- nomic growth, natural resources, and human
9 ageing process.” Therefore, durability of con- safety (Gjorv 2011).
crete is also the ability of this material to Concrete can be considered a very durable
remain serviceable for at least the required material requiring little or no maintenance.
amount of time (working life) of the structure This assumption is largely true, except when
of which it forms a part. Many specific regula- it is subjected to highly aggressive environ-
tions worldwide incorporate requirements for ments. The environmental actions (“chemi-
a design life, which may commonly range cal, electrochemical, biological, physical and/
from 50 to 100 years. or mechanical action causing material degra-
EN 206-1 standard points out that work- dation of a component”—ISO 13823 stan-
ing life is “the period of time during which the dard) may be classified in a variety of ways.
.. Fig. 9.44 Service life of a durable structure. (Kosmatka and Wilson 2011)
9.9 · Durability
251 9
are two patterns of degradation: “(a) degra-
.. Table 9.5 Exposure classes in EN 206-1 stan-
dard
dation due to deterioration of the concrete
itself, because of internal expansive reactions,
Class Environmental exposure Sub- chemical attack, physical actions, etc, and (b)
condition classes degradation due to corrosion of the reinforce-
ments, either by carbonation of the concrete
XO No risk of corrosion (inside 1
or the presence of chlorides” (Vieira 2015).
buildings with very low air
humidity)
XC Corrosion of the reinforce-
ment induced by carbonation
4
9.9.1 Sulfate Attack
XD Corrosion of the reinforce- 3 Sodium, calcium, and magnesium compounds
ment induced by chlorides
are sometimes found in soil or dissolved in
other than from sea water
groundwater and, where in solution, these will
XS Corrosion of the reinforce- 3 react with the components of the cement
ment induced by chlorides
paste. Thus, sulfate solutions react with C3A
from sea water
forming delayed ettringite inside the concrete
XF Freeze-thaw attack with or 4 (delayed ettringite formation—DEF). The
without deicing agents
formed ettringite expands and causes disrup-
XA Chemical attack 3 tion in concrete. Calcium sulfate has low solu-
bility so that it does not represent high risk. In
contrast, magnesium sulfate has the most
severe disruptive action because the product
Different concretes require different degrees of reaction is insoluble, increasing signifi-
of durability based on the exposure environ- cantly in volume and producing expansive
ment and properties desired. For example, forces and, possibly, disruption. Sodium sul-
concrete exposed to seawater will have dif- fate reacts with calcium hydroxide and cal-
ferent requirements than indoor concrete. cium aluminate hydrate forming ettringite
Thus, environmental actions are classified (. Fig. 9.46) and gypsum.

as exposure classes in EN 206-1 standard Attack takes place only if the quantity of
(. Table 9.5). Concrete may be subject to
sulfate present exceeds a certain threshold.
more than one of the actions described in The rate of attack can be increased with
. Table 9.5 and the environmental condi-
increasing concentration of sulfate and it will
tions to which it is subjected may thus need be faster if the sulfate is replenished (i.e., if the
to be expressed as a combination of exposure concrete is exposed to flowing groundwater).
classes. Likewise, ACI 318 establishes the Environmental conditions have a great influ-
exposure categories shown in . Fig. 9.45. ence on sulfate attack, being a particular
Concrete can deteriorate for a vari- problem in arid areas. Seawater also contains
ety of reasons, so that concrete damage is sulfates but they are not as harmful as sulfates
often the result of a combination of factors. in groundwater. Concrete attacked by sulfates
Degradation can result either from the envi- usually shows whitish shading, starting dam-
ronment to which the concrete is exposed, for age usually at edges and corners, followed by
example freeze-thaw damage, or from internal progressive cracking that can lead to complete
causes within the concrete, as in alkali-aggre- breakdown.
gate reaction. The main factors that condi- There are no efficient methods to recover
tion the durability of concrete structures are a structure affected by sulfate-induced
concrete ingredients, their proportioning and expansive reactions. The main methods to
interactions between them, the dosage and prevent internal expansive reactions involve
type of cement, water/cement ratio, and all “controlling maximum temperature of con-
aspects related to transportation, placing, crete, controlling alkali, aluminium, and
compaction, and curing. In general, there binder sulfate content, controlling moisture,
.. Fig. 9.45 Exposure Categories for Durable Concrete (ACI 318)
and keeping concrete in a relatively dry

state” (Vieira 2015). Other remedies com-
prise the use of blast-furnace slag cement,
sulfate resisting cement, and supersulfated
cement.
9.9.2 Acid Attack
Because the hardened cement paste binder in

concrete is alkaline, Portland cement concrete
cannot be considered acid-resistant attack. It
is considered significant if the pH of the
.. Fig. 9.46 White secondary ettringite accumulated in aggressive medium is less than about 6. In
a void; field width 64 μm. (Kosmatka and Wilson 2011) fact, no hydraulic cement concrete, regardless
9.9 · Durability
253 9
of its composition, will hold up for long if (ASR) and alkali-carbonate reaction (ACR).
exposed to a solution with pH of 3 or lower. The former is the most common and impor-
However, some weak acids can be tolerated, tant and involves active silica. These reactions
particularly if the exposure is occasional. are another cause of concrete degradation
Obviously, the rate of attack increases with through expansive internal processes. The
reducing pH. Sulfuric acid is especially aggres- deterioration of numerous major concrete
sive to concrete since the calcium sulfate structures has been caused by these reactions,
formed will also deteriorate concrete via sul- specifically alkali-silica reaction, many times
fate attack. As a consequence, unless pro- after years of apparently adequate service.
tected, concrete should not be used where this In ASR, silica occurs in its reactive form as
form of attack can take place. the minerals opal (. Fig. 9.47), chalcedony,

Acids react with the calcium hydroxide of cristobalite, and tridymite and as volcanic
the hydrated Portland cement, forming water- glasses. The product of ASR is in a form of a
soluble calcium compounds that are then gel and, in absorbing water, these gels can
leached away by aqueous solutions. In the swell and induce enough expansive pressure to
case of CO2, the acids attack the calcium damage concrete, being one of the major
hydroxide in the cement paste, converting it causes of cracking of concrete (. Fig. 9.48).
into calcium carbonate and bicarbonate. This

is relatively soluble and leaches out from the
concrete and destabilizes it. Where acids or
salt solutions are able to reach the concrete
reinforcing bars through cracks or porosity,
the corrosion may take place, causing crack-
ing. The main action of microorganisms, in
biological attack, is the decalcification of con-
crete caused by the acids formed. The quality
of the concrete is the most important factor in
achieving acid resistance. In this sense, sili-
ceous aggregates are acid-resistant and are
many times specified to enhance the chemical
resistance of concrete. Properly cured con-
crete with reduced permeability generates a
slightly lower rate of attack from acids.
.. Fig. 9.47 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)

9.9.3 Alkali-Aggregate Reaction micrograph of opal CT. (Image courtesy of María
Ángeles Bustillo)
Most types of aggregate used for concrete

manufacturing are inert, that is, they do not
react chemically with the cement and/or
hydration products. However, there are sev-
eral aggregate types that react chemically with
the alkali in the cement. Aggregates in con-
crete, among other components, can incorpo-
rate silica, silicates, and carbonates. In certain
mineral forms, these components may react
with the alkaline hydroxides in the pore water
derived from the sodium and potassium
oxides in the cement. The general term for this
process is alkali-aggregate reaction (AAR), .. Fig. 9.48 Cracking in a bridge pylon of concrete due
which has two forms: alkali-silica reaction to ASR. (Image courtesy of Sika)
The cracks formed through this process can of brucite, which can generate considerable
range from 0.1 mm to as much as 10 mm in expansion. The damage caused by ACR is
width. Since sufficient moisture is needed to quite similar to that originated by alkali-silica
promote expansion, alkali-silica reactivity can reaction. However, this reaction is generally
be significantly diminished by keeping the rare since the aggregates susceptible to ACR
concrete as dry as possible. are less common.
The whole process is commonly slow and
cracking can take years to develop in struc-
tural concrete. The principal factors influenc- 9.9.4 Frost Attack—Freeze-Thaw
ing the quantity and rate of reaction in ASR Damage
are the following: (a) the amount of alkali and
active silica available, (b) the aggregate parti- In cold climates, frost attack is one of the
cle size, which affects the amount of reactive most important causes of damage to con-
silica exposed to the alkali, (c) the availability crete unless proper precautions are taken.
of moisture, and (d) the ambient temperature. The mechanism of attack is attributed to the
Consequently, the best way to avoid ASR expansion of absorbed water on freezing.
includes as follows: (a) avoiding the use of Water expands about 9% when it freezes. If
reactive aggregates, (b) testing aggregates for there is not sufficient space within the con-
their potential reactivity, (c) controlling the crete to accommodate the increase of volume,
amount of alkali in the cement, (d) combining the potentially disruptive internal pressures
9 the Portland cement with an admixture (silica will take place because the pressures exceed
fume, fly ash, and/or ground granulated blast- the tensile strength of the concrete and the
furnace slag), and (e) limiting the total alkali cavity dilates and ruptures. The magnitude of
content of the concrete. Petrography, “when the disruptive pressure depends on the capil-
used to study a known reacted concrete, can lary porosity, the degree of saturation of the
confirm the presence of reaction products concrete (dry concrete will be unaffected),
and verify ASR as an underlying cause of and the pressure relief provided by a nearby
deterioration” (Kosmatka and Wilson 2011) free surface or escape boundary. In addi-
(. Fig. 9.49).
tion, the freezing point of the pore solution is
With regard to ACR, reactions with cer- dependent on pore size; the smaller the pore,
tain dolomitic rocks are associated with this the lower the freezing point (. Table 9.6).

type of reactivity. Dedolomitization is usually Successive cycles of freezing and thawing

linked to expansive alkali-carbonate reactivity can cause progressive and cumulative dam-
because this reaction produces crystallization age, which takes the form of cracking and
spalling. Deicing chemicals used for snow
and ice removal, such as sodium chloride,
can aggravate freeze- thaw deterioration.
ASTM C672/672 M standard covers “the
determination of the resistance to scaling
of a horizontal concrete surface exposed to
freezing-and-thawing cycles in the presence
of deicing chemicals.”
The capillary porosity of a cement paste
of concrete, and hence its susceptibility to
frost attack, can be reduced by decreasing the
water/cement ratio and ensuring that by
proper curing hydration is as complete as pos-
sible. The permeability of concrete is directly
.. Fig. 9.49 Alkali reactive aggregate in concrete (pol-
ished section view); note the alkali-silica reaction rim related to its water/cement ratio; the lower the
around the reactive aggregate and the formation of water/cement ratio, the lower the permeability
cracks. (Kosmatka and Wilson 2011) of the concrete. Thus, concrete with low
9.9 · Durability
255 9
.. Table 9.6 Temperature at freezing point according to the pore size (Kosmatka and Wilson 2011)
Type Size Filling of pores Temperature at freezing
Capillary ≥1 mm Empty

pores
Macro pores <1 mm Suction, immediately filling Water freezes between 0 °C and
−20 °C
Meso <30 μm Suction, filling in minutes to weeks
capillaries
Micro <1 μm Complete filling through capillary suction not
capillaries possible
Meso gel <30 nm Filling through condensation at relative Water freezes between −20 °C
pores humidity of 50–98% and −40 °C
Micro gel <1 nm Filling through sorption at relative humidity Water freezes at about −90 °C
pores of <50%
ermeability is better to resist the penetration

p bing and friction. As the outer paste of
of water and performs better when exposed to concrete wears, the aggregates are exposed
freeze-thaw cycles. The resistance of concrete and abrasion and impact will cause additional
to freezing and thawing in a moist condition is degradation, depending on the aggregate/
also significantly improved by the utilization paste bond strength and hardness of the
of entrained air additives. Entrained air voids aggregate. ASTM C418 standard covers “the
act as empty chambers in the paste, thus laboratory evaluation of the relative resis-
relieving the pressure in the capillaries and tance of concrete surfaces to abrasion, simu-
pores and preventing damage to the concrete. lating the action of waterborne abrasives and
ASTM C666 standard covers “the determina- abrasives under traffic on concrete surfaces.”
tion of the resistance of concrete specimens to For its part, ASTM C1138M standard simu-
rapidly repeated cycles of freezing and thaw- lates the behavior of swirling water containing
ing in the laboratory.” suspended and transported solid objects that
produce abrasion of concrete.
9.9.5 Erosion/Abrasion
9.9.6 Fire
The most common physical actions in con-
crete degradation are due to erosion by water Concrete performs very well at the tempera-
caused by cavitation and/or wear. Cavitation tures encountered in almost all applications.
consists of “erosion of the concrete by col- Moreover, concrete is incombustible and does
lapsing vapor bubbles generated in the water not emit any toxic fumes when exposed to
because of differences in pressure in areas high temperatures. In fact, concrete has the
where water flows at a high speed or falls highest fire resistance classification (class A1)
with a great impact” (Vieira 2015). Cavitation under EN 13501-1 standard. This excellent
damage is produced where the vapor cavi- performance of concrete is due mainly to their
ties collapse, causing very high instantaneous constituents (cement and aggregates) which,
pressures that impact on the concrete surfaces when adequately combined in the concrete,
and leads to the formation of cracks. form a material that is basically inert and has
Abrasion consists of wear due to friction relatively poor thermal conductivity (it has a
of the cement matrix and aggregates. Abrasion slow rate of heat transfer).
damage takes places where the surface of con- However, if concrete is exposed to fire
crete is unable to resist wear caused by rub- or unusually high temperatures, it can lose
strength and stiffness. The modulus of elastic- 9.9.7 Durability of Steel in Concrete
ity in concrete is the most sensitive mechani-
cal property to elevated temperature, followed Sound concrete provides an excellent protec-
by the flexural strength and the compressive tive medium for steel, but the protection can
strength. Thus, although concrete can retain disappear in some circumstances, leaving the
some strength for reasonable time at high tem- steel vulnerable to corrosion. Corrosion of
peratures, it will eventually degrade and the reinforcing steel and other embedded metals
rate and amount of degradation will depend is the leading cause of deterioration in con-
on the maximum temperature reached, the crete, being the greatest threat to the durabil-
period of exposure, the induced tempera- ity and integrity of concrete structures in
ture gradients, the constituents and moisture many regions (7 Box 9.4: Corrosion of steel

content. in concrete).
Box 9.4
Corrosion of steel in concrete The increases in volume as the reaction prod-

Corrosion of steel embedded in concrete is an ucts react further with dissolved oxygen leads
electrochemical process involving the flow of to internal stress within the concrete that may
charges. The surface of the corroding steel be sufficient to cause cracking and spalling of
9 functions as a mixed electrode that is a com- the concrete cover” (PCA 2002).
Although natural tendency of steel is to
posite of the anode and the cathode electrically
connected through a body of steel itself, upon undergo corrosion reactions, the alkaline envi-
which coupled anodic and cathodic reactions ronment of concrete (pH of 12–13) provides
take place. More in detail, at active sites on the steel with corrosion protection because, at
bar, called anodes, iron atoms lose electrons these pH values, a thin oxide layer (passivating
and move into the surrounding concrete as fer- layer) forms on the steel and prevents metal
rous ions. This process is called a half-cell oxi- atoms from dissolving. This passive film does
dation reaction, or the anodic reaction, and is not stop corrosion but it reduces the corrosion
represented as: rate to a very low level (0.1 μm per year).
Consequently, corrosion occurs where the pas-
2Fe 2Fe 2 4e sive oxide layer is destroyed, taking place this
process below a pH of about 4.
The electrons remain in the bar and flow to The most common causes of corrosion of
sites called cathodes, where they combine with steel in concrete are chloride ions and carbon-
water and oxygen in the concrete. The reaction ation by atmospheric carbon dioxide. Exposure
at the cathode is called a reduction reaction. A of concrete to chloride ions is the primary
common reduction reaction is: cause of destruction of the passivating layer
and premature corrosion of steel (. Fig. 9.50).

2H 2O O 2 4e 4OH The risk of corrosion increases as the chloride

content of concrete increment. When the chlo-
To maintain electrical neutrality, the ferrous ride content at the surface of the steel exceeds a
ions migrate through the concrete pore water to certain value, the so-called threshold value,
these cathodic sites where they combine to corrosion will take place if water and oxygen
form iron hydroxides, or rust: are also available. Chlorides may come from
concrete constituents or the external environ-
2Fe 2 4OH 2Fe OH 2
ment (e.g., maritime areas), existing four main
sources of chloride ions: (a) calcium chloride, a
“This initial precipitated hydroxide tends to typical admixture in concrete production, (b)
react further with oxygen to form higher oxides. contamination in aggregates, (c) seawater (e.g.,
9.9 · Durability
257 9
.. Fig. 9.50 Schematic of corrosion of steel in con- through the reinforcing bar to the cathode; the elec-
crete; at the anode, chloride ions interact with iron trical path is completed by OH- ions flowing through
to form Fe++ ions; the electrons released flow the pore solution (electrolyte). (Holland 2005)
coastal or marine structures), and (d) road specification (EN 206-1 standard) “has chloride
deicing salts. Calcium chloride, or any chloride- content limits of 0.2% by weight of cement for
containing admixture, is generally no longer concrete containing steel reinforcement and
permitted in concrete containing steel. 0.1% for concrete containing pre-stressing
Aggregates, especially from marine sources, steel.” In general, concrete with lower permea-
must be washed before utilization to remove bility will have lower rates of chloride penetra-
chlorides and other contaminants. tion. These are achieved with lower water/
Therefore, resistance to this degradation cement ratios, adequate cement content, by
mechanism includes limiting the chloride con- using additions, and attention to good practices
tent of the concrete constituents and increasing during and after placing the concrete. Sufficient
the resistance of concrete to diffusion of the concrete cover will also clearly affect the time
chlorides within it. The quantity of chloride needed for the chloride to reach the steel. ASTM
required to initiate corrosion, that is, the thresh- C1202 standard covers “the laboratory evalua-
old level needed to depassivate the steel is diffi- tion of the electrical conductance of concrete
cult to fix. However, some specifications samples to provide an indication of their resis-
establish limits for chloride contents in concrete. tance to chloride ion penetration” and ISO
For example, the current European Standard 1920-11 standard sets out a test method that
may be applied to specimens cast to assess the CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O) decreases the pH of the
potential chloride resistance of a concrete mix. concrete surrounding the reinforcements to
Corrosion of steel in concrete may be also amounts low enough to stop the reinforce-
caused by carbonation of the concrete although ments being passive, making it possible for the
it is generally a slow process. Nevertheless, the corrosion process to begin. The passivating
increase concentration of carbon dioxide in layer on the steel is not stable at pH values of
modern environment due to industrial pollu- the pore solution as low as 8.5. Carbonation of
tion has increased the importance of this pro- concrete also lowers the amount of chloride
cess. Carbonation occurs when carbon dioxide ions needed to promote corrosion. ISO 1920-
from the air penetrates the concrete and reacts 12 standard evaluates the carbonation resis-
with hydroxides (e.g., calcium hydroxide) to tance of concrete using an accelerated
form carbonates. The reaction (Ca(OH)2 + carbonation test.
9.10 Precast Concrete
EN 13369 is an European Standard intended

to outline the general common requirements
9 applicable to a large variety of precast con-
crete products (hollow-core slabs, foundation
piles, wall elements, beam systems, bridge ele-
ments, and many more) manufactured in a
factory environment and being used in build-
ing and engineering works. According to this
standard, a precast element is a “concrete unit
cast and cured in a place other than the final
location in the works.” ISO 6707-1 standard
defines precast concrete as a “concrete cast .. Fig. 9.51 Steel mold. (Image courtesy of Pacadar)
and left to harden before being moved to its
final location.” response to external (load-induced) and inter-
Therefore, precast concrete consists of a nal (autogenous volumetric changes) effects.”
factory-made element manufactured with Precast concrete elements are prepared,
concrete that is cast into a specific shape at a cast, and hardened at specially equipped
location other than its in-service position. The plants with a permanent location. During the
concrete is placed into a form (e.g., steel reus- manufacturing process of precast concrete,
able mold—. Fig. 9.51) and cured before

color pigments such as iron oxides (red and
being stripped from the form, generally the brown), chrome oxides (green), or cobalt
day after. The concrete element is then trans- oxides (blue) can be added to the concrete.
ported to the construction site for erection The precast concrete industry is largely domi-
into place. The distance from the casting site nated by Government initiated projects for
to the construction site can be only a few infrastructural development. However, these
meters, where on-site precasting methods are are also being extensively used for residential
used to avoid expensive haulage, or can reach and commercial constructions (. Fig. 9.52).
up hundreds of kilometers, in the case of Each precast concrete component has specific
high-value products. According to Elliot regulations (ASTM, EN, and ISO), so the
(2019), “what really distinguishes precast con- number of standards for this construction
crete from cast in situ is its stress and strain material is impressive.
9.10 · Precast Concrete
259 9
Because the production of precast con- (e) high-quality, resulting from the quality
crete elements takes place under controlled control achieved by casting the products in
conditions in enclosed factories, tolerances the plant, and (f) economy, since the use of
can be accurately controlled, waste can be reusable factory molds produce repetitive
minimized, and a denser, stronger, and better units (maximum economy is achieved with
quality concrete can be produced. Thus, pre- maximum repetition).
cast concrete offers a wide range of benefits An alternative form of precasting is
and advantages such as: (a) rapidity, due to prestressed concrete (see next headings),
the possibility to begin to manufacture cast- where stresses are introduced into the struc-
ing components while foundation work is in tural member during fabrication as a way
progress; on-site assembly can be very fast of improving both its strength and perfor-
and is generally weather independent, (b) aes- mance. Prestressing is often used in struc-
thetic flexibility, due to the great variety of tural components such as beams, columns,
textures, colors, and finished that can be single and double tees, wall panels, bridge
offered, (c) design flexibility, resulting from units, and many others. Prestressed concrete
the long span capabilities; the use of prestress- many times provides the lowest overall cost,
ing substantially extends the span capability considering production and lifetime mainte-
of the products, (d) durability and energy effi- nance.
ciency, because there is commonly less waste,
9.10.1 Structural Elements
Precast concrete structural components are

used in various applications and projects of
all types. The most used components in build-
ing applications are the following: (a) beams
(. Fig. 9.53): horizontal members that sup-

port deck components such as double tees

and hollow-core slabs; three types cover
the majority of uses: rectangular beams,
inverted tee beams, and L-beams, (b) columns
(. Fig. 9.54): typically support cross mem-

bers such as beams or panels; they are usually

.. Fig. 9.52 Commercial construction using precast
square or rectangular in profile, being gener-
concrete elements ally cast as multilevel components ranging in
.. Fig. 9.53 Beams
.. Fig. 9.54 Columns .. Fig. 9.56 Wall panels
.. Fig. 9.55 Hollow-core slabs .. Fig. 9.57 Stairs
length from single to six or more levels, (c) as architectural, structural, or combination
double tees: so named due to the two extend- elements within a building’s design; they can
ing stems perpendicular to the flat horizontal be designed as load-bearing or non-load-bear-
deck; these components are used primarily as ing components; this group can also include
deck, floor, and roof components, being used insulated sandwich wall panels, which typically
for parking structures, office buildings and include 5 cm or more of high-performance
industrial facilities where long open spans are insulation between two wythes of concrete, (g)
desired, (d) hollow-core slabs (. Fig. 9.55):
other elements: piers, piles, pipes, caps, mul-
also known as planks, are long panels in lions, box culverts, stairs (. Fig.9.57), founda-

which voids run the length of the pieces (giv- tion elements (. Fig. 9.58), and many more.

ing the material its name), so reducing weight

while maintaining structural strength; they
are used in a wide range of buildings as floor/ 9.10.2 Nonstructural Elements
wall components, (e) slabs: are used as struc-
tural deck components similar to hollow-core Nonstructural elements are generally unrein-
slabs, varying their sizes to meet the structural forced precast concrete components covered
requirements of the design, (f) wall panels by two main groups of components: (1) pav-
(. Fig. 9.56): are versatile components used
ing units, and (2) street furniture and garden
9.10 · Precast Concrete
261 9
products. The paving units group includes
mainly paving blocks, kerbs, paving flags, and
tactile slabs. In general, they are available in
different colors, shapes, sizes, and textures.
Paving blocks (. Fig.9.59) are concrete pav-

ing units mainly used for pedestrian and

vehicular use (e.g., footpaths, cycle tracks, car
parks, roads, industrial areas, bus stations,
etc.), being arranged in several laying patters
with different shapes. Kerb units are precast
concrete units, individually or in combination
with other units, intended to separate surfaces
of the same or of different levels to provide
physical or visual delineation or containment
and separation between areas submitted to dif-
ferent kinds of traffic. Paving flags are paving
units widely used for public footpaths and not
suitable for roads or streets carrying high traf-
fic volumes. Tactile slabs are designed to give
dimensions for the surface profile features and
patterns for the surfaces on pedestrian paving
units in public areas that are intended to assist
.. Fig. 9.58 Foundation element visually impaired people. The second group
.. Fig. 9.59 Paving blocks (pen about 14 cm)

.. Fig. 9.60 Street furniture
of products, street furniture (. Fig. 9.60)

tation, and many other types of structures.
and garden components, cover those elements Some examples of applications to different
that can be used in public and private areas types of structures are building structures
including gardens, parks, footpaths, squares, (residential, office, warehouses and indus-
and some landscaping. They are also suitable trial, and others), parking structures, justice
9 for internal applications such as furnishing of facilities, cladding, stadiums/arenas, bridges,
spaces, products for soil erosion control, and and other structures, e.g., poles, piles, rail-
floorscape products. road ties, storage tanks, retaining walls, and
sound barriers.
Using a precast concrete system offers
9.10.3 Precast Concrete Systems many potential advantages over on-site cast-
ing, existing many different types for architec-
A precast concrete element is, by definition, of tural applications, differing in size, function,
a finite size and must be joined to other ele- and cost. Precast concrete systems combine a
ments to form a complete structure. Thus, a variety of precast concrete components into
precast concrete structure is “an assemblage an entire structural system. Typically, this
of precast components that, when suitably includes precast concrete columns, beams,
connected together, form a three dimensional and wall panels to create a structural frame,
framework capable of resisting gravitation hollow-core slabs or double tees as span mem-
and wind (or even earthquake) loads” (Elliot bers, and wall panels as a cladding. Precast
2019). The concept of precast (also known as concrete systems using precast components
prefabricated) construction includes those became one of the major construction meth-
buildings where the majority of structural ods in many countries worldwide, especially
components are standardized and produced after World War II.
in plants in a location away from the building,
and then transported to the site for assembly
(see . Fig. 9.52 as an example). It is essential
9.11 Reinforced Concrete
that each structural element be designed to
withstand both the tensile and compressive Concrete is strong in compression, with
loads that the member will be subjected to crushing strengths commonly in the range
over its lifespan. 20–40 MPa (up to 100 MPa for high-strength
The developments in products, mate- concretes). However, the tensile strength of
rials, and techniques have made precast concrete is generally rated about 10% of the
concrete competitive in a variety of resi- compression strength. As a result, cracks
dential, commercial, industrial, transpor- develop whenever loads, restrained shrink-
9.11 · Reinforced Concrete
263 9
age, or temperature changes give rise to ten-
sile stresses in excess of the tensile strength
of the concrete (Wight and MacGregor
2012). For this reason, concrete works well
for columns and posts that are compression
members in a structure but it must be rein-
forced to attain the necessary tension strength
where concrete is used for tension members
such as beams, girders, foundation walls, or
floors (. Fig. 9.61). In reinforced concrete,

the tensile strength of steel and the compres-

sive strength of concrete work together to
allow the element to sustain stresses caused
by wind, earthquakes, vibration, and other
forces over considerable spans (. Fig. 9.62).

Thus, reinforced concrete is one of the most

widely used modern construction materials.
Structures built of reinforced concrete such
as buildings, bridges, highway surfaces, and
numerous other structures are referred to as .. Fig. 9.61 Unreinforced concrete sudden failure
under loading. (Kosmatka and Wilson 2011)
.. Fig. 9.62 Reinforcement provides ductility and crack control in concrete. (Kosmatka and Wilson 2011)
.. Fig. 9.63 Lambot rowboat of concrete reinforced

with wire
.. Fig. 9.64 Example of dense reinforcement
reinforced concrete structures or reinforced

concrete construction.
The invention of reinforced concrete revo-
lutionized the construction industry. In fact,
most modern concrete structures would not
9 be possible without reinforcement. Reinforced
concrete was first designed in the middle
of nineteenth century. In 1854, Wilkinson
obtained a patent for a reinforced concrete
floor while Lambot built a rowboat of con-
crete reinforced with wire (. Fig. 9.63) in

1848 and patented it in 1855. In 1861, another

Frenchman, Coignet, published a book illus-
trating uses of reinforced concrete. Perhaps
the greatest incentive to the early development .. Fig. 9.65 Bars to reinforcement
of the scientific knowledge of reinforced con-
crete came from the work of Joseph Monier, quately as a composite material, “the bond
owner of a French nursery garden. Around between concrete and steel must be secure
1850, Monier began experimenting with because this guarantees that any tensile forces
concrete tubs reinforced with iron for plant- within the concrete are transferred to the steel
ing trees; he patented his idea in 1867, which reinforcement. Good-quality dense concrete
was rapidly followed by numerous patents for gives the strongest bond to the steel”
reinforced pipes and tanks, flat plates, bridges, (Kostmatka and Wilson 2011). For this pur-
stairs, and many others. During the last seven pose, concrete must be adequately compacted
decades, extensive research was carried out and the maximum size of aggregates must not
on various aspects of reinforced concrete overcome the minimum reinforcement spac-
behavior, which resulted in the current design ing. In some cases of dense reinforcement
procedures. concrete, the size of the aggregate must be
Steel is the universally accepted reinforc- especially low (. Fig. 9.64). The shape and

ing material for concrete since it is strong in surface condition of the steel also affect the
tension, it bonds well with concrete, and the bond strength. Reinforcing steel is able to be
properties of expansion for both steel and recycled at the end of the structure design life.
concrete are considered approximately the Reinforcement steel in concrete can
same. For reinforced concrete to act ade- include mainly bars (. Fig. 9.65) and/or wire,

265 9
.. Fig. 9.66 Welded mesh
and factory-made structures such as welded

mesh or fabric (standard or purpose made)
(. Fig. 9.66) or lattice girder (. Fig. 9.67).

Each type is useful for different purposes

(7 Box 9.5: Reinforcing Steel Bar).

.. Fig. 9.67 Lattice girder
Box 9.5
Reinforcing Steel Bar surface of the bars, which are used to transfer-
Reinforcing steel bar, also known as rebar, is a ring loads between the concrete and the rein-
carbon steel bar used with a circular or practi- forcing steel. The majority of rebar are
cally circular cross-section that is suitable for deformed. The ribs and depressions on its sur-
the reinforcement of concrete. The diameter of face can increase the bond strength with con-
bars generally ranges from 6 to 40 mm or crete and prevent slippage. The patterns can be
50 mm. To improve the quality of the bond customized according to construction require-
with the concrete, the surface of rebar is comments. The configuration of the bars incorpo-
monly patterned and can be epoxy-coated to rates at least two rows of transverse ribs or
mitigate corrosion. The bond strength is pro- indentations, which are uniformly distributed
portional to the contact surface of the steel to over the entire length (. Fig. 9.68). The spac-

the concrete. In other words, the greater the ing, height (. Fig. 9.69), and gap of deforma-

surface of steel exposed to the adherence of tions shall conform certain requirements listed
concrete, the stronger the bond. Sometimes, in standards such as ASTM A615/615 M and
austenitic stainless steel is used as reinforcing EN 10080. Rebar incorporates a marking sys-
bar (ASTM A955/955 M standard) because tem that helps to provide a useful information
they provide an excellent combination of cor- about the manufacturing and composition of
rosion resistance, strength, and ductility. They each bar as well as the tensile strength of the
are typically used in applications requiring cor- material.
rosion resistance or controlled magnetic per- The bars shall be free of detrimental sur-
meability. face imperfections. To obtain the most efficient
During the production process, deforma- mechanical bond with concrete, the surface of
tions (transverse protrusions) are formed in the the steel should be free of surface imperfections
.. Fig. 9.68 Transverse ribs or indentations in the .. Fig. 9.69 Deformation height measuring device
rebars (rib pattern for 500C—yield strength of
500 MPa)
.. Fig. 9.70 Stress–strain curve for reinforcing low-carbon steel bars. (Kosmatka and Wilson 2011)
such as laps, seams, scabs, slivers, or cooling or possible to evaluate the strength and deforma-
casting cracks, but the thin layer of rust, typi- tion of steel bars. For hot-rolled low-carbon
cally produced by short-term storage on site, steel and hot-rolled low-alloy steel, the stress-
should not be removed before use. Steel rebars strain curve in . Fig. 9.70 is recorded. The

are commonly supplied in cut lengths or wound curve exhibits a nearly horizontal segment
in concentric rings or coils. Reinforcing steel called yield plateau. Steel with a well-defined
manufactured in coils and subsequently yield plateau is called mild steel. The strain cor-
straightened for further processing. responding to the end of a yield plateau and the
Typical stress-strain curves of steel bars ultimate strain are important indices of plastic-
used in reinforced concrete structures are ity, which can ensure apparent warning before
obtained from monotonic tension tests, in either the reinforcement fractures or the mem-
which the loads are monotonically applied bers fail. Thus, this yield plateau is essential in
(without any unloading) until the failure of modern reinforced concrete structures because
specimens in a short time. From these tests, it is certain ductility of reinforcement is required.
267 9
.. Fig. 9.71 Different types of spacers used in reinforced and prestressed concrete
For reinforcing thin slabs and other structural three-dimensional metallic structure compris-
elements, an alternative to reinforcing bars is ing an upper chord, one or lower chords and
welded wire reinforcement (WWR), formerly continuous or discontinuous diagonals which
known as welded wire mesh or fabric are welded or mechanically assembled to the
(. Fig. 9.66). Steel reinforcement welded
chords” (UNE 10080). Lattice girders are
wire fabric is an “arrangement of longitudinal mainly used as reinforcement of prefabricated
and transverse bars, rods or wires of the same slabs and beams and in construction of tun-
or different nominal diameter and length that nels.
are arranged substantially at right angles to It is important to note that spacers
each other and factory electrical resistance (. Fig. 9.71) are used in reinforced and pre-

welded together by automatic machines at all stressed concrete to ensure the correct separa-
points of intersection” (EN 10080 standard). tion between reinforcement and formwork.
They can be produced in different formats Insufficient cover caused by the incorrect fix-
(standard or purpose made) for different ing of the steel reinforcement and/or the
applications (square mesh, rectangular mesh, formwork can allow the steel to corrode. The
etc.). nominal cover for concrete reinforcement is
The other common configuration of steel mainly determined from the anticipated
reinforcement in the concrete is the so-called degree of exposure and the concrete strength
lattice girder (. Fig. 9.67), which is “two or
class.
9.12 Prestressed Concrete
Prestressing concrete is a particular form of

reinforced concrete and was a big break for
the art of reinforcing. According to ISO
6707-1 standard, prestressed concrete is “a
concrete in which specified internal stresses
are induced, usually by means of tensioned
steel, prior to loading a structure.” Thus, pre-
stressed concrete is a concrete that undergoes
internal stresses introduced to counteract, to
the degree desired, the tensile stresses that will
be imposed in service. Prestressing may be
seen as an active way to reinforce the weak-
ness of concrete in tension. Steel plays an
active role in prestressed concrete while in
reinforced concrete steel plays a passive role.
The function of prestressing is to place the
concrete structure under compression in those
regions where load causes tensile stress.
9 Prestressing ensures that the concrete compo-
nent “always remains in compression when
subjected to flexing up to the maximum work- .. Fig. 9.72 CN Tower in Toronto (Canada)
ing load; the tensile forces within the steel act
upon the concrete putting it into compression, compression. This is often preferable where
such that only under excessive loads would the durability is a concern. The development of
concrete go into tension and crack” (Kosmatka early cracks in reinforced concrete due incom-
and Wilson 2011). Prestressed concrete is the patibility in the strains of steel and concrete
most versatile building material available and was probably the starting point to prestressing
is extensively used in the construction industry concrete (Raju 2007). While the traditional
ranging from small structural elements such as reinforcement becomes active mainly after the
beams and columns to massive structures like concrete has exceeded its cracking strength,
dams and bridges. CN Tower in Toronto the purpose of prestressing is to prevent
(Canada) (. Fig. 9.72) is one of the world’s

cracking from occurring. This is done by
tallest prestressed concrete buildings (553 m introducing compressive stress in the concrete
overall height). to neutralize the anticipated tensile stress
The brilliant idea of prestressing, con- developed under load.
ceived, and put to practice by Freyssinet in the The economy of prestressed concrete is
twentieth century is considered one of the well established for long span structures.
most significant events in the history of con- Reinforced concrete is uneconomical for long
struction technology. Freyssinet attempted to span because the dimension of sections are
introduce permanently acting forces in con- large requiring more concrete and steel. In
crete to resist the elastic forces developed particular, prestressed concrete has found
under loads, being this idea later carried out extensive application in the construction of
using the term prestressing. Freyssinet devel- long span bridges, thus gradually replacing
oped anchorages for the tendons and designed steel bridges that demand costly maintenance
and built a number of pioneering bridges and due to disadvantages of corrosion under
structures. aggressive atmospheric conditions.
In prestressed concrete, no cracking occurs The different forms that steel may take
since the prestressing keeps the concrete in in prestressed concrete are the following: (a)
9.12 · Prestressed Concrete
269 9
high-strength steel bars intended for use in
prestressed concrete construction or in pre-
stressed ground anchors. ISO 6934-1 standard
specifies general requirements for steel to be
used in prestressed concrete.
In general, the advantages of prestressed
concrete are numerous: (a) the utilization of
high-strength concrete and steel in prestressed
members results in lighter and slender mem-
bers than with reinforced concrete members,
(b) in fully prestressed members, the member
is free from tensile stresses under working
loads, thus being effective the whole section,
(c) prestressed concrete member possesses
better resistance to shear forces due to the
effect of compressive stresses presence, (d)
prestressed contributes to improve durability
under aggressive environmental conditions,
(e) long span structures are possible so that
.. Fig. 9.73 Strands and bars. (Image courtesy of saving in weight is significant, and (f) pre-
Pacadar)
stressed concrete structure deflects apprecia-
bly before ultimate failure, thus giving ample
warning before collapse. Nevertheless, pre-
stressed concrete has some disadvantages
such as: (a) initial equipment costs are very
high, (b) prestressed sections are brittle, and
(c) prestressed concrete sections are less fire
resistant.
9.12.1 Methods of Prestressing
Prestressing is achieved by either pretension-

.. Fig. 9.74 Tendon. (Image courtesy of Pacadar) ing or post-tensioning: (a) pretensioning
means that prestress is applied to steel before
casting concrete (. Fig. 9.75), and (b)

wires: individually drawn wires, (b) strands post-tensioning means that prestress is applied
(. Fig. 9.73): a collection of wires (up to 7)
to steel after casting concrete (. Fig. 9.76).

with several wires helically wound to a long Pretensioning is preferable where the struc-
pitch around a center wire, and thus having tural element is small and easy to transport
a diameter that is different to its area, (c) while post-tensioning is preferable where the
tendon (. Fig. 9.74): a collection of wires,
structural element is heavy. Post-tensioning
bars cables or strands encased in a duct; it
is only used in post-tensioning, and (d) bar:
a specially formed bar of high-strength steel.
ASTM A416/416 M standard deals with the
standard types and grade requirements of
seven-wire and uncoated steel strands for
use in the construction of pretensioned and
post-tensioned prestressed concrete while .. Fig. 9.75 Pretensioning prestressed concrete. (Kot-
A722/722 M standard covers two types of matka and Wilson 2011)
.. Fig. 9.76 Post-tensioning prestressed concrete.

(Kotmatka and Wilson 2011)
has the advantage over pretensioning that the

tendons can be curved to follow the most effi-
cient prestress lines. In turn, this enables long
spans of minimum thickness to be con-
structed.
Large numbers of precast concrete units,
including flooring systems, are manufactured
by the pretensioning process, being therefore
the most common form for precast sections.
In prestressed concrete, as the expression
illustrates, the steel is first tensioned in a frame
9 or between anchorages external to the mem-
ber. The steel is anchored at one end (the dead
end) and then pulled from the other end (the .. Fig. 9.77 Steel pulled and fixed. (Image courtesy of
live end) (. Fig. 9.77) with a specially
Pacadar)
designed hydraulic jack (. Fig. 9.78). The

concrete is then cast in the mold around it.

After the concrete has developed sufficient
strength, the tension is released from the
frame or anchorage to transfer the stress to
the concrete. In this process, the concrete is
put into compression because the tension in
the strands now becomes compression on the
concrete. The production technique often
involves the casting of elements in long (up to
200 m) casting beds, which permits the simul-
taneous fabrication of many elements with a
single tensioning of the strands.
Post-tensioning is a technique used “to
prestress concrete structures on the job site
after the concrete has been cast into the forms
and cured; it differs from pre-tensioning,
which is typically used to manufacture build-
ing elements away from the building site”
(Setareh and Darvas 2017). Post-tensioned
concrete is made by casting concrete that con-
tains plastic (. Fig. 9.79) or metal ducts

through which tendons can be threaded (ducts

are used to form a continuous void through .. Fig. 9.78 Hydraulic jack. (Image courtesy of Paca-
the concrete for later placement of the post- dar)
9.13 · Questions
271 9
sion protection for the tendon. EN 445, EN
446, and EN 447 standards are devoted to
grout for prestressing tendons.
9.13 Questions
??Short Questions
55 Define concrete using different standards
55 What is the usual proportion of cement by
volume in normal-weight concrete?
55 What is the maximum particle size of
coarse aggregate in concrete?
.. Fig. 9.79 Plastic ducts 55 Define admixture and list the main types
55 Define addition and comment the two types
of additions considered in EN 206-1 stan-
dard
55 What is the most important property of
fresh concrete?
55 Explain segregation and bleeding
55 Summarize the most important property of
hardened concrete
55 What is the Schmidt’s Rebound Hammer?
55 What is the difference between compressive
strength and tensile strength? Explain it in
terms of concrete mechanical properties
.. Fig. 9.80 Portable hydraulic jack 55 Explain the Fuller’s law
55 Summarize the wet batching method for
tensioning tendon steel). In aggressive envi- producing ready-mixed concrete.
ronments, extreme care should be taken to 55 What are the two main methods of curing?
ensure that water does not get into the ducts 55 Define the concept of durability of con-
prior to installation of the prestressing steel. crete
When the concrete reaches sufficient strength, 55 Explain the process termed delayed ettring-
the tendon is anchored at one end to a device ite formation
or plate cast into the concrete (the dead end). 55 Explain the process of cavitation
Portable hydraulic jacks (. Fig. 9.80) from
55 Summarize the most common causes of
the live end provide tensioning to the tendons. reinforcement corrosion
The load is transmitted to the concrete 55 Define precast concrete
through permanent anchorages embedded in 55 What is the reason to incorporate steel in
the concrete at the ends of the tendons. concrete?
Ducts are usually grouted later or filled 55 Explain the differences between reinforced
with grease to protect the tendons against cor- concrete and prestressed concrete
rosion. Appropriate protection of post-
tensioning tendons begins with complete
filling of the ducts with high-quality grout. ??Long Questions
Cement grout is chemically basic and provides 55 Describe in detail the slum test based on
a passive environment around the post- Abrams cone
tensioning bars or strands. The grouting not 55 Explain the two types of methods of con-
only creates a continuous bond between the crete compaction by vibration
tendon and the duct, which is bonded to the 55 Describe in detail the alkali-aggregate reac-
concrete, but also provides enhanced corro- tion
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Portland Cement
neering. Springer, pp 185–236
ASTM C260/C260M - 10a(2016). Standard Specification
Wight JK, MacGregor JG (2012) Reinforced Concrete-
for Air-Entraining Admixtures for Concrete
Mechanics & Design, 6th edn. Pearson Education,
ASTM C309 – 19. Standard Specification for Liquid
Inc., New Jersey, 1157 p
Membrane-Forming Compounds for Curing
Concrete
Standards ASTM C330/C330M – 17a. Standard Specification for
ISO 1920-2:2016. Testing of concrete -- Part 2: Lightweight Aggregates for Structural Concrete
Properties of fresh concrete ASTM C331/C331M - 17Standard Specification for
ISO 1920-4:2020. Testing of concrete -- Part 4: Strength Lightweight Aggregates for Concrete Masonry
of hardened concrete Units
ISO 1920-11:2013. Testing of concrete -- Part 11: ASTM C332 – 17. Standard Specification for
Determination of the chloride resistance of con- Lightweight Aggregates for Insulating Concrete
crete, unidirectional diffusion ASTM C418 – 12. Standard Test Method for Abrasion
ISO 1920-12:2015. Testing of concrete -- Part 12: Resistance of Concrete by Sandblasting
Determination of the carbonation resistance of ASTM C494/C494M – 19. Standard Specification for
concrete -- Accelerated carbonation method Chemical Admixtures for Concrete
ISO 6707-1:2017. Buildings and civil engineering ASTM C496/C496M – 17. Standard Test Method for
works -- Vocabulary -- Part 1: General terms Splitting Tensile Strength of Cylindrical Concrete
ISO 6934-1:1991. Steel for the prestressing of con- Specimens
crete — Part 1: General requirements ASTM C595/ 595M – 19. Standard Specification for
ISO 12439:2010. Mixing water for concrete Blended Hydraulic Cements
ISO 13823:2008.General principles on the design of ASTM C618 - 19Standard Specification for Coal Fly
structures for durability Ash and Raw or Calcined Natural Pozzolan for Use
ISO 19595:2017. Natural aggregates for concrete in Concrete
ISO 19596:2017. Admixtures for concrete
References
273 9
ASTM C637 – 20. Standard Specification for Aggregates EN 12350-2: 2019. Testing fresh concrete. Slump-test
for Radiation-Shielding Concrete EN 12350-3: 2019.Testing fresh concrete. Vebe test
ASTM C666/C666M – 15. Standard Test Method for EN 12350-5: 2019. Testing fresh concrete. Flow table
Resistance of Concrete to Rapid Freezing and test
Thawing EN 12350-6: 2019. Testing fresh concrete. Density
ASTM C672/C672M – 12. Standard Test Method for EN 12350-7: 2019. Testing fresh concrete. Air content.
Scaling Resistance of Concrete Surfaces Exposed to Pressure methods
Deicing Chemicals EN 12390-3: 2019. Testing hardened concrete.
ASTM C805/C805M – 18. Standard Test Method for Compressive strength of test specimens
Rebound Number of Hardened Concrete EN 12390-5: 2019. Testing hardened concrete. Flexural
ASTM C979/C979M – 16 strength of test specimens
Standard Specification for Pigments for Integrally EN 12390-6: 2019. Testing hardened concrete. Tensile
Colored Concrete splitting strength of test specimens
ASTM C989/C989M – 18a. Standard Specification for EN 12390-8: 2019. Testing hardened concrete. Depth of
Slag Cement for Use in Concrete and Mortars penetration of water under pressure
ASTM C1017/C1017M - 13e1Standard Specification for EN 12504-2: 2012. Testing concrete in structures. Non-
Chemical Admixtures for Use in Producing Flowing destructive testing. Determination of rebound num-
Concrete ber
ASTM C1138M – 19. Standard Test Method for EN 12620:2013. Aggregates for concrete
Abrasion Resistance of Concrete (Underwater EN 13369:2018. Common rules for precast concrete
Method) products
ASTM C1141/C1141M – 15. Standard Specification for EN 13501-1: 2018. Fire classification of construction
Admixtures for Shotcrete products and building elements. Classification using
ASTM C1202 – 19. Standard Test Method for Electrical test data from reaction to fire tests
Indication of Concrete's Ability to Resist Chloride EN 13670: 2009. Execution of concrete structures
Ion Penetration
ASTM C1240 – 20. Standard Specification for Silica Further Reading
Fume Used in Cementitious Mixtures
Allen E, Iano J (2013) Fundamentals of building con-
ASTM C1315 – 19. Standard Specification for Liquid
struction: materials and methods, 6th edn. Wiley,
Membrane-Forming Compounds Having Special
New York, 1024 p
Properties for Curing and Sealing Concrete
Steinle A, Bachmann H, Tillmann M (2019) Precast
ASTM C1582/C1582M - 11(2017)e1. Standard
concrete structures, 2nd edn. Ernst & Sohn, a Wiley
Specification for Admixtures to Inhibit Chloride-
Brand, 376 p
Induced Corrosion of Reinforcing Steel in Concrete
Doran D (2010) Construction materials reference book.
Butterworth Heinemann, 768 p
Mixing Water Used in the Production of Hydraulic
Gambhir ML (2013) Concrete technology. Tata
Cement Concrete
McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited, New
ASTM C1622/C1622M - 10(2016)e1. Standard
Delhi, 658 p
Specification for Cold-Weather Admixture Systems
Jahren P (2011) Concrete – history and accounts. Tapir
EN 197-1: 2011. Cement. Composition, specifications
Academic Press, 366 p
and conformity criteria for common cements
Khatib J (2016) Sustainability of construction materials.
EN 206-1: 2013+A1: 2016. Concrete. Specification, per-
Woodhead Publishing, 742 p
formance, production and conformity
Levitt M (2007) Precast concrete: materials, manufac-
EN 445: 2007. Grout for prestressing tendons. Test
ture, properties and usage, 2nd edn. Taylor &
methods
Francis, London, 224 p
EN 446: 2007. Grout for prestressing tendons. Grouting
Muthu KU, Ibrahim A, Janardhana M, Vijayanand M
procedures
(2016) Prestressed concrete. PHI Learning Private
EN 447: 2007. Grout for prestressing tendons. Basic
Limited, New Delhi, 360 p
requirements
Newman J, Choo BS (2003) Advanced concrete technol-
EN 934-2: 2009+A1: 2012. Admixtures for concrete,
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mortar and grout. Concrete admixtures. Definitions,
Shetty MS (2008) Concrete technology – theory and
requirements, conformity, marking and labelling
practice. S. Chand & Company Ltd., New Delhi,
EN 1008: 2002. Mixing water for concrete. Specification
624 p
for sampling, testing and assessing the suitability of
Sinha SN (2014) Reinforced concrete design, 3rd edn.
water, including water recovered from processes in
McGraw-Hill Education Private Limited, New
the concrete industry, as mixing water for concrete
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EN 10080: 2005. Steel for the reinforcement of concrete.
Weldable reinforcing steel. General
Links International Federation for Structural Concrete www.

fib-international.org
European Ready Mix Concrete Organisation ermco.eu/
Concrete Society www.concrete.org.uk
new
Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute www.crsi.org
American Concrete Institute www.concrete.org
European Federation of Concrete Admixtures
Global Cement and Concrete Association www.gccas-
Associations www.efca.info
sociation.org
LafargeHolcim www.lafargeholcim.com
National Ready Mixed Concrete Association www.
Heidelberg Cement Group www.heidelbergcement.com
nmrca.org
Cemex www.cemex.com
National Precast Concrete Association precast.org
9
275 10
Special Concrete
Contents
10.2 Fiber-Reinforced Concrete – 276

10.2.1 Steel Fibers – 278
10.2.2 Glass Fibers – 279
10.2.3 Synthetic Fibers – 281
10.2.4 Natural Fibers – 281
10.3 High-Strength Concrete – 282

10.3.1 Components – 283
10.3.2 Applications – 288
10.4 Self-Compacting Concrete – 289

10.4.1 Materials Composition and Mix Proportioning – 291
10.4.2 Properties of the Fresh State – 292
10.5 Lightweight Concrete – 295

10.5.1 Lightweight Aggregate Concrete – 296
10.5.2 No-Fines Concrete – 298
10.5.3 Aerated or Cellular Concrete – 299
10.5.4 Heavyweight Concrete – 300
10.6 Sprayed Concrete – 301
10.7 Stamped Concrete – 302

References – 304

276 Chapter 10 · Special Concrete
Summary
This chapter provides a description of the
different types of concrete that have been
developed to extend the range of proper-
ties of the conventional concrete described
in 7 Chap. 9. Some of these properties are

accomplished utilizing alternative materials,

e.g., lightweight and heavyweight aggre-
gates, changes in mixture compositions,
i.e., no-fines concrete, or an extensive use
of admixtures, i.e., high-strength concrete
or self-compacting concrete. These types of
concrete are usually grouped under the term .. Fig. 10.1 Concrete manufactured using heavyweight
special concrete, the five most important aggregates (barite) (coin about 2 cm). (Image courtesy
of LafargeHolcim)
types being fiber-reinforced concrete, high-
strength concrete, self-compacting concrete,
lightweight concrete, and sprayed concrete. 10.2 Fiber-Reinforced Concrete
A sixth type termed stamped concrete is
The utilization of fibers for improving the prop-
discussed although it represents a specific
application of concrete in pavement indus-erties of the construction materials goes back
try rather than a proper special concrete.at least 3500 years. In that moment, straws were
10 used to reinforce sunbaked bricks in Mesopo-
tamia. On the other hand, the cement-bound
products have been reinforced with several
10.1 Introduction types of fiber since the beginning of the 1990s.
The past three decades have seen a growing
Different types of concrete have been devel- interest in the use of steel and synthetic fibers
oped to extend the range of properties that to improve the properties of ready-mixed con-
were described in the preceding chapter. The crete, precast concrete, and shotcrete.
materials show the great versatility of con- In conventional concrete, microcracks
crete, which has led to its utilization in an develop before structure is loaded because
increasing number of applications. Some of of drying shrinkage and other causes of vol-
these properties have been obtained by using ume change. For this reason, incorporation
alternative materials, e.g., lightweight and of small, closely spaced, discontinuous, and
heavyweight aggregates (. Fig. 10.1), changes uniformly dispersed fibers to concrete would

in mixture proportions, i.e., no-fines concrete, substantially enhance its static and dynamic
and/or extensive use of admixtures, i.e., high- properties. As a consequence, the final con-
strength concrete or self-compacting concrete. crete is known as fiber-reinforced concrete
In general, all of them can be grouped under (FRC). Fiber-reinforced concrete is useful
the term special concrete. The five most impor- in applications such as industrial flooring,
tant types of special concrete are briefly hydraulic structures, sprayed concrete, slender
described below: fiber-reinforced concrete, structures (commonly in precast plants), tun-
high-strength concrete, self-compacting con- nel linings, and fire-resistant structures.
crete, lightweight concrete, and sprayed con- It should be highlighted that fiber used in
crete. A sixth type of special concrete, termed concrete reinforcement does not replace the
stamped concrete, can be also considered but conventional steel bars. This is because the
it represents a specific application of concrete fibers and steel bars have different roles to play
in pavement industry rather than a proper in advanced concrete technology, existing a
special concrete. great number of applications in which both
10.2 · Fiber-Reinforced Concrete
277 10
fibers and continuous reinforcing steel bars Fiber used in FRC is a reinforcing compo-
should be used. “Although the basic governing nent manufactured from various materials
principles are the same, there are several like steel, plastic, glass, carbon, and natural
remarkable differences between conventional materials, e.g., wood cellulose. Fibers made
reinforcement and fiber systems: (a) fibers are from these materials are available in a variety
generally randomly distributed throughout a of shapes, sizes, and thicknesses. Thus, the
given cross section whilst reinforcing bars or fibers can be round, flat, crimped, and
wires are placed only where required, (b) most deformed with typical length ranging from 5
fibers are relatively short and closely spaced as to 150 mm and thickness ranging from 0.005
compared with continuous reinforcing bars or to 0.75 mm. Each type of fiber has its own
wires, and (c) it is generally not possible to characteristic properties and limitations.
achieve the same reinforcement ratio of area of Therefore, the selection of fiber type and
reinforcement to area of concrete using fibers geometry depends mainly on the application
as compared to using a network of reinforcing field and the quality so that the physical prop-
bars or wires” (Kosmatka and Wilson 2011). erties of the fibers are matched to each appli-
This new generation technology uses dis- cation. The selection of the type of fiber is
crete fibers from 18 to 64 mm in length. The determined by the fiber properties such as
fibers are randomly dispersed throughout the diameter, specific gravity, Young’s modulus,
concrete matrix providing for better distribu- and tensile strength. The strength of the com-
tion of both internal and external stresses by posite largely depends on the quantity of
using a three-dimensional reinforcing net- fibers used in it.
work. Because of the flexibility in method of Another important factor in fiber-
fabrication, fiber-reinforced concrete is an reinforced concrete that influences the proper-
economic and useful construction material. ties and behavior of the composite is the
Many different properties of the fresh and aspect ratio of the fiber, a numerical parame-
hardened concrete can be effectively enhanced ter defined as “the ratio of length (l) to equiv-
by adding fibers. Thus, the positive effects of alent diameter of the fiber” (EN 14889-1
fibers in concrete are numerous: (a) improved standard). Typical aspect ratio ranges from 30
durability of the structure, (b) increased ten- to 150. In general, fiber-reinforced concrete
sile and flexural strengths, (c) higher resis- doses typically range from 20 kg/m3 (0.25 vol.
tance to later cracking, (d) enhanced crack %) up to about 80 kg/m3 (1 vol. %) fiber con-
distribution, (e) reduced shrinkage of early- tents (Balázs 2012). Fibers are commonly cut
age concrete, (f) increased resistance to fire, and/or broken into short pieces and then
(g) improved homogeneity of fresh concrete, mixed in a matrix, being essential an almost
(h) enhanced resistance to impact, and (i) perfect bond between fibers and matrix.
reduced possibilities of segregation. Different standards cover the use of fibers
Compared to conventional concrete, FRC in concrete. EN 14889-1 European standard
mixtures are usually characterized by higher specifies “requirements for steel fibers for
cement amount, higher fine aggregate con- structural or non-structural use in concrete,
tent, and smaller size coarse aggregate. The mortar, and grout” and EN 14889-2 standard
fibers are added to concrete during mixing plays the same role for polymer fibers, cover-
and usually increase the water requirement of ing fibers intended for use in all types of con-
the mixture, being essential the utilization of crete and mortar. According to these
superplasticizers. The mix should have a uni- standards, “structural use of fibers is where
form dispersion of the fibers to avoid segrega- the addition of fibers is designed to contribute
tion or balling of the fibers during mixing to the load bearing capacity of a concrete ele-
(most balling takes place during the fiber ment”. ISO 13270 standard specifies all the
addition process). Principal features control- aspects related to steel fibers intended for use
ling composite material performance are the in fiber-reinforced concrete while ASTM
physical properties of fibers and matrix and C1116/1116 M standard covers all forms of
the strength of bond between both materials. fiber-reinforced concrete. The latter standard
points out that “materials are classified Finally, the Fiber Reinforced Concrete
according to the type of fiber incorporated, Association (FRCA) establishes up to 10 differ-
which are: Type I, steel fiber-reinforced con- ent categories of fibers: cellulose fibers, glass
crete that contains stainless, alloy, or carbon fibers, macrosynthetic fibers, microsynthetic
steel fibers; Type II, glass fiber-reinforced con- fibers, natural fibers, polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)
crete that contains alkali-resistant glass fibers; fibers, specialty fibers, steel fibers, steel and
Type III, synthetic fiber-reinforced concrete micro/macroblends, and other fibers and blends.
that contains synthetic fibers; and Type IV,
natural fiber-reinforced concrete that contains
cellulose fibers.” On the other hand, different 10.2.1 Steel Fibers
ASTM standards are devoted to specific type
of fiber. Thus, A820/A820M standard covers Steel fiber is the most commonly used type of
steel fibers, C1666/C1666M standard covers fiber in concrete reinforcement (7 Box 10.1)
alkali-resistant (AR) glass fibers, and D7357 due to its availability, good mechanical prop-
standard deals with cellulose fibers. erties, and durability.
Box 10.1
Steel Fibers
According to EN 14889-2 and ISO 13270 stan-
dards, steel fibers are “straight or deformed
10 pieces of cold-drawn steel wire, straight or
deformed cut sheet fibers, melt extracted fibers,
shaved cold drawn wire fibers and fibers milled
from steel blocks which are suitable to be
homogeneously mixed into concrete or mor-
tar.” Steel fibers can be classified into one of
the following groups, in accordance with the
basic material used for the production of the
fibers (EN 14889-1 standard): “(a) group I:
cold-drawn wire, (b) group II: cut sheet, (c)
group Ill: melt extracted, (d) group IV: shaved .. Fig. 10.2 Steel fibers collated into bundless
cold drawn wire, and (e) group V: milled from
blocks.” For its part, the types of steel fibers When the short steel fibers are mixed in
defined by ASTM A820 standard are the fol- the concrete, these occupy the interparticle
lowing: “(a) type I: cold-drawn wire, (b) type spaces existing around coarse aggregates
II: cut sheet, (c) type III: melt-extracted, (d) along with the hydrated cement paste
type IV: mill cut, and (e) type V: modified cold- (. Fig. 10.3). . Figure 10.3 depicts a typical

drawn wire.” random distribution of the steel fibers in the

As a rule, steel fibers are short, discrete concrete mix. Mostly, they surround a bulk of
lengths of steel having an aspect ratio from the coarse aggregates present in the mix and
around 15 to 100, showing also a great variety their distribution in the mortar matrix is gen-
of cross sections and profiles. Some steel fibers erally observed to be random in nature. The
have hooked ends for improving resistance to “fibers embedded in the mortar matrix carries
pullout from a cement-based matrix, being the the tensile forces induced in the system whilst
fibers commonly collated into bundless the concrete matrix carries compression as
(. Fig. 10.2) to facilitate handling and mixing
well as distributes and transfers the internal
(during mixing the bundless separate into tensile forces to the fibers embedded in the
individual fibers). concrete” (Singh 2017).
279 10
Initially, steel fibers are used to prevent/

control plastic and drying shrinkage in con-
crete but its addition can also “significantly
increases the flexural toughness, energy
absorption capacity, and ductile behavior
prior to the ultimate failure as well as reduces
cracking and improves durability in the con-
crete” (Altun et al. 2006). As a consequence of
the different producing methods and materials
used, differences in the mechanical properties
.. Fig. 10.3 Steel fiber-reinforced concrete; the
of steel fibers (e.g., tensile strength and grade
short, discrete fibers (shown by the dark lines) are
randomly dispersed in the concrete at the time of of mechanical anchorage) are commonly pres-
mixing and are present throughout the hydrated ent. The ultimate strength ranges from 500 to
cement mortar in the mix (Singh 2017) 2600 MPa, being the elasticity modulus about
210,000 MPa. Diameter size ranges from 100
Steel fiber volumes used in concrete gener-
to 1000 microns.
ally range from 0.25 to 2%. The addition of
Steel fiber-reinforced concrete has been
1.5% by volume of steel fibers can increase
extensively used in applications such as over-
tensile strength by up to 40% and flexural
strength up to 150% in comparison with con- lays of roads, airport and highway pavements,
crete without steel fibers. Volumes of more bridge decks, industrial floors. It is also used
than 2% can usually cause a reduction in in different precast concrete applications due
workability and fiber dispersion, requiring to the enhanced impact resistance imparted by
special mix design or concrete placement tech- the fibers. Steel fibers are also widely used with
niques. shotcrete in thin-layer applications.
10.2.2 Glass Fibers factured and sold for the reinforcement of

mortars and concrete products. The resistance
Alkali-resistant (AR) glass fiber (. Fig. 10.4)

is due particularly to the specific composition
is defined in EN 15422 standard for precast of the glass.” Glass fiber-reinforced concrete
concrete as “glass fiber product resistant to (GFRC) is an important building material
the alkaline environment of matrices made that came into prominence in the 1970s. Glass
from hydraulic cement with glass fiber manu- fibers in the early 1960s were made using con-
ventional borosilicate glass and soda-lime
glass but alkali reactivity between glass of the
fibers and cement paste decreased the con-
crete strength. Although one of the key fea-
tures of glass fiber-reinforced concrete is its
versatility in use, the largest application of
GFRC is the manufacture of exterior building
façade panels (. Fig. 10.5).

There are two main production techniques

of GFRC, usually referred as to spray-up and
pre-mix processes. In the spray-up process, the
mortar is produced separately from the fibers,
which are mixed only at the jet of the spray
gun (. Fig. 10.6). The glass fiber strands are

.. Fig. 10.4 Glass fibers cut within the spray gun to the required size,
.. Fig. 10.7 Spray-up production technique for GFRC.

(Image courtesy of Preinco)
10 .. Fig. 10.5 Building façade panel manufactured using

glass fibers. (Image courtesy of Preinco)
.. Fig. 10.8 Glass fibers oriented randomly within a

plane. (Image courtesy of Preinco)
pre-cut glass fibers, 2–4% (commonly 3.5%)

weight, are then mixed. This method is ineffi-
cient, requiring very high loads of fibers, and
only about 15% of the fibers are oriented cor-
rectly” (Iskender and Karasu 2018). Therefore,
.. Fig. 10.6 Spray-up gun of glass fibers. (Image cour- the efficiency of fibers is based on their orien-
tesy of Preinco) tation; if the fibers are aligned perpendicular
to the crack openings, the positive effect of
usually between 25 and 40 mm in length and fibers on the performance of GFRC is
constituting approximately 4–5% of the total increased.
mixture weight. In this production technique Regarding the properties of GFRC, the
(. Fig. 10.7), the fibers are oriented ran-
addition of glass fiber usually results in higher
domly within a thin plane (. Fig. 10.8). “As
compressive strength although an excessive
the fibers are sprayed into the forms, they lay fiber quantity can cause a decrease in the
flat, confirming to the shape of the form, strength due to reduced workability. There is
being 30–50% of the fibers optimally oriented. no significant improvement in the modulus of
In the second technique (pre-mixture and elasticity of the concrete with the addition of
casting), cement matrix is firstly produced and a low volume fraction of glass fibers. They
281 10
have positive influence on the stress-strain all concrete chemical admixtures and may be
curve of GFRC and flexural strength. This is easy-handled. They are produced as continu-
because the increase in the aspect ratio of ous cylindrical monofilaments that can be cut
fibers provides an increment in pull-out and to specified lengths or cut as films and tapes
energy absorption of the GFRC. and formed into fine fibrils of rectangular
cross section. Used in concrete in amounts of
at least 0.1% by volume (recommended dos-
10.2.3 Synthetic Fibers age for effective performance), polypropylene
fibers reduce plastic shrinkage cracking and
Synthetic fibers are man-made elements devel- subsidence cracking over steel reinforcement.
oped in the petrochemical and textile indus- They can also help reduce spalling of high-
tries. Synthetic fibers used in concrete include strength and low-permeability concrete
acrylic, aramid, carbon, nylon, polyester, exposed to fire.
polyethylene, and polypropylene fibers. This
type of fibers may decrease plastic shrinkage
and cracking and can help strengthen con- 10.2.4 Natural Fibers
crete after it cracks. As a rule, synthetic fibers
have a high tensile strength but most have a Natural fibers were used as reinforcement
relatively low modulus of elasticity. Problems long before the advent of conventional rein-
associated with synthetic fibers include the forced concrete. Some typical examples of his-
following: “(1) low fiber-to-matrix bond- torical reinforcement use of natural fibers are
ing; (2) inconclusive performance testing for the mud bricks reinforced with straw or mor-
low fiber-volume usage with polypropylene, tars reinforced with horsehair. Natural fibers
polyethylene, polyester and nylon; (3) a low are generally cheap and locally available
modulus of elasticity for polypropylene and worldwide. Moreover, since the focus of
polyethylene; and (4) the high cost of carbon industry is on reducing greenhouse gas emis-
and aramid fibers” (PCA, 2011). However, sions associated with concrete, natural fibers
since the diameter of polymeric fibers is in the have been a center of discussion due to their
order of micrometers, its high aspect ratio is notable characteristics of being eco-friendly
very useful in fiber-reinforced concrete. and recyclable. To improve the durability
Polypropylene fibers (. Fig. 10.9) are
aspect of natural fibers used in concrete, fibers
probably the most common synthetic fibers. are processed to make them alkali resistant.
They are chemically inert, hydrophobic, non- Since cellulose is one of the main con-
magnetic, lightweight (0.9 g/cm3), give very stituents of the natural fibers structure, it is
good alkali resistance, and are easy to use. the most common fiber used in natural fiber-
Polypropylene fibers are also compatible with reinforced concrete. In the last few years, an
increase in interest has been given to the use of
cellulose fibers (. Fig. 10.10) as alternatives

for conventional reinforcements in compos-

ites. Cellulose fibers exhibit a set of impor-
tant advantages such as wide availability at
relatively low-cost, bio-renewability, ability to
be recycled, biodegradability, nonhazardous
nature, zero carbon footprint, and interesting
physical and mechanical properties (low den-
sity and well- balanced stiffness, toughness,
and strength). With over 1500 million fibers
per kg, extremely high surface area, exten-
sive bonding with cement, high fiber tensile
strength, and extremely close fiber spacing,
.. Fig. 10.9 Polypropylene fibers (coin about 2 cm) cellulose fiber is outstanding at intersecting
.. Fig. 10.10 Cellulose fibers (coin about 2 cm)
microcracks as they form, dispersing the ten-

sile stress, and reducing visible macrocracks.
The “role of cellulosic fibers as reinforcement
lies in combining in an adequate manner the
proper interfacial bond between the fiber and
the matrix as well as to ensure the durability
of the material” (Ardanuy et al. 2015).
10 .. Fig. 10.11 Two Union Square building in Seattle
(USA), an example of high-strength concrete building.
10.3 High-Strength Concrete (Source: Wikipedia)
The primary difference between high-strength 28 MPa and 35 MPa, HSC considered here
concrete (HSC) and conventional strength has a strength of at least 70–80 MPa. For
concrete is related to the compressive strength strength of 70–80 MPa and higher, stringent
values of both materials, in the absence of a application of the best practices is essential. It
precise point of separation between the two is important to note that the definition of the
types. Although HSC is commonly designed high-strength concrete also varies on a geo-
as a relatively new material, its development graphical basis. EN 206-1 standard states that
has been progressive over the years. As the use high-strength concrete is a “concrete with a
of concrete increased, the definition of high- compressive strength class higher than C50/60
strength concrete changed. Thus, in the 1950s, (50 Mpa/60 Mpa) in the cases of normal
concrete with a compressive strength of weight or heavyweight concrete and LC50/55
35 MPa was considered high-strength, in the (50 MPa/55 Mpa) in the case of light-weight
1960s, 50 MPa concrete was also considered concrete.” . Figure 10.11 shows a view of

high-strength concrete, and in the 1970s, The Two Union Square building in Seattle
62 MPa concrete was considered the same. In (USA); it was built using concrete with a
the early 1970s, 62 MPa concrete was being designed compressive strength of 131 MPa in
produced. More recently, compressive its steel tube and concrete composite columns.
strengths approaching 140 MPa have been Burj Khalifa in Dubai (. Fig. 10.12), the tall-

used in cast-in-place buildings, being the est building in the world, was built also using
concrete successfully produced and placed
high-strength concrete.
with conventional mixing, handling, and The terms high-performance concrete and
compaction methods. Because today about high-strength concrete are often used inter-
90% of ready-mixed concrete has a 28-day changeably. Nevertheless, high performance
specified compressive strength ranging from strictly relates to concrete that has been
20 MPa to 40 MPa, with most of it between designed to have good specific characteristics
10.3 · High-Strength Concrete
283 10
strength concrete except that emphasis on
quality control is perhaps greater with
HSC. Superplasticizers should be used to
obtain maximum water reduction (in the early
1960s, a superplasticizer was developed in
Japan and by using this superplasticizer, high-
strength concrete could be realized by decreas-
ing water/cement ratio to fewer than 30%).
10.3.1 Components
The proportioning of an HSC mixture follows

the same method as for normal-strength con-
crete in order to produce a cohesive mixture
with minimum voids. However, mix design in
HSC is significantly more complex than for
normal-strength concrete because of the
larger number of variables involved as well as
their interactive results. For this reason, much
more extensive set of trial mixes at both labo-
.. Fig. 10.12 Burj Khalifa in Dubai, the tallest build- ratory are generally needed. Production of
ing in the world, was built using high-strength concrete high-strength concrete definitely requires
materials of highest quality and their opti-
such as high resistance to chloride ingress or mum proportions (. Table 10.1). As a conse-

high abrasion resistance. As a result, it may quence, the production of HSC includes more
also have a high-strength but not necessarily. strict specifications on material selection and
HSC is always impermeable, exhibiting excel- proportioning than that for conventional
lent durability to different physical and chem- strength concrete.
ical agents that are usually responsible for The single most important variable in
concrete deterioration. Therefore, curing of achieving HSC is the water/cement ratio.
high-strength concrete is even more impor- Thus, target water/cement ratio must be in the
tant than usual. HSC is also brittle because of range of 0.30–0.35 or even lower. Cement that
its strength and increased stiffness. yields the highest concrete compressive
The specified strength of concrete has strength at extended ages is preferable. Cement
been commonly based on 28-day test results. contents in HSC generally range between
Nevertheless, in this type of special concrete, 400 kg/m3 and 600 kg/m3. Incrementing
because structural elements in lower floors cement content cannot always produce higher
spend a year or more to be fully loaded, com- strength and, above certain levels, it may have
pressive strengths based on 56- or 91-day test little influence.
results are usually considered for achieving a In HSC, special attention is given to size,
significant economy in material costs. strength, shape, surface texture, mineralogy,
Enhanced compressive strength is the most and cleanness of the aggregates. Any of these
important of HSC functional properties. properties could limit the ultimate strength of
Tensile strength of HSC is significantly greater high-strength concrete. For “each source of
than that of conventional concrete, but to a aggregate and concrete strength level, there is
lesser extent than compressive strength. an optimum-size aggregate that will yield the
The methods and technology for manufac- most compressive strength per unit of cement”
turing high-strength concrete are generally (Kosmatka and Wilson 2011). Many studies
the same from those needed in conventional have shown that 9–12 mm nominal maximum-
.. Table 10.1 Examples of high-strength concrete mixtures
Mix 1 Mix 2 Mix 3
Total binder 600 kg/m3 500 kg/m3 400 kg/m3

CEM 1 42.5 570 kg/m3 475 kg/m3 380 kg/m3
Silica fume 30 kg/m3 25 kg/m3 20 kg/m3
Aggregates (round siliceous limestone 0–16 mm) l,696 kg/m3 1,849 kg/m3 2,001 kg/m3
w/b-ratio 0.25 0.25 0.25
Water 150 kg/m3 125 kg/m3 100 kg/m3
Strength after 7 days 87 MPa 85 MPa 88 MPa
Strength after 28 days 93 MPa 98 MPa 96 MPa
E-Modulus 43,800 MPa 47,200 MPa 48,800 MPa
size aggregates give the optimum strength. avoided because of the attendant high-water
Thus, limiting the maximum aggregate size to requirement and reduced workability. As a
10 mm is usually suggested. rule, perfect aggregate must be clean, cubical,
Because the high quantity of cement in angular, totally crushed, and including a min-
10 high-strength concrete, the role of the fine imum of flat and elongated particles.
aggregate (sand) to produce a concrete with Removing dust (including clay) is essential
an adequate workability and good finishing because it can influence the amount of fines
characteristics is not as critical as in conven- and correspondingly the water demand of the
tional strength mixtures. For this reason, concrete mix.
commonly sand with a fineness modulus of It would be difficult to produce high-
approximately 3.0, that is, a coarse sand, has strength concrete mixtures without using
been satisfactory to produce a correct work- admixtures. They make more efficient utiliza-
ability and high compressive strength. tion of the large quantity of cementitious
Moreover, the aggregate size distribution can material and help to obtain the lowest practi-
be designed regarding high-strength concrete cal water to cementing materials ratio.
with the following considerations: (a) dimin- Chemical admixtures such as superplasticiz-
ished total sand content, (b) decreased quan- ers increment concrete strength by decreasing
tity of the fraction between 2 and 4 mm, (c) the mixing water quantity for a constant
decreased fines from aggregates ˂ 0.125 mm, slump. Superplasticizer amount to be added
and (d) incremented quantity of fraction to a mixture is controlled by the needed work-
between 0.25 to 1 mm. ability. To avoid drastic decreases in slump
The aggregate strength and the bond and/ and resultant difficulty in placing when super-
or adhesion between the paste and aggregate plasticizers are used, they are often partly
become essential aspects in HSC. Tests have mixed on batching, the balance being added
indicated that crushed stone aggregate gener- on site prior to pouring.
ates higher compressive strength in concrete Finely divided additions such as fly ash
than gravel-based aggregate, obviously always and silica fume, and slag cement has been
utilizing a same size aggregate and a same broadly used in high-strength concrete. These
cementing materials content. This is probably materials impart additional strength to the
due to a better aggregate to paste bond where concrete by reacting with Portland cement
utilizing rough, angular, crushed material. hydration products to create additional
Nevertheless, accentuated angularity must be C-S-H gel, the part of the paste responsible
285 10
for concrete strength. Silica fume (7 Box 60 MPa to 80 MPa). For improving handling,
10.2) must be used to improve the strength at silica fume is commonly blended either into
high levels, i.e., 80 MPa or more, but is not slurry with superplasticizers or as a densified
required commonly at the lower end (between powder.
Box 10.2
Silica Fume a by-product of producing silicon metal or

The history of silica fume (SF) is relatively ferrosilicon alloys. A schematic of silica fume
short. The first recorded testing of silica fume production is shown in . Fig. 10.14, and an

in Portland cement-based concretes was in illustration of a smelter is shown in

1952 and it was not until the early 1970s that . Fig. 10.15.

concretes containing silica fume came into Silica fume is also referred to as microsil-
even limited use. Silica fume (. Fig. 10.13) is

ica, condensed silica fume, or volatilized silica
although the term silica fume is commonly
accepted in the market. Silica fume is formed
by amorphous (noncrystalline) silicon dioxide
(SiO2). The individual particles are extraordi-
narily small, with more than 95% of the par-
ticles being less than 1 μm. For comparison,
the average particle size of silica fume is
around 100–150 times smaller than the aver-
age particle size of Portland cement
(. Fig. 10.16). Due to its fine particle size,

large surface area, and the high SiO2 content,

SF is a quite reactive pozzolan where used in
concrete, especially high-strength concrete.
Silica fume can be more correctly described as
condensed silica fume, being this material
constituted by particles of about 2.2 g/cm3
specific gravity with a surface area of
.. Fig. 10.13 Silica fume. (Image courtesy of 15–30 m2/g of what is essentially, but not com-
FERROGLOBE, plc) pletely, amorphous silica. The very large sur-
.. Fig. 10.14 Schematic
of silica fume production SILICA FUME: Production
(Holland 2005)
Raw materials
Carbon – coke, coal, wood chips
Quartz
Silicon metal Smelting furnace

Temperature 2000˚ C
OFF GAS
As-produced
Baghoyse filter
silica fume
.. Fig. 10.15 Illustration of a smelter to produce silica fume (Holland 2005)
10
.. Fig. 10.16 Size of silica fume compared to cement and fly ash. (Image courtesy of FERROGLOBE, plc)
287 10
.. Fig. 10.17 Submerged-arc electric furnace.

.. Fig. 10.18 Different product forms and pack-
(Image courtesy of FERROGLOBE, plc)
aging options for silica fume. (Image courtesy of
FERROGLOBE, plc)
face area is why it is necessary to use silica
fume in high-strength concrete in combina-
tion with a water-reducing admixture or a manufactured by treating undensified silica
superplasticizer. With respect to the purity of fume for increasing bulk density up to a maxi-
the product, silica fume meets the following mum of around 400–700 kg/m3. Thus, this
requirements to be used: amorphous silica material is more economical for transporta-
≥85% by mass and loss on ignition ≤4% by tion.
mass. The reasons for the use of silica fume in
In the manufacture of silicon and ferrosili- high-strength concrete are attributed to a
con alloys in a submerged-arc electric furnace microfiller effect and a pozzolanic reaction of
(. Fig. 10.17) at temperatures in excess of

silica fume in the cement-based products. The
2000 °C, the raw materials are quartz (the microfiller effect means that silica fume parti-
quartzite used to smelt silicon must be pure cles are easily introduced into the space
and contain more than 99% silicon dioxide), between cement grains, thus reducing the
coal, and wood chips (alkalis and iron are space available for water and producing dense
undesirable tramp elements). The escaping structure of hydration products. The pozzola-
gaseous oxidizes and condenses in the form of nic reaction means that silica fume particles
extremely fine spherical particles of amor- react chemically with calcium hydroxide to
phous silica. Thus, the smoke that results from produce well-
crystallized CSH gel and to
furnace operation is collected and sold as sil- enhance durability. Thus, fresh concrete pro-
ica fume, rather than being landfilled. Silica duced with silica fume is more cohesive and
fume powder is gray to off-white in color and, thus less prone to segregation that concretes
when mixed with water, gives a slurry that is without silica fume. Because of the very high
black, being available in several product forms surface area of silica fume and the usually
and packaging options (. Fig. 10.18). It is

very low content of concrete including this
available mainly in two basic product forms: product, there will be very little, if any bleed-
undensified and densified. In general, anyone ing. Silica fume reduces the permeability of
of both product forms will perform better in a the concrete, diminishing the effects of aggres-
concrete mixture. Nevertheless, undensified sive chemicals (e.g., chloride damage to rein-
silica fume is not frequently used in ready- forcing steel). The concrete core of One World
mixed or precast concrete, being principally Trade Center (. Fig. 10.19) incorporates

used in grouts or repair mortars. Densified high-strength concrete including up to 6% of

silica fume works very well in concrete and is silica fume.
.. Fig. 10.19 One World Trade

Center in New York (USA) was
built using silica fume in the
concrete
10
10.3.2 Applications offers the most economical solution for col-

umns of high-rise buildings. Although the
Concretes with high compressive strength are cost increases with increasing strength, its uti-
used in many different structures due to their lization can lead to overall structural econo-
versatile technical characteristics. High com- mies, for instance in reduced section sizes and
pressive strength concrete offers many advan- therefore lower weights, and in diminished
tages over conventional concrete. It is cross sections in high-rise buildings (where
commonly used in the design of high-load- more floor space is available).
bearing columns and for different products in High-strength concrete is suitable for appli-
precast factories. The principal benefit of cation in high-rise buildings (. Fig. 10.20),

HSC is the reducing in size of compression mainly related to earthquake areas. In addi-
elements and/or the quantity of longitudinal tion, prestressed bridge constructions need
reinforcement needed. Thus, using the highest high compressive strength leading to wider
possible strength concrete and minimum steel spans and slender bridge dimensions, reduc-
10.4 · Self-Compacting Concrete
289 10
the use of self-compacting concrete were to
shorten construction times and to prevent
vibrating confined zones, which are rather
hard to access. Another important reason
deals with elimination of noise caused by
vibration. Consequently, SCC has gained a
broad interest in the last three decades, espe-
cially for structures with complex shapes,
complicated casting processes, and very con-
gested reinforcements (7 Fig. 9.64).

EN 206-9 standard defines self-compacting

concrete as “concrete that is able to flow and
compact under its own weight, fill the form-
work with its reinforcement, ducts, etc., whilst
maintaining homogeneity.” ASTM C125 stan-
dard defines self-consolidating concrete as
“concrete that can flow around reinforcement
and consolidate under its own weight with-
out additional effort and without exceeding
specified limits of segregation.” ISO 1920-13
standard defines SCC as “innovative concrete
that does not require vibration for placing and
.. Fig. 10.20 Torre Espacio in Madrid (Spain) is an compaction because it is able to flow under its
example of high-rise building built with high-strength
concrete (70–80 MPa). (Image courtesy of Carolina
own weight, completely filing formwork and
Bustillo) achieving full compaction, even in the presence
of congested reinforcement.” In summary,
SCC is able to flow and consolidates under its
ing the number of girders for a given span, own weight and, at the same time, it is cohesive
and reducing the section height for a given enough to fill spaces of almost any size and
span. Furthermore, the mechanical charac- shape without segregation or bleeding.
teristics of high-strength concrete are applied Although SCC is not a new construction
to structures exposed to high mechanical and material but rather a further development
chemical loading such as industrial floors, of existing concrete technologies, it has been
traffic areas, offshore structures, sewage treat- described as “the most revolutionary devel-
ment plants, and engineering structures like opment in concrete construction for several
hydropower plants or cooling towers. decades”. SCC has proved “beneficial eco-
nomically because of a number of factors
such as faster construction, reduction in site
10.4 Self-Compacting Concrete manpower, easier placing, improved dura-
bility, absence of vibration, and safer work-
Self-compacting concrete (SCC), self-consoli- ing environment, among others” (EFNARC
dating concrete, self-leveling concrete, or 2002) (. Fig. 10.21). Thus, one of the

vibration-free concrete are different names major impacts of the introduction of self-
commonly used for identifying a relatively compacting concrete is related to produc-
new type of concrete. The concept of SCC tion process: the selection and handling of
was first developed in Japan in the mid to late components are clearly modified as well as
1980s because the conventional concrete was mix design, batching, mixing, and transport-
criticized for its durability issues. To solve this ing. One of the most famous structure con-
issue, Hajime Okamura was the first who pro- structed using self-compacting concrete is the
posed SCC in 1986. The main reasons behind two anchorages of Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge in
.. Fig. 10.21 Advan-
tages of SCC compared
to normal vibrated con-
crete
10
.. Fig. 10.23 Self-compacting concrete used in a

façade. (Image courtesy of Prehorquisa)
.. Fig. 10.22 Anchorage of Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge in
Japan (Okamura and Ouchi 2003)
SCC is different from conventional con-
Japan (. Fig. 10.22). The bridge was opened
crete in that it is highly workable and flows
in April 1998 and is a suspension bridge with through congested reinforcement under its
a span of almost 2 km. The concrete vol- own weight alone, filling the formwork with-
ume in the two anchorages amounted about out segregation of its constituent materials
300,000 m3 and the use of self-compacting with a void-free structure, and can be placed
concrete reduced the anchorage construction without any vibration. It is mainly the employ-
period by 20%. ment of admixtures such as superplasticizers
Self-compacting concrete can be used for and viscosity modifiers and different quanti-
cast-in-place concrete and prefabricated prod- ties of supplementary cementitious materials,
ucts (precast members). SCC has made possi- e.g., fly ash or blast furnace slag—up to 70%
ble to cast concrete structures of a quality of the total powder content, which makes
never achieved with prior concrete technol- SCC different to conventional concrete.
ogy. Examples of cast-in-place applications Required fresh properties of SCC include
are bridges, tanks, tunnels, dams, or high adequate flowability, good passing and filling
buildings whereas fabrication of super span abilities, segregation resistance and stability,
prestressed beams or prefabricated slabs and which are achieved by properly proportioning
square columns are some applications in pre- the constituent materials and related admix-
cast industry. . Figure 10.23 shows an exam-
tures. Mainly due to the advantages of SCC
ple of self-compacting concrete application. over conventional concrete, its utilization is
291 10
.. Fig. 10.24 Comparison between conventional concrete mixture and self-compacting concrete mixture (Kos-
matka and Wilson 2011)
actually very common for precast concrete rials. Being the main objective to achieve its
construction. Although some raw materials defined purpose, SCC mixes contain lower
and chemical admixtures can increase the ini-coarse aggregate contents, higher quantities
of sand, higher amounts of cementitious
tial cost, it is important to note that precast
concrete plants may realize many economic materials (including Portland cement), lower
benefits from utilizing SCC. water/cementitious material ratio, higher
In general, there are two main methods ofsuperplasticizer amounts, and sometimes vis-
manufacturing self-compacting concretes: the cosity modifying admixtures (. Fig. 10.24).
powder method and the admixture method. However, these factors will increase the pos-
In the former, superplasticizers are used in sibility of segregation of fresh mixture. As an
conjunction with very high supplementary example, the increment in the water/cement
cementitious material contents whereas the ratio can improve the flowability of fresh
admixture method is based on the use of the concrete but does harm to the strength of
new generation of superplasticizers. They areharden concrete. As a consequence, efficient
able to provide improved flowability, viscosity,
mixture design of SCC is required to bal-
and cohesion as well as workability retention.
ance the properties of both fresh and hard-
ened concrete. This properties combination
is typically achieved with the following key
10.4.1 Materials Composition mix proportions: “(a) coarse aggregate vol-
and Mix Proportioning umes in the range of 28–34% of the concrete
volume (compared to 40–55% in normal con-
The main components used in self-crete), (b) water/binder ratios in the range
compacting concrete are basically the same 0.3–0.4, and (c) binder contents in the range
as those of typical concrete, but supple- 450–600 kg/m3” (Domone 2010).
mentary admixtures or fine materials can be It is necessary to limit the amount of
essential for achieving the needed rheologi- coarse aggregate in self-compacting concrete
cal characteristics. The most important dif- mixtures in order to prevent blockage and seg-
ference between the two types of concrete regation. Thus, a maximum value of coarse
deals with the proportioning of these mate- aggregate content about 50% of total aggre-
incorporate continuously graded pozzolanic

materials. Fly ash, ground granulated blast
Adding superplastizicer furnace slag (both cementitious and pozzola-
nic material), and silica fume are some of the
components typically used to for producing
Viscosity
self-compacting concrete in order to enhance

strength, workability, durability, flowability as
well as to decrease costs. The roles of these
Adding water
components are the following: “(1) increasing
hydration products and reducing the porosity
of concrete, (2) adjusting grading of the com-
Flowability
ponents to achieve optimum compaction, (3)
.. Fig. 10.25 Role of superplasticizer in self- improving the workability and flowability, (4)
compacting concrete (Han et al. 2017) improving the durability and resistance to
chemical attack, and (5) achieving both eco-
gate content is typically proposed. The maxi- nomic and environmental benefits by partial
mum size of the aggregate is established cement replacement” (Jianxiong et al., 1999).
according to the specific application, being Fillers such as finely crushed limestone or
generally limited to 20 mm in the European dolomite (with particle sizes less than
regulations (EN 206-9 standard). Aggregate 0.125 mm) can be also used to increase the vis-
of size ranging from 10 to 16 mm is desirable cosity of SCC.
for structures having congested reinforce-
10 ment. Moreover, “the grading curve of the
aggregates should be characterized by a high 10.4.2 Properties of the Fresh State
content in fines” (Müller and Haist 2012). It is
possible to elaborate self-compacting concrete An outstanding feature of SCC deals with its
using rounded or crushed aggregates. In the properties in the fresh state, which are quite
latter case, higher paste amount is generally sensitive to changes in the quality and consis-
needed to get similar flow properties. tency of the mixture components, especially
As discussed above, the use of chemical variation in water content. Workability of self-
admixtures is essential to increase workabil- compacting concrete relates to filling ability,
ity and reduce segregation. Superplasticizers passing ability, and segregation resistance.
are an essential component of SCC to pro- These properties are interdependent and
vide necessary workability (. Fig. 10.25). related to each other. Filling ability is the

Segregation resistance of self-compacting capacity of fresh self-compacting concrete for

concrete can also be increased by improving flowing into and fill formwork under the action
concrete viscosity (cohesiveness), which can of gravity while passing ability means that self-
be done utilizing viscosity modifiers. Low compacting concrete may seamlessly flow
dosages of viscosity modifiers can elimi- though narrow openings without b locking and
nate the unwanted bleeding and segregation packing. The segregation resistance, previ-
phenomenon. However, these components ously described in 7 Chap. 9, is the strength of

may not be necessary when incorporating the SCC components to migration or separa-
high powder content and/or well-graded tion, remaining homogeneous during the pro-
aggregates. Other types of chemical admix- cess of transporting and pouring. Because its
tures can incorporated such as air-entrain- components embrace various sizes and densi-
ing agents can be incorporated in order to ties, SCC is highly susceptible to segregation.
improve freeze-thaw resistance or retarders Since the tests for the workability of conven-
for control of setting. tional concrete are not available for self-com-
Another method for increasing concrete pacting concrete, different specific tests have
viscosity and reduce interparticle friction is to been successively developed to verify the per-
293 10
.. Table 10.2 Typical range of values for the most common SCC tests (EFNARC 2002)
Method Unit Typical range of values

Minimum Maximum
1 Slump flow by Abrams cone mm 650 800

2 T50cmslump flow sec 2 5
3 J-ring mm 0 10
4 V-funnel sec 6 12
5 Time increase, V-funnel at T5minutes sec 0 +3
6 L-box (h2/h1) 0,8 1,0
formance of fresh SCC (7 Box 10.3). Each

ability, passing ability, and segregation resis-
test described below fits into one or more of tance. . Table 10.2 shows typical range of val-

the previous commented properties: filling ues for the most common SCC tests.
Box 10.3
Self-Compacting Concrete Test Methods As a consequence, estimating the diameter of

Self-compacting concrete test methods include the concrete circle is a direct measure to char-
principally the slump flow test, V-funnel test, acterize the filling ability of the concrete. For
J-ring test, and L-box test. They are the most an additional measure of flowability, the time
useful and adaptable tests for both the labora- required for the concrete to spread to a diam-
tory and on-site in mix design and quality eter of 50 cm can be measured. This value of
control. In the slump flow test (ASTM C1611, T 50 generally ranges from 2 to 7 seconds and
EN 12350- 8, and ISO 1920-13 standards), shorter times indicate greater flowability.
which utilizes the slump test apparatus used in V-funnel test method (EN 12350-9 and
the conventional concrete (see 7 Chap. 9), a

ISO 1920-13 standards) was developed in
technician lifts the slump cone and measures Japan and uses a V-funnel apparatus
the diameter of the SCC spread (. Fig. 10.26).

(. Fig. 10.27). This method can be used to

This test is used to assess the horizontal free characterize the filling ability of the concrete
flow of SCC in the absence of obstructions. and gives an indication of the viscosity and
any tendency to aggregate bridging and con-
crete blocking at the outlet. The entire funnel
is filled with concrete without tamping or
vibration, being further estimated the time
taken for it to flow through the V-funnel. In
general, the longer the flow time, the more
serious the segregation. For self-compacting
concrete, the flow time should be less than
10 seconds.
The J-ring, as shown in . Fig. 10.28, is an

open steel ring with sixteen evenly spaced

reinforced steel bars attached to the ring. This
test method (ASTM C1621, EN 12350-12,
and ISO 1920-13 standards) is used to check
.. Fig. 10.26 Technician measures the diameter of
the SCC spread. (Image courtesy of LafargeHolcim) the passing ability of self- compacting con-
crete. In this test, the parameters are the maxi- may also be used in conjunction with the
mum diameter and the diameter perpendicular slump flow test method (. Fig. 10.29). Thus,

to the maximum diameter where self-com- the slump cone is placed in the center of the
pacting concrete finishes flowing. J-ring test J-ring and filled with concrete. The slump
cone is lifted and concrete is allowed to spread
horizontally through the gaps between the
bars. The difference value between the slump
flow and the average value of the two diame-
ters commented above is termed the passing
ability indicator. Blocking of coarse aggre-
10
.. Fig. 10.27 V-funnel apparatus. (Image courtesy .. Fig. 10.28 J-ring. (Image courtesy of Lafarge
of LafargeHolcim) Holcim)
.. Fig. 10.29 J-ring test method used in conjunction with the slump flow test method (Kosmatka and
Wilson 2011)
10.5 · Lightweight Concrete
295 10
gates around the steel bars can be visually

detected using this test.
The L-box test includes an alternate
method of determining flow and passing abil-
ity of SCC mixtures, being used mainly in
Europe (EN 12350-10 and ISO 1920-13 stan-
dards). L-box (. Fig. 10.30) consists of a

rectangular section box in the shape of an L

with a vertical and horizontal section, sepa-
rated by a moveable gate, in front of which
there are three vertical lengths of reinforced
bar. In this method, fresh concrete is placed
without consolidating and lifting the slide gate
allows the concrete to flow past the bars into
the horizontal trough. Measuring the time
taken to reach 200 mm and 400 mm at hori-
zontal section defines T200 and T400, respec-
tively, which are taken as indicators to
characterize the filling ability of
SCC. Recording the height of the concrete of
the horizontal section when the flow stops led
.. Fig. 10.30 L-box. (Image courtesy of Lafarge-
to analyze passing ability of the SCC.
Holcim)
10.5 Lightweight Concrete constructions using this type of concrete are

present in the Mediterranean region although
According to ASTM F141 standard, light- the most notable structures were built during
weight concrete is “a concrete with a density the early Roman Empire. Some of these struc-
of less than 1,840 kg/m3.” In contrast, light- tures include the Port of Cosa, the Pantheon
weight concrete is defined in ISO 22965-1 Dome, and the Coliseum. After fall of the
standard as “concrete having an oven-dry Roman Empire, lightweight concrete use was
density of not less than 800 kg/m3 and not limited until the twentieth century when a
more than 2000 kg/m3” (it is produced using new type of manufactured expanded shale
lightweight aggregate for all or part of the LWA became available for commercial use.
total aggregate). For its part, EN standards Lightweight concretes can be produced with
do not include any reference to lightweight “an over-dry density range of approximately
concrete although EN 13055 standard consid- 300 to a maximum of 2,000 kg/m3, with cor-
ers the term lightweight aggregate (LWA). responding compression strength from about
This standard points out that lightweight 1 to over 60 MPa, and thermal conductivities
aggregate is a “granular material of mineral of 0.2–1.o W/mK” (Newman and Owens
origin having a particle density not exceeding 2003). The properties of lightweight concrete
2000 kg/m3 or a loose bulk density not exceed- allow it to be used as a primarily structural
ing 1200 kg/m3; lightweight aggregate can be material as well as its incorporation into
natural, manufactured from natural sources, structures with improved thermal insulation.
manufactured from by-products or recycled Lightweight concrete is thus principally used
source materials and by-product aggregates.” for thermal insulation, lightweight construc-
The first known use of lightweight con- tion, precast products, leveling concrete, and
crete dates back over 2000 years. Different infill concretes.
The methods used for manufacturing

lightweight concrete can be categorized into
three groups: (a) lightweight aggregate con-
crete: substituting, either completely or par-
tially, natural aggregates in a concrete mixture
with aggregates including a large amount of
voids, (b) no-fines concrete: removing the
finer fraction of common weight aggregate for
creating air-filled voids, and (c) aerated or cel-
lular concrete: incorporating gas bubbles in a
cement paste to form a cellular structure con-
taining a large proportion of voids (about
30–50%).
10.5.1 Lightweight Aggregate

.. Fig. 10.31 Sample of lightweight concrete using
Concrete expanded clay
Porous lightweight aggregate of low specific with remarkably similar chemical composi-
gravity is used in lightweight concrete. High tion and texture, e.g., expanded clay: 7 Box
porosity, which results in low specific gravity, 10.4. They have commonly a ceramic-like
is a major feature of lightweight aggregate. As dense matrix with included air voids and most
10 discussed before, lightweight aggregate can be have a relatively dense exterior shell with a
natural (e.g., pumice and several other materi- more voided interior (. Fig. 10.31). These

als of volcanic origin), manufactured from manufactured lightweight aggregates are

natural sources, from by-products or from commonly free from deleterious chemical, not
recycled source materials and by-product inducing harmful reactions. Lightweight
aggregates. After processing using different aggregates used in structural lightweight con-
techniques, a variety of materials such as clay, crete must comply with the requirements of
shale, or slate produce lightweight aggregates ASTM C330/330 M standard.
Box 10.4
Expanded Clay that has been used during more than 50 years,
Lightweight aggregates are used in many being suitable for a wide range of applications
industries due to its numerous advantages in in the construction sector.
comparison with many other materials. In this The expanded clay aggregates are spheri-
sense, Light Weight Expanded Clay Aggregate cal in shape and are brown in color with an
(LECA) is one of the materials with the great- internal black core. This is attributed to the
est compressive strength among lightweight carbon content and the oxidation state of
aggregates. LECA is a manufactured and arti- iron. “The microstructure is smooth but, on
ficial lightweight aggregate. In the manufac- the micro-scale, it is relatively rough with
turing process, after heating at 1150 °C in a open pores, being the structure of the pores
rotary kiln, the clay expanded to about four to about 10–200 μm in size; the specific gravity
five times its original size and took the shape of expanded clay range from 0.66 g/cm3 to
of pellets. As a consequence, 1 m3 of fresh clay 1.65 g/cm3, being this specific gravity about
produces 5 m3 of durable, expanded clay. 20–45% less than that of the normal aggre-
Expanded clay is a well-proven, high-quality, gates” (Vijayalakshmi and Ramanagopal
efficient, and durable lightweight aggregate 2018).
297 10
.. Fig. 10.32 Clay quarry. (Image courtesy of Leca

Danmark AS)
.. Fig. 10.34 Inside burning zone. (Image courtesy

of Leca Danmark AS)
(. Fig. 10.34): in the next part of the kiln

(the burning kiln), the clay is heated to

1150 °C initiating the expansion process and
creating light round lightweight clay pellets,
which have a hard ceramic shell and a porous
core; after passing through the kiln, the
expanded clay is cooled: a correct cooling
process is essential to insure a high-quality
.. Fig. 10.33 Clay barn. (Image courtesy of Leca product, which also significantly improves
Danmark AS) the energy performance (as the hot clay cools,
cold air is warmed and this heated air is used
According to LECA (a Saint-Gobain to dry, heat and expand the clay in the kiln),
Brand), the eight steps in expanded clay man- (f) sifting: when the lightweight aggregate
ufacturing process are the following: “(a) clay pellets are taken out of the kiln, they are
clay extraction: clay is extracted from quar- placed in a sieve system that divides them
ries (. Fig. 10.32) usually located close to
into different fractions based on their grain
the plants, thus keeping haulage costs and size, and (g) packing: in the last process, the
carbon emissions to a minimum; the clay is lightweight aggregate clay pellets
brought into the clay barn (. Fig. 10.33)
(. Fig. 10.35) are packed into bags or filled

after separating larger stones from the clay, directly onto the trucks and ships.”
(b) crushing: the smaller stones are crushed In the construction industry, LECA is
and the clay is pressed through small holes, used extensively in the production of light-
(c) kneading: the clay is kneaded with a bit of weight concrete blocks. It can be also used as
water to make processing easier (d) drying: both a sound and thermal insulation material.
clay runs through the drying kiln, where the If LECA is used in structural backfill against
water is evaporated and the clay is heated to foundations, retaining walls, and bridge abut-
400 °C; this is where the expanded clay pel- ments, the reducing earth pressure can reach
lets get their specific size dimensions (e.g., values of 75% compared with conventional
0–4 mm, 4–10 mm, 10–20 mm) as the clay materials and increasing stability while reduc-
cracks into smaller particles, (e) burning ing settlement and land deformation.
.. Fig. 10.35 Expanded clay after burning and further LECA stock (ball size about 1 cm). (Image cour-
tesy of Leca Danmark AS)
10.5.2 No-Fines Concrete
No-fines concrete (sometimes termed porous

concrete or open-textured concrete) is light-
weight concrete just consisting of coarse
10 aggregate, cement and water, fines being com-
pletely omitted, so that the concrete has high
permeability and drainage capacity. This com-
bination of components results in each parti-
cle of aggregate being coated with a layer (up
to approximately 1.3 mm) of cement paste,
generating point to point contacts and leaving
interstitial voids (. Fig. 10.36). The nature

of no-fines concrete is such that it has a rela-

tively high proportion of interconnected voids
although practically no fine capillary pores,
which produces a porous open-textured con-
crete with diminished density, strength, and
shrinkage. If conventional aggregates are
used, no-fines concrete shows density values
ranging from 1200 to 1900 kg/m3, but when it
is prepared by using lightweight aggregate its
density can reach 800 kg/m3 or even less. The .. Fig. 10.36 No-fines concrete. (Image courtesy of
compressive strength of no-fines concrete LafargeHolcim)
ranges from 1.4 MPa to about 10 MPa.
. Table 10.3 shows common properties of
eral, the no-fines mix will be only about two-
no-fines concrete produced with lightweight thirds of the weight of a dense concrete
and normal-weight aggregates. Since no-fines produced with the same type of aggregates.
concrete is characterized by evenly distribut- Coarse aggregates should preferentially be a
ing voids, it is not appropriate for reinforced single-size material with nominal maximum
or prestressed concrete construction. sizes between 10 and 20 mm. Any aggregate
No-fines concrete density depends on the free from clay and/or dust and rounded or
type and grading of the aggregate but, in gen- roughly cubical in shape can be used for no-
299 10
Portland cement, cement-silica, cement-
.. Table 10.3 Typical properties of no-fines
pozzolan, lime-pozzolan, or lime-silica pastes,
concrete made with normal-weight and light-
weight aggregates (Newman and Owens 2003)
or pastes containing blends of these ingredi-
ents and having a homogeneous void or cell
Item Normal- Lightweight structure, attained with gas-forming chemi-
weight aggregate cals or foaming agents (for cellular concretes
aggregate containing binder ingredients other than, or
in addition to Portland cement, autoclave cur-
Aggregate/ 6–10 3–8
cement ratio ing is usually used).” In cellular concrete, the
(by mass) density control is achieved by substituting
macroscopic air cells for all or part of the fine
Water/cement 0.38–0.45 0.38–045
ratio (by mass) aggregate. Normal-weight coarse aggregate is
usually not used but lightweight aggregates,
Air dry density 1200–1900 800–1400
both fine and coarse, are often used in cellular
(kg/m3)
concrete. Although it is called concrete, it is
Cube strength 3–7 3–7 not properly concrete but a mixture of water,
(MPa)
cement, and crushed sand. Concretes showing
these features may be subdivided into two
principal groups based on the manufacturing
fines concrete. Washed gravel and crushed methods: foamed concrete (nonautoclaved
limestone are ideal aggregates. Aggregates aerated concrete) and autoclaved aerated
containing soft, friable, thin, flaky, elongated, concrete.
or laminated pieces should not be used. No- 55 Foamed Concrete
fines concrete is commonly produced using the
aggregate/cement ratios ranging from 6:1 to This type of concrete is manufactured by
10:1. The water/cement ratio for satisfactory injecting preformed stable foam from a foam
consistency will range between 0.38 and 0.52. generator or by adding a synthetic- or protein-
Some advantages of no-fines concrete are based specific air-entraining admixture,
the following: (a) since it does not incorporate termed foaming agent, into a base mixture of
fine aggregates, it has less drying shrinkage Portland cement paste. The first method is
compared to conventional concrete, (b) it has commonly applied in precast concrete facto-
better thermal insulating characteristic than ries while the second one is mainly used for
conventional concrete because of the presence in situ concrete. In both methods, foam must
of large voids, being consequently adequate be stable during mixing, transporting, and
for construction of external walls, and (c) the placing. Thus, foam agent is the most essen-
surface area needed for cement coating is tial influence on the foamed concrete and the
clearly diminished; thus, the quantity of properties of foamed concrete are critically
cement needed is reduced and the final prod- dependent upon the quality of the foam. This
uct is less expensive. is because the foam agent produces, where
added into the mix water, discrete bubbles cav-
ities that become incorporated in the cement
10.5.3 Aerated or Cellular Concrete paste. As a consequence, the foamed concrete
has more than 25% in air content.
Concretes containing intentionally entrained Foamed concrete is produced by either
voids in the hardened cement paste or mortar prefoaming or mixed foaming methods. The
matrix to constitute a cellular structure of low prefoaming method involves the separate pro-
density are termed aerated, cellular, gas, duction of a base mix cement slurry (cement
foamed, or foam concretes. ASTM C796/ paste or mortar) and a stably preformed aque-
C796M standard points out that cellular con- ous (foam agent with water), and the further
crete is “a lightweight product consisting of blending of this foam into a base mix. In the
tious product based on calcium silicate

hydrates in which low density is attained by
the inclusion of an agent resulting in macro-
scopic voids, and in which curing is carried
out using high pressure steam.” It is manufac-
tured with the addition, in a predetermined
quantity, of aluminum powder and other
additives into a slurry of pulverized siliceous
material, cement or lime, and water. Aluminum
powder is commonly used to generate the
product by a chemical reaction although pow-
dered zinc can also be added in place of alu-
minum powder. The reaction forms hydrogen
.. Fig. 10.37 Cellular (foamed) concrete used as geo- bubbles that expand the mortar as macro-
technical infill in a bridge structure. (Image courtesy of pores with a diameter of 0.5–1.5 mm, so that
Cellular Concrete Inc)
when concrete sets it contains a large number
of gas bubbles. As a rule, powder of alumi-
num is used as a foaming agent in AAC pro-
duction all over the world, being broadly
proven as the best solution for its purpose.
The aluminum powder is added in quantities
ranging from 0.2 to 0.5% by dry weight of
10 cement.
In AAC production, fine aggregates (e.g.,
silica sand) and lime are mixed with cement.
Water is then added to the mixture leading to
the onset of hydration of cement and further
formation of bonds between fine aggregates
and the cement paste. After mixing, the
expansion agent (for instance aluminum pow-
der) is added to the mixture to increment the
volume. The increase represents 2–5 times the
original paste volume. Aluminum powder
reacts both with calcium hydroxide and alka-
.. Fig. 10.38 Cellular (foamed) concrete pumped on lis, causing the formation of microscopic air
the roof of a building. (Image courtesy of Cellular Con-
crete Inc)
bubbles that result in increasing of paste vol-
ume. AAC in generally produced in block or
panel form for construction of residential or
mixed foaming method, the surface active commercial buildings.
agent is mixed with the base mixture ingredi-
ents. Foam is produced during the process of
mixing, resulting in a cellular structure in con- 10.5.4 Heavyweight Concrete
crete. . Figure 10.37 shows cellular (foamed)

concrete used as geotechnical fill for a bridge EN 206-1 and ISO 22965-1 standards define
approach. . Figure 10.38 shows cellular
heavyweight concrete (. Fig. 10.1) as “con-

(foamed) concrete pumped on the roof of a crete having an oven-dry density greater than
building. 2600 kg/m3.” Heavyweight concrete differs
55 Autoclaved Aerated Concrete from normal-weight concrete by having a
higher density and special compositions to
According to ASTM C1232 standard, auto- improve its properties (e.g., attenuation prop-
claved aerated concrete (AAC) is “a cementi- erty). For the adequate shielding of the radio-
10.6 · Sprayed Concrete
301 10
logical equipment using X- and gamma rays, sprayed concrete as “a concrete applied under
special materials with high attenuation proper- pressure through a nozzle delivered through
ties are needed. Thus, in applications of con- pipes.” EN 14487-1 standard states that
crete for shielding against hazardous radiation sprayed concrete is a “concrete produced with
(medical or nuclear), counterweights and other basic mix and projected pneumatically from
applications where a high mass-to- volume nozzle into place to produce a dense homoge-
ratio is desired, the most significant method of neous mass by its own momentum.” According
mix design involves the use of heavyweight ASTM C125, shotcrete “is a concrete that is
aggregates. Lead and heavyweight concrete are projected pneumatically at high velocity onto
widely used for this purpose but heavyweight a surface shotcrete” and this standard also
concrete is more preferable especially in terms distinguishes between dry-mix shotcrete
of cost. As a consequence, the heavyweight “shotcrete in which most of the mixing water
concrete is a concrete type characterized by the is added at the nozzle” and wet-mix shotcrete
property of high radiation shielding. The “shotcrete in which most of the ingredients,
increase of the density also increases the radia- including water, are mixed before introduc-
tion protection capability of the concrete. tion into the delivery hose.”
Heavyweight concrete contains aggregates In general, the use of sprayed concrete
that can be natural or synthetic. Ilmenite, involves a decrease in the maximum particle
magnetite, barite, limonite-goethite, and arti- grading to 8–10 mm, an increment in the
ficial aggregates such as ferrosilicon, steel cement content as well as utilization of several
aggregate, e.g., sheared bars, or lead particles admixtures to control the properties of the
are commonly used as heavyweight aggregate material. Low content of cement can generate
(aggregate having an oven-dry particle den- inadequate strength and durability while high
sity ≥ 3000 kg/m3). For instance, using barites content of cement can cause excessive shrink-
the density will be approximately 3500 kg/m3, age and thermal cracking by the heat of hydra-
which is 45% greater than that of convention. Common cementitious content ranging
tional concrete, while by using magnetite the from 400 to 450 kg/m3, depending on the spray-
density will be about 3900 kg/m3. Extremely ing process and the shotcrete requirements.
heavy concretes are performed with iron In the sprayed concrete application pro-
aggregates, density reaching up to 6000 kg/m3 cess, particle sizes of up to 8 mm offer advan-
or more. Cement contents and water/cement tages; a maximum aggregate size of 10 mm
ratios are similar to those for conventional has been suggested. The use of finer sand will
concrete. On the contrary, aggregate/cement generally result in greater drying shrinkage
ratios must be significantly higher, due to the and coarser sand in more rebound. Thus,
higher density of the aggregates. coarse aggregate to fine aggregate ratio is one
of the most important parameters in the shot-
crete mix design, which is represented by
10.6 Sprayed Concrete aggregate packing density. Total aggregate
content consists of approximately 20–30%
Sprayed concrete means that the concrete is coarse aggregate and 70–80% fine aggregate.
sprayed into place, in contrast to the more The inherent moisture quantity of the aggre-
conventionally used pouring or placing into gate fraction in the mix should not exceed 6%.
formwork. The method was developed in 1911 This is because efficient flow rate is greatly
and the concept remains essentially unchanged decreased by clogging and the risk of block-
even in today’s use. According to the Sprayed ages is incremented. A typical water/cement
Concrete Association, other names used ratio of 0.4–0.5 is recommended and it can be
include gunite, shot concrete, and shotcrete. further reduced using appropriate water-
The term shotcrete is broadly used in the reducing admixtures.
United States while sprayed concrete is a usual Supplementary cementitious materials are
term in Europe. ISO 16311-4 standard defines used in sprayed concrete for a variety of
requirements: “(a) to supplement the fines bal-

ance ≤ 0.125 mm (filler), (b) to improve spe-
cific durability properties (strength/resistance
to solvent or driving forces), (c) to increase the
water retention capacity, (d) to reduce the
pump pressure during delivery (lubricant), (e)
to substitute parts of cement (cost optimiza-
tion), and (f) to accelerate (high early
strength)” (Höfler et al. 2011). Pozzolana in
shotcrete improves the strength and durability
properties through either purely physical
effects or physico-chemical effects, resulting in
.. Fig. 10.39 Spraying shotcrete onto the walls of a
a pore-size and grain-size reduction phenom- drift underground at Snap Lake Mine (Canada). (Image
ena. It has been suggested a range from 7 to courtesy of De Beers)
10% (maximum 15%) for the replacement of
cement by silica fume. The dosage of fly ash
and slag shall be as per the design requirement pools” (Höfler et al. 2011). In terms of impor-
of the project although the maximum replace- tance, tunneling and mining (. Fig. 10.39)

ment shall not exceed 30%. head the list.

Concrete admixtures are also added to
sprayed concrete during the spraying process
for regulating the beginning of setting. They 10.7 Stamped Concrete
10 are added in an approximate range of 0.5–
7.0% of the cement or binder weight, which As explained at the beginning of the chapter,
gives admixture quantities of 2–32 kg/m3. stamped concrete, often also called textured
Along with the shotcrete accelerator, the high- or imprinted concrete, is not exactly a special
range water reducer (superplasticizer) is the concrete but rather a type on concrete used in
most important concrete admixture in wet pavement applications. Thus, stamping
sprayed concrete. Concrete admixtures are implies addition of a pattern to the surface of
generally incorporated into the concrete dur- a newly poured concrete pavement. Stamped
ing its production at the mixing plant except- concrete replicates stones such as slate and
ing the shotcrete accelerator, which is adding flagstone, tile, brick, and even wood, being
immediately before spraying. widely used in pool decks, driveways, entries,
Sprayed concrete construction is used in patios, courtyards, etc. (. Fig. 10.40).

many different types of project. It can be With regard to concrete requirements for
applied in places where other methods of stamping, the needed concrete mix depends
delivery are difficult or impossible. The fol- on depth of the stamped pattern. If an area is
lowing uses are widespread: “(a) excavation intended primarily for vehicular traffic or if
stabilization in tunneling and underground the grooves are to be grouted, the desired pat-
construction, (b) tunnel and underground tern penetration may be as much as 2 cm.
chamber lining, (c) stabilization in mine and Embedding a stamping tool to a depth of
gallery construction, (d) concrete repair (con- 0.5 cm or more requires minimal interference
crete replacement and strengthening), (e) res- from coarse aggregate. Concrete with a 10 mm
toration of historic buildings (stone maximum-size aggregate works best and
structures), (f) sealing works, (g) slope and enables to achieve a uniform imprint depth. In
trenching stabilization; (h) protective lining, sidewalks or other areas with a lot of pedes-
(i) wearing courses, (j) special lightweight trian traffic, concrete with maximum-size
load-bearing structures, (k) creative applica- aggregate ranging from 15 to 20 mm can be
tions, and (l) construction of swimming used. Entrained air admixture is essential for
10.7 · Stamped Concrete
303 10
.. Fig. 10.40 Examples of stamped concrete
concrete that will be exposed to freezing and such as rubber or urethane mats are molded
thawing. Retarders are sometimes used to into shapes and impressed with a surface tex-
extend the period during which concrete can ture. The set of mats fit together allowing to
be stamped. Admixtures containing calcium impress a continuous pattern onto the pave-
chloride cannot be used in colored stamped ment. The mats consist of a deep impression
concrete because calcium chloride causes dis- that outlines a shape such as rocks, pavers,
coloration. and timber boards. Sealer is added to achieve
Along with the concrete, the basic compo- the high gloss look of stamped concrete.
nents of stamped concrete are the color hard- While not chemical resistant, sealer provides
ener, the colored release agent, the stamped protection from contaminants such as petrol
impression mat, and the sealer. Color hard- and oil.
ener is a dry shake, surface color system used According to the instructions of the com-
as the base or main color. A variety of fin- pany Maximus Concrete (USA), the basics
ishes can be obtained from smooth to rough steps to stamp concrete the following: “(a)
texture. Some level of slip resistance can be subgrade preparation: it must be well-
achieved if needed. Colored release agents compacted which will help prevent drainage
have a dual function: (a) when impressed into and can prevent soil erosion under the con-
the concrete, the release agent colors or stains crete, (b) placing the forms: forms made
the deeper impressed areas creating the two from wood, metal, or plastic are attached to
toned look, and (b) a water-resistant wax stakes to contain the concrete in the area
coating that stops the stamp mats from stick- desired, (c) installing reinforcement: using
ing to the concrete. Stamped impression mats steel reinforcing bars or welded wire mesh is
10.8 Questions
??Short Questions
55 Define special concrete.
55 What is the aspect ratio of a fiber in fiber-
reinforced concrete?
55 What are the main goals to use fibers in
fiber-reinforced concrete?
55 What is the difference between high-
performance concrete and high-strength
concrete?
55 What is the single most important variable
.. Fig. 10.41 Main steps in the stamping concrete pro- in achieving high-strength concrete and its
cess. (Illustration courtesy of Creation Sud) most common value?
55 Summarize the manufacturing process of
critical to providing structural function and silica fume.
support in the slab; the main reasons to 55 Define self-compacting concrete.
include reinforcement in the slab is to help 55 Enumerate the most important test methods
control cracking, provide structural capac- used in self-compacting concrete.
ity, increase impact resistance, and reduce 55 Define lightweight concrete.
joint maintenance, (d) placing the concrete: 55 Explain the term expanded clay.
the most common method for placing con- 55 Define cellular concrete
10 crete is to have the ready-mix truck pull up 55 What is the difference between foamed
to the placement area and deposit the con- concrete and autoclaved aerated concrete?
crete from the chute, (e) finishing the con- 55 Enumerate the types of aggregate used in
crete: this step, immediately following heavyweight concrete.
concrete placement, is essential, (f) applying 55 List the main applications of heavyweight
color: there are multiple ways to color con- concrete.
crete for stamping, (g) stamping process: the 55 What means sprayed concrete?
window of time in which to stamp is gener-
ally short, especially in warm weather, (h)
curing stamped concrete: to retain sufficient ??Long Questions
moisture content for a long enough time to 55 Explain the manufacturing process of
allow the necessary properties of the con- expanded clay.
crete to develop, (i) installing control joints: 55 Explain the materials composition and mix
to prevent cracking in concrete, and (j) seal- proportioning of self-compacting concrete.
ing stamped concrete: the stamped concrete
installation is not complete without the
application of a sealer, being this process the References
final step and one of the most important; a
sealer will help enrich the color of concrete, Altun F, Haktanir T, Ari K (2006) Effects of steel fiber
will add a sheen to the surface (ranging from addition on mechanical properties of concrete and
satin to high gloss), reduces the chance that RC beams. Constr Build Mater 21:654–661
Ardanuy M, Claramunt J, Toledo RD (2015) Cellulosic
efflorescence will discolor the surface, and fiber reinforced cement-based composites: a review
blocks penetration of stains from dirt, chem- of recent research. Constr Build Mater 79:115–128
icals, leaves, and etcetera.” . Figure 10.41 is
Balázs GL (2012) Fibers in concrete structures. In:
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in summarized form. in concrete construction. Springer Science+Business
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EFNARC (2002) Specification and guidelines for self- Relating to Resilient Floor Coverings
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10
307 11
Mortars
Contents
11.3 Classification – 309
11.4 Components – 310

11.4.1 ggregates – 311
A
11.4.2 Cementitious Materials – 312
11.4.3 Admixtures – 314
11.4.4 Fibers and Pigments – 315
11.4.5 Water – 317
11.4.6 Mix Proportions – 317
11.5 Properties – 317

11.5.1 roperties of Fresh/Plastic Mortar – 317
P
11.5.2 Properties of Hardened Mortars – 320
11.6 Mortar Testing – 323

11.6.1 T ests for Fresh Mortar Properties – 323
11.6.2 Tests for Hardened Mortar Properties – 325
11.7 Dry Mortar Production – 326
11.8 Mortar Types – 329

11.8.1 asonry Mortar – 329
M
11.8.2 Rendering Mortar – 331
11.8.3 Technical Mortars – 334
References – 335

308 Chapter 11 · Mortars
a rich quality, when added to the lime and

Summary straw, its great strength does not suffer it to
This chapter discusses mortars for the dry without cracks.” After the Roman Empire,
building and construction industry. As in mortar technologies were partially lost
the case of concrete, mortar is manufactured because of the convoluted period of the west-
by mixing aggregates, cementitious ern European history. An exception was the
materials, water, and admixtures and use of mortars during the Muslim civilization
additives if required. Definitions dealing when lime and gypsum were mixed as binders
with mortars are first presented, followed and great quality mortars were performed;
by the principal methods to classify types those mortars have survived to this day as in
of mortars. Description of constituent the case of several Muslim palaces in Spain
materials of mortar is then carried out, (. Fig. 11.1).

including some data about mix proportions The discovery of cement had the advan-
of the mortar constituents. Further tage of allowing manufacturing mortars with
headings are devoted to properties and tests much greater strength and quick setting.
of mortars, with emphasis on the most Mortars were used up to the 1950s exclusively
important properties of both fresh and as job-site-mixed mortars (. Fig. 11.2). Thus,

hardened mortars. The chapter continues the mineral binders and aggregates were
with a brief description of the dry mix transported in a separate form to the work site
mortar production process, including raw
material storage, dosing, and mixing. The
main types of mortars, i.e., masonry and
rendering, are discussed in an abbreviated
form at the end of the chapter.
11
11.1 Introduction
The earliest documented utilization of mor-

tar, a mix of sand, binder, and water, was
around 4000 B.C.; the use of that primitive
mortar is mentioned several times in the bible
(e.g., Deuteronomy 27:2—set up large stones .. Fig. 11.1 The Alhambra is one of the most famous
and coat them with plaster). Thus, mortars Muslim palaces in Spain and includes mortars in its
decoration
have a long tradition of thousands of years.
For instance, gypsum-based mortar was
already used in Egyptian times. Hydraulic-
setting mortar based on pozzolans (powdered
volcanic ash—see 7 Chap. 6) has probably

been known for over 3000 years; it was used in

huge quantities by the ancient Phoenicians,
Greeks, and Romans. Romans developed
structural applications of mortar using lime
as cementitious material. The architect
Vitruvius, contemporary of Julius Caesar,
stated that “in buildings of rubble work it is
of the first importance that the sand be fit for
mixing with the lime and unalloyed with
earth” and “though pit sand is excellent for
mortar, it is unfit for plastering for being such .. Fig. 11.2 Job-site-mixed mortar
11.3 · Classification
309 11
tee involved. For instance, ASTM C219 stan-
dard (committee on cement) defines mortar as
“a mixture of finely divided hydraulic cementi-
tious material, fine aggregate, and water in
either the unhardened or hardened state;
hydraulic mortar,” ASTM C1180 standard
(committee on mortars and grouts for unit
masonry) states that mortar is “a mixture con-
sisting of cementitious materials, fine aggre-
gate, water, with or without admixtures, that
is used to construct unit masonry assemblies,”
ASTM C11 standard (committee on gypsum
and related building materials and systems)
.. Fig. 11.3 Modern automated factory to manufac- defines mortar as “a mixture of gypsum plas-
ture factory-made mortar. (Image courtesy of Weber ter with aggregate or hydrate lime, or both,
Saint-Gobain)
and water to produce a trowelable fluidity,”
and for ASTM E1602, standard (committee
and later mixed together by hand in the ade- on performance of buildings) mortar is “a
quate proportions. The search of better per- mixture of cementitious materials (consisting
formance, workability, and durability for the of Portland or blended cement and hydrated
mortars led to an absolute substitution of lime, masonry cement, masonry cement and
work site mixed mortars by factory-made Portland cement, or masonry cement and
ones in the countries of the Western world blended cement), fine aggregate, and sufficient
since the 1960s. The introduction of dry mix water to produce a workable consistency.”
mortar technology and the use of silo trans- The most simple definition is probably
port and machine application of mortars that of ASTM A1096/A1096M standard
made it possible that from 1960 to present the (committee on steel, stainless steel, and related
amount of mortar applications incremented alloys), which defines mortar as “a mixture of
exponentially. cement, fine aggregate, and water.” ISO 6707-1
Nowadays, factory-made mortars are standard considers mortars as “a mixture of
manufactured in modern automated factories binder, fine aggregate, and water, which hard-
(. Fig. 11.3), affording providing hundreds

ens and which is normally used as a jointing
of mortar types for all types of applications product.” Finally, EN 998-1 and EN 998-2
with a warranty for continued quality and standards definition of mortar is also quite
performance. Construction mortars “show simple: “mixture formed by one or more inor-
various uses and may be associated with either ganic binders, aggregates, water, and some-
traditional technologies or competitive new times admixtures and additives.”
technologies that thrive to answer the present
demands at the construction works or even
integrating maintenance and rehabilitation 11.3 Classification
activities” (Flores-Colen and de Brito 2015).
Classification of mortars can be carried out
according to different concepts such as com-
11.2 Definitions position, properties, requirements, production
method, supply method, applications, etc.
Since mortar has numerous applications in Thus, dependent on the binder materials of
building and construction, there are many dif- mortars, these are classified into cement mor-
ferent definitions of this term although often tars, hydraulic lime mortars, air lime mortars,
with similar meanings. Thus, ASTM stan- gypsum mortars, and composite mortars (dif-
dards include more than 10 definitions of ferent binders mixed together, e.g., cement
terms with mortar word based on the commit- and lime). Classification utilizing require-
ments embraces the manufacture of mortars nal use, renovation, and thermal insulating.
that are prepared specifically for the customer, Taking into account the location of finished
with the aim of obtaining the needed charac- manufacture, industrial mortar (factory-made
teristics (performance) and the composition type) is dosed and mixed in a factory; the
and proportion of their different components product can be dry, which is ready mixed only
(prescription or recipe). Industrial mortars needing the addition of water, and wet, which
can be divided into dry mortar in silos, dry is provided ready to use. Semi-finished type is
mortar in bags (. Fig. 11.4), and wet mortar
a mortar whose ingredients are fully factory
depending on their supply method. According dosed and transported to the site where they
to their use in building and construction, will be used, mixed in accordance to the manu-
mortars can be applied as masonry, plaster- facturer’s specifications and conditions. Site
ing, rendering, paving, repairing works made type is a mortar composed of compo-
(. Fig. 11.5), waterproofing, etc.
nents batched and mixed on site. Related to (b)
EN 998-1 and EN 998-2 standards classify method, designed mortar is a “mortar whose
mortars in the following three different ways: composition and manufacturing method is
(a) according to locations of finished manu- selected by the producer in order to achieve
facture (production method): factory made, specified properties (performance concept)”
semi-finished, and site made; (b) according to and prescribed mortar is a “mortar made in
concept: designed and prescribed; and (c) pre-determined proportions the properties of
according to properties and uses: general pur- which are assumed from the stated propor-
pose, lightweight, colored, one coat for exter- tions, of the constituents (recipe concept).”
11.4 Components
11
Mortars are made of primary components
that will produce the best combination of
mortar properties for the intended service
conditions. As in the case of concrete (see
7 Chap. 9), mortar is made of mixing aggre-

gates, cementitious materials, water, and

admixtures and additives if required. The
main differences between concrete and mortar
components are the types of cementitious
.. Fig. 11.4 Bags of dry mortar. (Image courtesy of materials and the aggregate size. Cementitious
Grupo Cementos Portland Valderrivas) materials in mortars can include several types
of binders while concrete can only incorpo-
rate cement as a binder. Regarding their size,
mortar aggregates commonly use only fine
aggregate (sand) while concrete is produced
by using fine and coarse aggregate (gravel).
Current dry mortars are formed by more
ingredients than those mixed immediately on
the site in the past. In general, the simplest
formulations correspond to mortars for
masonry and low-quality tile adhesives while
highly sophisticated and high-performance
mortars such as self-leveling floor underlay-
ment (. Fig. 11.6) and decorative plasters

.. Fig. 11.5 Mortar for repairing works may contain up to 20 different components.
11.4 · Components
311 11
.. Fig. 11.6 Floor screed (self-leveling) mortar. (Image

courtesy of Miguel Martín)
11.4.1 Aggregates
Aggregates for mortars consist of natural or

manufactured sand (calcic, dolomitic, or sili- .. Fig. 11.7 Sieving aggregates for mortar manufactur-
ceous), which is the main constituent of mor- ing. (Image courtesy of Grupo Cementos Portland
tars because it accounts for at least 75% of the Valderrivas)
mortar volume. Sand acts as inert filler, offer-
ing economy, workability, and reduced shrink-
age as well as influencing the compressive mortar, and components that can affect the
strength of the mortar. Some screeds incorpo- finish of the mortar and its mechanical
rate coarse aggregate (usually 10 mm maxi- strength and hardness. Moreover, in this type
mum size) but typically sand is the major of mortars sand should have a maximum size
constituent. Sand particles are bonded appropriate to the thickness and finish of each
together as the paste hardens to afford the coat. It is important to note that an excess of
needed structural properties. The quality of fine particles increment the requirement for
the sand is controlled by several factors such water and consequently the mortar shrinkage
as mean particle size, grading (. Fig. 11.7), increases in the drying process. The excess of
impurities, shape, and texture. Aggregates fines also reduces the adherence of the mortar,
have a notable influence on mortar properties so that a risk of microcracking exists.
in both fresh and hardened state. In some The European standard EN 13139 speci-
cases, lightweight aggregate such as perlite, fies “the properties of aggregates and filler
vermiculite, expanded clay, and pumice are aggregates obtained by processing natural,
commonly used as additional aggregates with manufactured, or recycled materials and mix-
the aim to decrease the density of the mortar tures of the aggregates for use in masonry
and to increase its insulation properties. Due mortars (. Fig. 11.8), floor/screed mortars,

to their low density (usually ranging from 90 surfacing of internal walls (plastering mor-
to 500 kg/m3), just few percent by weight of tar), rendering of external walls (. Fig. 11.9),

these lightweight aggregate types is added to special bedding materials, repair mortar, and
the mixture. grouts for buildings, roads, and civil engineer-
In plastering and rendering mortars, the ing works,” Natural sands usually generate
cleaning of the sand is essential. The sand mortars that are more workable than those
aggregate must be free of clay materials, produced using manufactured sands. This
organic matter, and compounds, e.g., iron sul- standard enumerates the prevailed aggregate
fides, that will decrease the durability of the sizes for mortar (0/1 mm, 0/2 mm, 0/4 mm,
.. Table 11.1 Fine aggregate gradation to be

used in masonry mortars (ASTM C144 standard)
Aggregate size (mm) % Pass
4.75 100
2.36 95 a100
1.18 70 a 100
0.600 40 a 75
0.300 10 a 35
0.150 2 a 15
.. Fig. 11.8 Masonry mortar 0.075 0a5
11.4.2 Cementitious Materials
Due to their physical or chemical reaction,

binders play the most important role in the
ultimate mortar strength. As discussed before,
the most important difference in composition
between concrete and mortar deals with the
type of binders used in the hardening reac-
11 tion. They are basically inorganic and can be
air binders (air lime—7 Fig. 7.12—and

gypsum) and hydraulic binders (hydraulic

lime and cement) or a mixture of them; there-
.. Fig. 11.9 Rendering of external walls fore, all combinations among different inor-
ganic binders are possible. The main
2/4 mm, and 2/8 mm), including helpful characteristics of these cementitious materials
annexes about the effects of different chemi- were well described in 7 Chap. 9 devoted to

cal components of aggregates on the mortar concrete. Portland cement (7 Fig. 6.27) can
in which they are incorporated. be used in mortars but masonry cement and
In contrast, ASTM C144 standard only other options are adequate. Dry mortars
deals with aggregates used in masonry mor- simultaneously working as mortars and deco-
tars (“natural or manufactured sand, being rative finishes (e.g., decorative plasters and tile
the latter the product obtained by crushing grouts) basically include white Portland
stone, gravel, or air-cooled iron blast-furnace cement (7 Fig. 6.45).

slag specially processed to ensure suitable According to ASTM C91/C91M standard,

gradation”). To adjust the grain size distribu- a masonry cement is “a hydraulic cement, pri-
tion, different granulometric fractions of marily used in masonry and plastering con-
aggregates are required. This standard speci- struction, consisting of a mixture of Portland
fies limits of fine aggregate gradation to be or blended hydraulic cement and plasticizing
used in masonry mortar (. Table 11.1 and materials (such as limestone, hydrated or

. Fig. 11.10). It is essential to note that well- hydraulic lime) together with other materials

graded aggregates decrease separation of the introduced to enhance one or more properties
components in fresh mortar, reducing thus such as setting time, workability, water reten-
bleeding and improving workability. tion, and durability” while a mortar cement is
11.4 · Components
313 11
Sample Upper Range Lower Range
100
90
80
Cummulative Pass (%)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.01 0.1 1 10
Particle Size/(mm)
.. Fig. 11.10 Lower and upper limits in fine aggregate gradation according to ASTM C144 standard (including a
sand example with adequate particle sizes)
“a hydraulic cement manufactured for use in As discussed above, hydrated lime may be
masonry mortar designed for specific bond batched with Portland cement. Fresh and
and air content criteria” (ASTM C219 stan- hardened properties of mortar including
dard). It is comparable to masonry cement hydrated lime are optimum. Until production
although has meet bond strength and air con- of Portland cement, hydrated lime was the
tent criteria. most common cementitious material in mor-
Masonry cement is a product specifically tar. Nowadays, it is almost completely
formulated and manufactured to be used in replaced by hydraulic binders because they set
producing mortar for masonry construction. more quickly. Nevertheless, this type of lime is
The Portland or blended cement contributes still in use, principally due to its plastic prop-
to compressive and bond strength of mortar. erties. Dry mortar workability is enhanced
Plasticizers and other materials improve with the addition of 5 up to 30% of hydrated
workability, board life, and water retention, lime to the cement. Thus, lime behaves as a
contribute to enhance durability, and decrease plasticizer contributing to workability, board
water absorption of mortar. EN 413-1 stan- life, and water retention of the mortar. It is
dard describes masonry cements as often used important to note that lime undergoes less
in Europe for the manufacturing of mortars volume change or shrinkage than other mor-
for bricklaying and blocklaying and for ren- tar ingredients. Hydrated lime for masonry
dering and plastering mortars. According to purposes is covered by ASTM C207 standard.
this standard, masonry cement is a “factory Modern natural hydraulic lime is also becom-
made finely powdered hydraulic binder which ing broadly used in mortars, basically in resto-
relies essentially upon the presence of Portland ration and heritage projects.
cement clinker to develop strength. When Since lime hardens only upon contact with
mixed with sand and water only and without carbon dioxide in the air, hardening take
the addition of further materials it produces a places over a long period of time. However, if
workable mortar suitable for use in rendering, small cracks occur, water and carbon dioxide
plastering and masonry work.” that penetrate the joint will react with calcium
hydroxide from the mortar to form calcium

carbonate. This newly formed calcium car-
bonate will seal the cracks, limiting further
water penetration. This slow process contin-
ues for years and the higher content of lime,
the more effective is the autogenous healing
process.
11.4.3 Admixtures
Admixtures were used for centuries to improve

the properties of mortar, renders, and screeds.
For example, the ancient Chinese used black .. Fig. 11.11 Lithium carbonate used as set accelera-
grain molasses while the Romans used animal tor in mortars. (Image courtesy of Weber Saint-Gobain)
fat, milk, and blood. The utilization of admix-
tures by ancient civilizations was based on whereas the latter is a “set retarding admix-
practical experience and observation. In mod- ture as defined in EN 934-2 standard (see
ern cementitious mortars, the use of admix- Chap. 9) but specifically intended for use in
tures is almost universal since the technology long term retarded mortar incorporating
describing their benefits became better entrained air.”
understood. According to MPA (2013), there are three
An admixture is an organic or inorganic categories of mortar admixtures: “(a) active
material added in low quantities to change the materials: those that react chemically with a
mortar properties in both the fresh and the component within the cementitious material,
11 hardened state. Admixtures for masonry mor- (b) surface active admixtures (surfactants):
tar are controlled by ASTM C1384 and EN these are generally split into two components
934-3 standards. Thus, ASTM C1384 stan- (one positively charged and the other nega-
dard points out that “admixtures are sub- tively charged) and react with the air-water-
stances other than the prescribed materials of solid material interface within the mortar,
water, aggregate, and cementitious materials thereby resulting in orientation and adsorp-
that are used to improve one or more of the tion, and (c) passive or inert admixtures: these
recognized desirable properties of conven- do not change their form but have a physical
tional masonry mortar” and considers the effect such as light absorption and reflection
following types of admixtures: bond
as in the case of pigments.”
enhancer, workability enhancer, set accelera- Air entraining/plasticizing admixtures
tor (. Fig. 11.11), set retarder, and water

“are incorporated in mortar mixes to enhance
repellent. The standard specifies that it does the durability of hardened masonry mortars,
cover neither coloring pigments nor additives especially in cold wet climates” (MPA 2013).
to the cementitious materials during their Besides improving the fresh properties of the
manufacture. mortar, the utilization of hydrated lime in tra-
EN 934-3 standard, devoted to admixtures ditional mortars generates an effect of cohe-
in masonry mortars, considers basically two sion; consequently, mortar plasticizers are
types of admixture: air entraining/plasticizing generally used to replace lime in mortars.
admixture and set retarding admixture for Nowadays, the benefits of both lime and mor-
long-term retarded masonry mortar. The for- tar plasticizers are definitely recognized and
mer is an “admixture which increases work- most quality building mortars include both in
ability, or allows water reduction, by their formulation.
incorporating during mixing a controlled Regarding set retarding admixtures, while
quantity of small, uniformly distributed air the cement set is retarded the mortar remains
bubbles which remain after hardening” wholly workable allowing it to be used at up
11.4 · Components
315 11
to the stated workable life of the mortar. tion. In the first case, the permeability reduc-
When the retarded mortar is used to lay bricks tion results in decreased efflorescence. The
or blocks, the mortar stiffens initially due to permeability reduction can also maintain the
water loss by absorption into the masonry color and appearance of mortar. Moreover, it
units before hydration of the cementitious enhances the weather resistance and increases
component of the mortar continues in the the durability of the mortar. In renders, per-
normal manner. Bonding agents are used in meability reduction is of benefit in backing
mortars for two main applications: “(a) to coats where it results in reduced suction and
enhance adhesion of renders to substrates, improved adhesion of the following coats. In
and (b) to improve adhesion of levelling addition, it may enhance the resistance of the
screeds to a concrete base” (BDA 2018). Care render to the introduction of rain.
must be taken where utilizing a bonding prod-
uct in mortar mixture since some materials
influence the amount of air entrained. 11.4.4 Fibers and Pigments
Water repellents are generally used in mor-
tars. The permeability decrease generates dif- Fibers have been included in mortars since
ferent benefits depending on whether the biblical times (7 Box 11.1: Fibers in

mortar is for masonry or rendering applica- Mortars).
Box 11.1
Fibers in Mortars als (e.g. polypropylene or carbon), synthetic

The utilization of fibers is not a modern devel- inorganics, e.g. steel or glass, to natural organ-
opment and analysis of ancient mortars shows ics (e.g. cellulose or sisal). Although natural
that early civilizations used fibers to improve fibers have some advantages like low density,
the mechanical properties of the construction less abrasiveness, and lower cost in comparison
materials. The utilization of fibers to reinforce to inorganic reinforcing fibers, they also have
brittle materials dates from the Egyptian and some disadvantages such as mechanical and
Babylonian era. Baked clay reinforced with thermal degradation during processing, poor
straw and masonry mortars reinforced with wettability, and high moisture absorption”
animal hair are good examples of fiber- (Ozerkan et al. 2013).
reinforced composites used as construction Several types of products (i.e., glass and
materials. asbestos) have been historically used to manu-
The presence of fibers in the mixture has facture fibers. However, polypropylene is cur-
the function to counteract the hydraulic shrink- rently the most used type of fibers in
age, characteristic of the mortar during the manufacturing mortars. There is a great variety
hardening process, thus avoiding the formation of fiber-reinforced mortar formulations,
of cracks and fissures on the surface of the depending on particular applications. Alkali-
plaster applied. Furthermore, an increment in resistance glass fibers (. Fig. 11.12),
cellulose
the flexural strength of the mortar up to 35% fibers, and steel fibers can also often used in
has been dated; however, fiber inclusion obvi- mortars. As discussed in a previous chapter,
ously decreases the workability in the fresh EN 14889-1 specifies requirements for steel
mortars. fibers for structural or nonstructural use in
Different fiber types and a great variety of concrete, mortar, and grout and EN 14889-2
sizes, both man-made and natural, have been plays the same role for polymer fibers.
incorporated into cement-based matrix of Because render tends to be thin coatings
mortars. The most common “significant types and has a large surface area, it is sensitive to
of fibers varies from synthetic organic materi- moisture loss and subsequently suffers crack-
ing. The inclusion of fibers of polypropylene

into render mortars enhances the bonding to
the backing material, decreases permeability,
and thus improving frost resistance. Where
used in screed mixtures, the fibers may give
improved resistance to curling, minimize early-
age cracking, and enhance resistance to abra-
sion. A typical dosage of polypropylene
microfibers (maximum diameter below
0.30 mm) is 0.6–1.0 kg/m3 while macrofibers
(with a diameter in excess of 0.30 mm) are used
at higher dosages than microfibers, commonly
.. Fig. 11.12 Glass fibers for mortar between 3 and 8 kg/m3.
11
.. Fig. 11.13 Mortar color matching brick color. .. Fig. 11.14 Green pigment obtained from chromium
(Image courtesy of Solomon Colors Inc.) oxide
Color, mostly obtained from pigments, has

always been important to human beings. EN use of white cement is essential. Pigments are
12878 standard defines pigment as “a sub- generally inert materials (typically metal
stance, generally in the form of fine particles, oxides) that do not react with other constitu-
which is practically insoluble in the applica- ents of the mortar mixture. Organic materials
tion medium and for which the sole purpose is are generally unsuitable because they decom-
to color cement and/or lime based building pose where exposed to ultraviolet radiation.
materials.” The color of a hardened masonry Many pigments are produced using iron
mortar contributes to the overall aesthetic oxides and hydroxides, which are used to
appearance of the construction. Thus, the obtain several shades of red, yellow, brown,
color of the mortar joints largely affects the and black. To obtain green pigments, chro-
general appearance of a masonry structure mium oxides are used (. Fig. 11.14) whereas

(about 15–25% of the visual surface can be cobalt compounds produce blue pigments
comprised of mortar) (. Fig. 11.13). and titanium dioxide originates white pig-
Most pigments that conform to ASTM ments, although these types of pigments are
C979/C979M standard are suitable for mor- comparatively very expensive. Carbon is
tar. The pigments physically bind to grains of sometimes used as a black pigment.
cementitious materials, changing the overall Aluminum, nickel, and antimony oxides are
color of the mixture. For colored mortars, the also used, usually combined with other metal-
11.5 · Properties
317 11
lic oxides. Only the minimum amount of pig- cement required on site, and the resultant tra-
ment that will produce the desire shade should ditional mixture offered by the Mortar
be used. A pigment addition ranging from 3 Industry Association of United Kingdom for
to 7% by mass of cement is commonly needed. external rendering (MPA 2015).
Additions of more than 10% (called satura-
tion level or saturation point) have no effect
on the intensity of the color and can seriously 11.5 Properties
impair strength and durability of the mortar.
Good quality mortar is essential for good
workmanship and proper structural perfor-
11.4.5 Water mance of building and construction. From
this viewpoint, mortars have two different
Water contributes to workability and acts as a groups of properties, those of plastic mortars
lubricant in the plastic mortar state; water is and those of hardened mortars.
essential for hydration of cement. The quan-
tity of needed water depends primarily on the
components of the mortar. In this sense, water 11.5.1 Properties of Fresh/Plastic
requirement for mortar is distinct from that Mortar
required in concrete, where a low water/
cement ratio is commonly suitable. Mortar The role of fresh mortar during construction
must include the maximum quantity of water is both essential and complex because: “(a) it
consistent with optimum workability. must spread easily and remain workable long
Water for mortars must be clean, i.e., avoid enough, (b) it must retain water so that it does
suspended solids such as clay materials, and not dry out and stiffen too quickly, especially
free of harmful components such as acids, where using absorbent masonry units, and (c)
alkalis, and organic materials; in addition, it must harden in a reasonable time” (MPA
water must not include substances that mod- 2013). Plastic properties define the suitability
ify setting times and durability of the mortar. of the mortar construction, which in turn
Water containing sugar would retard setting relate to the properties of the hardened mor-
times. Whether the water is drinkable or not is tar. The most important properties of plastic
not important since some drinking water con- mortars in fresh state are workability, water
tains appreciable quantities of soluble salts retentivity, and air content.
such as sodium and potassium sulfates, which
can contribute to the formation of efflores- 11.5.1.1 Workability
cence. Laboratory analysis of the water sup- Workability is the most important property of
ply should be carried out if required. plastic mortar, influencing on other major
properties in both plastic and hardened states.
Workability is the behavior of a mortar related
11.4.6 Mix Proportions to all the properties needed during application
(. Fig. 11.15), and further working and fin-

The proportion of the different mortar com- ishing. A mortar with good workability is
ponents can be extremely varied based on the essential to provide ease of use. Workability
type or mortar and its applications. means a combination of a number of interre-
Nevertheless, some data about mix propor- lated properties such as plasticity, consistency,
tions can be obtained from standards and water retentivity, setting time, cohesion, and
producer associations. Thus, ASTM C270 adhesion. Although workability is greatly
standard includes a table with proportion controlled by aggregate grading, component
specification requirements (. Table 11.2) for
proportions, and air content, the definitive
masonry mortars and . Table 11.3 displays
adjusting to workability is defined based on
the designation of mortar, the quantity of water content. The use of hydrated lime in
11
318
.. Table 11.2 Proportion Specification Requirements (ASTM C270 standard)
Mortar Type Proportions by volume (cementitious materials) Aggregate ratio (measured in damp,
Portland cement or Mortar cement Masonry cement Hydrated lime or loose conditions)
blended cement M S N M S N lime putty
Cement- M 1 … … … … … …
lime 1
4
S 1 … … … … … …
Chapter 11 · Mortars
Over 1 to 1
4 2
N 1 … … … … … …
Over 1 to 1 1
2 4
O 1 … … … … … …
Over 1 1 to 2 1
4 2
Mortar M 1 … 1 … … … … …
Not less than 2 1 4 and not more than
cement
3 times the sum of the separate
M … 1 … … … … … … volumes of cementitious materials
S … … 1 … … … …
S … … 1 … … … … …
N … … … 1 … … … …
O … … … 1 … … … …
Masonry M 1 … … … … … 1 …
cement
M … … … … 1 … … …
S … … … … … 1 …
S … … … … … 1 … …
N … … … … … … 1 …
O … … … … … … 1 …
11.5 · Properties
319 11
.. Table 11.3 Mix designation and cement gauging (MPA 2015)
Traditional Mortar by volume Factory Site mixing Cement:factory produced

mortar Cement: lime: sand produced by By volume Lime:sand by weight kg:ton
designation volume Air entrained Non air Cement:
lime:sand entrained sand: mortar
i 1:12 1:3 – 250 1:3

1: 1 :3
4
ii 1:9 190 170
1: 1 2 :4–4 1 2 1:4 1 2 1:4 1 2
iii 1:1:5–6 1:6 1:6 150 125 1:6

iv 1:2:8–9 1:9 100 90 1:9
1:4 1 2
.. Fig. 11.16 Workability can be assessed by observing

the response of the mortar to the trowel
.. Fig. 11.15 Workability is essential during mortar
application
time to place and adjust a masonry unit with-
mortars can deliver improved workability and out the mortar stiffening. Mortar having this
open time as well as reduce issues dealing with property resists quick loss of mixing water
excessive suction and presence of efflores- (preventing loss of plasticity) to the air in
cence. changing temperature, wind, and humidity.
In masonry mortars, the capacity to main- Therefore, water retentivity is closely associ-
tain an adequate workability depends on the ated to workability. Water retentivity should
water retentivity and setting characteristics of be neither too low nor too high and can be
the mortar. As a consequence, a good work- incremented using a higher lime or air
ability in a mortar is essential for maximum amounts, and addition of sand fine particles
bond with masonry units. Workable mortars within acceptable gradation limits, or using
support the weight of masonry units when water retaining products.
placed and facilitate alignment (. Fig. 11.15).

In masonry mortars, “a mortar with good
The mason can adequately assess workability water retentivity remains plastic long enough
by observing the response of the mortar to the to allow the masonry units to be aligned and
trowel (. Fig. 11.16).

plumbed without breaking the intimate bond
between the mortar and the units. Loss of
11.5.1.2 Water Retentivity moisture due to poor water retentivity, in
Water retention is a measure of the ability of addition to loss of plasticity, may greatly
a mortar under suction to retain its mixing decrease the effectiveness of the bond to the
water. This mortar property gives the mason masonry units” (MPA 2013).
.. Fig. 11.17 Functions of air entraining admixtures (BDA 2018)
11.5.1.3 Air Content 11.5.2 Properties of Hardened

Mortar air content in its fresh state is also Mortars
important, in a way similar of that of concrete.
To achieve an adequate mortar durability, it is In masonry mortar, the main goal of mortar
very important the existence of sufficient air where hardened in the final structure is to
content to allow freeze-thaw cycles to be sup- translate the compressive, tensile, and shear
ported without disturbing the mortar matrix. stresses between the units. The properties of
The inclusion of entrained air generates a huge hardened mortars helping to define the
11 number of dispersed bubbles, which act as performance of the masonry structure com-
expansion chambers. Thus, they enable the prise compressive strength (7 Box 11.2:

freezing water to expand without disturbing the Compressive Strength), bond, and durabil-
matrix of mortar (. Fig. 11.17). Nevertheless,

ity. A good adhesion and fitness for purpose,
the incorporation of an excessive air content e.g., weatherproofing and appearance, are
results in a gradual decrease of mortar strength, also essential in a hardened rendering
especially in bond and flexure strength. mortar.
Box 11.2
Compressive Strength ingredients. Thus, it seems that compressive

Compressive strength (. Fig. 11.18) of mortar

strength is the most important mortar prop-
is often used as the main criterion to select the erty. However, this is not exactly true because
mortar type. This is because compressive other mortar properties such as workability,
strength is moderately simple to gauge and it is flexural strength, and bond are also essential.
commonly related to other important proper- For example, flexural strength is important
ties of the mortar (e.g., tensile strength and since it estimates the capacity of a mortar to
mortar absorption). Moreover, since compres- resist cracking.
sive strength tests are moderately easy and gen- In masonry mortar, a suitable strength is
erate consistent and reproducible results, this very important although the ultimate strength
property is usually taken into account as a of a mortar should not outperform that of the
basis for assessing the compatibility of mortar bricks used in the masonry. In this sense, the
11.5 · Properties
321 11
utilization of a great amount of cement gener- Bond

ates a more rigid mortar. As a consequence, it Bond is probably the most important single
results in vertical cracking passing through physical property of hardened mortar. EN
bricks and mortar joints as stresses are imposed
(. Fig. 11.19). Thus, mortar should classically

be weaker than the masonry bricks since the

cracks taking place in the mortar joints are
more easily remedied. . Table 11.4 shows de

compressive strength classes defined in EN

998-2 standard (masonry mortars).
Compressive strength of masonry mortar is
controlled by “sand grading, entrained air con-
tent, and water-cement ratio; increased cement
contents will give higher strengths while
increased fines content of sand, increased air
content, and increased water content will
decrease strength” (MPA 2013). In rendering
mortars, the stronger a rendering mortar is:
“(a) the more impervious it is, (b) the more sus-
ceptible it is to cracking, and (c) the greater its
drying shrinkage” (MPA 2014). . Table 11.5

shows de compressive strength categories for

rendering mortars (EN 998-1 standard).
.. Fig. 11.19 Vertical cracking passing through

units and mortar joints
.. Table 11.5 Compressive strength

categories based on EN 998-1 standard
Category Strength range N/mm2
CS i 0.4–2.5
CS ii 1.5–5
CS iii 3.5–7.5
.. Fig. 11.18 Testing machine to measure com- CS iv ≥6
pression strength in mortars
.. Table 11.4 Compressive strength classes for masonry mortars according to EN 998-2 standard
Class M1 M 2.5 M5 M 10 M 15 M 20 Md
Compression 1 2.5 5 10 15 20 d
strength
N/mm2
d > 20
998-2 defines bond strength as “adhesion per-

pendicular to the load between the masonry
mortar and the masonry unit.” Consequently,
the tensile bond is the force in tension required
to separate the units from the mortar and each
other. Good bond is essential to minimize
ingress of water and moisture. On the other
hand, bond strength is needed to resist tensile
forces caused by the wind, structural and other
applied forces, movement of the masonry units,
and temperature changes. . Figure 11.20

shows an example of the results of an incorrect

bonding between masonry elements and mortar.
.. Fig. 11.21 Bricks in place and aligned
All other factors being equal, “the greatest
factor influencing bond strength is basically the
place the mortar must be kept to a minimum.
cement content; in general, the higher the
As a consequence, the masonry unit, once
cement content the greater the bond strength”
placed and aligned, must not be moved
(MPA 2013). Air content is also an important
(. Fig. 11.21).
factor so that excessively high air contents

reduce bond at the brick interface. Moreover,

the period of time between to spread and to
Durability
Mortar durability can be defined as the ability
of the mortar to withstand aggressive condi-
11 tions during its design life. Durability must be
adequate for the situation in which the mortar
is used. For instance, a mortar of lesser durabil-
ity may be suitable for internal walls. The
potentially destructive influences that can
interact with the mortar are numerous: water,
frost, soluble salts, temperature changes, and
etcetera. As a rule, as the cement content
increases so will durability. The mortar tested
in the laboratory for durability is subjected to
repeated cycles of freezing and thawing. High
compressive strength mortars usually show
good freeze-thaw durability. Air entrainment
of mortars also improves resistance to freeze-
thaw damage (. Fig. 11.17). Thus, adequate

air content in masonry mortars commonly

enhances their resistance to freeze-thaw dam-
age where extreme exposure takes place.
Sulfate attack is a typical example where
.. Fig. 11.20 Results of incorrect bonding deterioration of mortars results from exposure
between masonry elements and mortar to aggressive chemical environments. “Soluble
11.6 · Mortar Testing
323 11
sulfates can be present in the masonry units,

soil, atmosphere, or may be introduced extra-
neously” (MPA 2013) (. Fig. 11.22). When

the masonry becomes wet, the sulfates can dis-

solve and later react with the mortar. In some
cases, the utilization of a mortar with proper
sulfate resisting characteristics may be required.
In rendering mortars, a number of factors
must be taken into account to assure a durable
render: (a) the penetration of rainwater and ris-
ing damp, (b) problems associated with soluble
salts, (c) damage from abrasion and impact,
and (d) cracking. If a render becomes cracked,
rainwater can penetrate into the rendering sys-
tem and can freeze in periods of cold weather
causing partial disintegration; it should not be
forgotten that one of the main functions of a
render is to assist in the exclusion of water. In
addition, rainwater penetration can lead to
adhesive failure between the render and the
substrate.
.. Fig. 11.22 Aggressive agents in masonry mor-

tars. (Illustration courtesy of Mineral Products
Association)
11.6 Mortar Testing ing ingredients, and as a performance indicator

where executed factory production control
Testing mortar is carried out for several rea- testing. Fresh mortar characteristics are basi-
sons: to evaluate the conformity based on a cally investigated using consistency, bulk den-
specification, to control the consistency of a sity, and air content tests. Other fresh mortar
product or process, to review performance standards in European legislation include
against project-specific conditions, and to determination of particle size distribution
investigate problems or to understand a (EN 1015-1 standard), bulk sampling (EN
defect. Mortar testing is undertaken on mate- 1015-2 standard), determination of workable
rial in its fresh state, which includes material life and correction time (1015-9 standard),
that has been retarded for a required period and determination of water-soluble chloride
and remains in a usable/plastic state, or on content (EN 1015-17 standard).
hardened mortar. Testing mortar is covered
by EN 1015 standards, a European multipart 11.6.1.1 Consistency Test
standard (. Table 11.6) and by different

The consistency of fresh mortar is measured
ASTM standards. by using either the flow table (EN 1015-3 and
ASTM C1437 standards) (. Fig. 11.23) or

the plunger penetration test methods (EN

11.6.1 ests for Fresh Mortar
T 1015-4 standard). The first method estimates
Properties the diameter of a spread mortar originated
using a flow table while the plunger penetra-
Fresh mortar tests are mainly used for design- tion method uses a plunger rod falling from a
ing new mortar mixtures, to evaluate alternat- height above the mortar and reading the
.. Table 11.6 Mortar test method standards in European legislation
EN 1015-1 Determination of particle size distribution (by sieve analysis)

EN 1015-2 Bulk sampling of mortars and preparation of test mortars
EN 1015-3 Determination of consistence of fresh mortar (by flow table)
EN 1015-4 Determination of consistence of fresh mortar (by plunger penetration)
EN 1015-6 Determination of bulk density of fresh mortar
EN 1015-7 Determination of air content of fresh mortar
EN 1015-9 Determination of workable life and correction time of fresh mortar
EN 1015-10 Determination of dry bulk density of hardened mortar
EN 1015-11 Determination of flexural and compressive strength of hardened mortar
EN 1015-12 Determination of adhesive strength of hardened rendering and plastering mortars on
substrates
EN 1015-17 Determination of water-soluble chloride content of fresh mortar
EN 1015-18 Determination of water absorption due to capillary action of hardened mortar
EN 1015-19 Determination of water vapor permeability of hardened rendering and plastering mortar
EN 1015-21 Determination of the compatibility of one-coat rendering mortars with substrates
1015-6 standard. Three different methods of

11 filling and compacting the mortar within the
calibrated contained can be used depending
upon the consistence of the fresh mortar (stiff,
plastic, or soft) as determined by the flow
table test. Bulk density estimation is com-
monly performed in laboratory because it
requires the utilization of accurate weighing
equipment. Bulk density and air content esti-
mations are obtained to evaluate fresh mortar
performance against previously determined
values.
.. Fig. 11.23 Flow table to measure the consistency of 11.6.1.3 Air Content Test
fresh mortar The air content of the fresh mortar is mea-
sured by using pressure method and/or alco-
depth of penetration. These methods are car- hol method (EN 1015-7 and ASTM C185
ried out in laboratory with results compared standards). Air content of a mortar is mea-
against established values. Variation from sured by several methods but the most usual
established values can suggest a variation in are based on the displacement of the air by
the physical properties of one of the constitu- pressure (. Fig. 11.24). Another method is

ents of the mortar. based on air displacement by an alcohol and

water mixture. The pressure method utilizes
11.6.1.2 Bulk Density Test devices based on Boyle’s Law, similarly to that
Bulk density is estimated by calculating the applied for the determinations in concrete. It
mortar mass contained in a known volume is applicable for mortars with air content
immediately after the casting as per EN value lower than 20% whereas the alcohol
11.6 · Mortar Testing
325 11
.. Fig. 11.25 Adhesive strength of rendering and plas-

tering mortar on substrates test (EN 1015-12 standard).
(Image courtesy of Weber Saint-Gobain)
of one-coat rendering mortar with substrates

(EN 1015-21 standard).
11.6.2.1 Dry Density Test

The dry density of hardened mortar is calcu-
lated according to EN 1015-10 standard. The
apparent density of the hardened mortar
depends on the quantity and density of the
components, the air content, the moisture
.. Fig. 11.24 Apparatus for air content test of fresh content, and the intensity of compaction. In
mortar. (Image courtesy of Weber Saint-Gobain) essence, the method consists of measuring the
mass of mortar specimens dividing it by their
method is alternatively used when the air con- volume. Several samples subjected to curing
tent value of the mortar is greater than 20%. period of 28 days are commonly used and
Both methods need that two individual tests these samples are usually tested later for flex-
are conducted, obtaining later the mean value ural and compressive strength.
estimated.
11.6.2.2 Compressive Strength Test
Compressive strength test (. Fig. 11.18) is

11.6.2 ests for Hardened Mortar

T commonly used to measure the end perfor-
Properties mance of hardened mortar. The determina-
tion of compressive strength relies upon fresh
Hardened mortar characteristics are com- mortar samples placed into test specimen
monly defined by dry density, compressive molds (. Fig. 11.26). The compressive

strength, and shrinkage tests. Other tests strength of mortars is estimated according to
applied to hardened mortar are determination ASTM C109/C109M and EN1015-11 stan-
of adhesive strength of rendering and plaster- dards. Different issues may affect the final
ing mortar on substrates (EN 1015-12 stan- value of the strength of the mortar: the treat-
dard) (. Fig. 11.25), determination of water
ment of the mortar sample, the condition of
absorption coefficient due to capillary action the specimen molds, the type and quantity of
(EN 1015-18 standard), determination of mold release agent, the method used to com-
water vapor permeability (EN 1015-19 stan- pact the mortar into the mold, and the sample
dard), and determination of the compatibility storage and curing.
.. Fig. 11.27 Computed controlled manufacture of

mortar. (Image courtesy of Grupo Cementos Portland
.. Fig. 11.26 Specimen molds for compressive Valderrivas)
strength test
for the production of bulk mortar delivered in
11.6.2.3 Shrinkage Test silos or bags. Modern plants of this type, with
Some mortars, especially those showing a annual output production capacity ranging
large proportion of binder or fine aggregate, from 20,000 to 200,000 t, are usually built on a
shrink a lot during curing, which can generate small area because the production line is
extensive cracking in the finished wall or ren- designed vertically; in this setting, silos for
dering. The shrinkage of a mortar can be storing the raw materials are placed beneath
tested by applying a thick layer on a back- the mixing unit. As a consequence, the mate-
ground with very low absorbency, inspecting rial flow is basically gravitational, which saves
the surface for cracking after curing indoor. If investment and running costs.
11 no cracks are formed, the tendency toward Dry mortar production plants (7 Box 11.3:

shrinkage leading to cracks is acceptable. The Dry Mix Mortar Production) are commonly
shrinkage test on mortar mixes is carried out equipped with computer-controlled batching,
according to specifications of ASTM C596 dosing, and mixing facilities (. Fig. 11.27).

standard. The production sequences are almost wholly

automatic with all the devices controlled and
monitored by electronic sensors. The auto-
11.7 Dry Mortar Production matic dosing system is very precise with high
accuracy, e.g., 30 kg ± 3 g, mainly for batching
There are many types of mortar production high-performance chemical additives. For a
plants but the most sophisticated and complex highly efficient modern plant, the mixing time
is the so-called fixed plant, which is a factory in for each batch, e.g., 2 t, can be as short as 2 to
a permanent location, often in a quarry and/or 3 minutes depending on the type and com-
industrial site. Dry mortar plants are designed plexity of the product.
Box 11.3
Dry Mix Mortar Production needed. Once the mortar is produced, it is

Basically, a dry mix mortar plant is constituted deliverable for bagging, storage in temporary
by a group of silos for the collection of differ- silos, or loading directly to the truck for trans-
ent materials such as aggregates, several porting. . Figure 11.28 shows the main steps

cementitious materials (cement, lime, and gyp- involved in dry mortar production.
sum), additives, and etcetera. They are then In the first stage of dry mix mortar produc-
dosed and transported to a mixer where the tion, after adequate quality control the raw
mortar obtains the perfect composition of the materials are transported to several silos. The
11.7 · Dry Mortar Production
327 11
.. Fig. 11.28 Main steps involved in dry mortar production. (Illustration courtesy of Wehrhahn)
design, size, and number of the silos and the

design of the mixing and packaging unit sys-
tems depend on the raw materials allowed and
the kind and amount of mortar for manufactur-
ing in the plant. Cement, lime, and all materials
of fine particles are loaded to silos using pneu-
matic conveyor systems directly from the tanker
truck (. Fig. 11.29). There is at least one,

although more usually two or more silos, to

incorporate the binders (e.g., Portland cement
and lime). Loading of aggregates is carried out
using a reception hopper that undergoes the raw
materials from the trucks and transports them
to a bucket elevator. It elevates the sand to a dis-
tribution system for sieving processes. They
separate the sand into different granulometries,
which are then stored in the silos. Finally, addi-
tives are also stored in small silos, being the
loading process of these materials commonly
carried out manually because additives are
transported packed or in big bags (. Fig. 11.30).

.. Fig. 11.29 Pneumatic loading area of raw
The second step of the production process materials. (Image courtesy of Grupo Cementos
involves materials dosing and mixing. Once the Portland Valderrivas)
.. Fig. 11.30 Big bags of additives. (Image cour- .. Fig. 11.32 Weighing systems. (Image courtesy
tesy of Weber Saint-Gobain) of Grupo Cementos Portland Valderrivas)
11
.. Fig. 11.31 Screw conveyors for dosing. (Image

courtesy of Weber Saint-Gobain)
storing process of raw materials is ended, the

formula and material quantity of each compo-
nent are set utilizing the control software where
the adequate formultion has been previously
incorporated. The software system reports in
real time the process state and raw materials
stock and finished mortar. The aggregates and
binder or binders are dosed from their silos via .. Fig. 11.33 Two types of mixing unit
screw conveyors (. Fig. 11.31) to weighing

systems (. Fig. 11.32) and are further dis-

cess starts. It is essential to note that the
charged into the mixer. With respect to addi- precision is key to the process of additive
tives, each silo has a microdoser responsible to weighing since ratios in some raw materials can
provide the additive in a controlled way to the be as high as 1:10,000, that is, providing only
exact weight. Thus, additives are exactly 100 grams per ton of mortar.
weighed and then loaded into a pneumatic con- The mixing units (. Fig. 11.33) are avail-

veying system that transports them directly to able in a broad variety of sizes and designs,
the mixer. When all selected and weighed mate- allowing short batch cycle times and rapid,
rials are located into the mixer, the mixing pro- homogeneous mixing. In fact, these devices are
11.8 · Mortar Types
329 11
.. Fig. 11.34 Two designs of intermediate finished

product system
the key component of overall production pro-

cess. The temperature of the components
should not exceed 50 °C during the whole mix-
ing process to avoid deteriorating the thermo- .. Fig. 11.35 Bagging unit. (Image courtesy of Weber
plastic and sensitive additives. After a short Saint-Gobain)
mixing process of about 2–3 minutes for highly
efficient modern mixing machines, the homoge- letizing units, ready for transport to the con-
neous dry mix mortar is discharged into the struction site. In general, bags of ready mixed
intermediate finished product system dry mortar are produced in 25 kg units. Mortars
(. Fig. 11.34). After quality control, the dry
are supplied to the construction site mainly in
mortar is discharged into transport silos or silos, i.e., gravity or pressure, being mixed on
transferred to bagging (. Fig. 11.35) and pal-
site with the necessary water.
11.8 Mortar Types
The number of mortar types in building and

construction industry is quite impressive,
depending on the applications of the prod-
ucts. In general, masonry mortar and render-
ing mortar are the most common and
economically important mortars while the so-
called special or technical mortars include a
broad variety of products as many as needs to
be met: screeds, waterproofing, concrete
repair, and protection, grouts, tile adhesives
.. Fig. 11.36 Tile adhesive
(. Fig. 11.36), texturing, and many others.

obviously still a function today, but as build-

11.8.1 Masonry Mortar ing techniques developed the demands on
mortars increased greatly. For example, dura-
Masonry mortar is the bonding agent that bility and aesthetically pleasing appearance
integrates bricks and/or other units, e.g., block are essential (mortar choice can have a big
or stones, (. Fig. 11.37) into a masonry
visual impact on brickwork).
assembly. This type of mortar has been an A masonry wall must meet several require-
integral part of masonry wall systems for cen- ments such as an appropriate strength as well
turies. The original function of masonry mor- as a good impermeability and durability.
tar was probably to seal permeable walls and These conditions requirements involve some
to provide protection from rain and wind. It is specific requests for the masonry unit and
a
c
11 .. Fig. 11.37 Masonry mortar in: a bricks, b stones, c concrete
mortar. Thus, mortar mixes for masonry

should have the following properties: “(a) ade-
quate strength, (b) workability, (c) water
retention during laying, (d) plasticity during
application, (e) adhesion or bond, (f) durabil-
ity, and (g) good appearance related to texture
and color” (Chudley et al. 2020). Its role is
also “to seal irregular gaps between masonry
and provide a barrier to the passage of mois-
ture. For good adhesion to brick, mortar must
have good workability; poor workability will
result in air spaces between mortar and brick,
preventing good bond formation, water
ingress, and durability issues” (BDA 2018). .. Fig. 11.38 Inadequate particle size in a masonry
Masonry mortar is an integral part of mortar
brickwork. It accounts for approximately
17.5% of the brickwork built in stretcher bond mortar must be no more than 1/3 the width of
but this relatively small portion of mortar in the joint (. Fig. 11.38).

masonry significantly influences the total per- Mortars containing only Portland cement
formance. Therefore, it is important to select or composite cement and sand tend to be coarse
appropriately the mortar. The correct desig- and present poor workability. If additional
nation of mortar is essential to provide not water is added to enhance workability, a nega-
only strength to the wall construction but also tive effect on strength and drying shrinkage
durability against water ingress. In masonry, occurs. In these cases, a supplement of lime
the maximum size of the particles forming the increases workability, decreases the water
331 11
requirement, enhances strength and resistance the surface layer is the final coat or finish coat.
to shrinkage within the mortar beds. Thus, the The requirement to make these coatings with
use of hydrated lime in cement mortars pro- more than one coat derives from the impossi-
vides a great number of benefits: (a) excellent bility of needed properties such as good work-
workability, (b) water retention, (c) strength ability, good adherence to the substrate, and
development, and (d) reduction in efflorescence. low cracking by shrinkage to be integrally
When choosing a mortar, strength is not achieved if they are applied with a single coat.
the only feature to be considered. The interac- Another reason is the need to have a thick
tion between masonry units and mortar is cru- coating to make an efficient barrier against
cial for the final qualities of the wall. The most water penetration. Finish coat has basically an
important factor is adhesion between the aesthetic objective (. Fig. 11.39) but it also

masonry unit and mortar. Poor adhesion plays a part in the protection of the coating
always results in defective strength and imper- and the maintenance of its water resistance.
meability. Masonry units have different In contrast, the nontraditional one-coat
strengths and absorbencies, which implies that render has the following characteristics: (a) it
different kinds of units place different demands is almost always applicable in a single coat, (b)
on mortars and work techniques. The masonry it usually requires subsequent protection or
unit and the mortar must always be appropri- aesthetic finishing coat if their mechanical
ate for each other. As a rule, the mortar and strength is low, and (c) it must be used if speed
masonry unit must have similar strength. As of application is essential. Regarding the
discussed above, when the mortar is much thickness of the coat, the overall thickness
stronger, there is always a risk for cracking. should not exceed 25 mm. For external ren-
dering, the recommended thickness is 15 mm
for moderate exposure surfaces and 20 mm
11.8.2 Rendering Mortar for severe exposure surfaces.
External renderings represent the skin of

buildings with the objective to protect and
beatify their supporting walls (. Fig. 11.9).

As a rule, the principal reasons for utilizing a

rendering mortar are the following: (1) to pro-
vide a barrier for preventing rainwater pene-
tration into the background masonry, (2) to
protect the building from external mechanical
stresses, (3) to improve the aesthetically
appearance of a plain masonry structure, and
(4) to generate a smooth surface for a final fin-
ish. According to EN 13914-1, “the choice of
the render type, its composition, the number
of coats, and their thickness depends on the
intended aspect, the more or less severe condi-
tions of weather exposure, the nature of the
substrate, and the final requirements,” i.e., the
type of finish intended.
Traditional renders must be applied in two
or three coats (each one must be weaker than
the preceding ones) according to technical rec-
ommendations, with different functions and
exposure conditions. The base layer is called
spatterdash coat or bonding coat, the next .. Fig. 11.39 Finish coat with an essentially decorative
layer is termed undercoat or leveling coat, and objective
.. Fig. 11.40 Reinforcement in a rendering mortar
The strength of the rendering mortar

should never be greater than the strength of
the substrate. The nature of the substrate and
its location should be compatible with the
mortar components for obtaining a coating .. Fig. 11.41 Sgraffito stucco
with quality and durability. As a rule, the
main principle in selecting a rendering mortar formed by lime putty or gypsum, marble dust,
is to select binders with the lowest cement and pigments. As a general rule, stucco hard-
content. The thicker the rendering, the more ens by carbonation of the lime, achieving a
lime-rich the binder should be. In some cases, glossy finish resembling marble. Stucco has
11 reinforcement is necessary to prevent or become one of the most famous render mor-
reduce cracking (. Fig. 11.40). Reinforcement
tars. Stucco is composed of at least two coats
should be done with welded, galvanized wire of lean paste and compacted paste. The thick-
net with a wire diameter of about 1 mm and a ness of each coat is defined by the size of
mesh size of about 20 mm. aggregate used. The first coats to be applied
The color of the final coat is obtained by are those with the thickest aggregates and,
using pigments. They should be “resistant to subsequently, those with a finer grain. A spe-
ultraviolet rays (to remain stable under sun- cial type of stucco is sgraffito stucco
light), alkalis (so that the lime does not con- (. Fig. 11.41), which consists of superimpos-

sume the pigments and they remain ing coats of different color and texture, in
unalterable) and acids (to resist weather and such a way that the base coat (plastered or
acid rain, avoiding the formation of efflores- worked) becomes exposed where part of the
cence)” (ANCADE, 2009). The highest surface coat is scraped away (plastered,
quality of materials used as pigments should worked, cut stone, and ironed).
be assured, especially their micronization
and color consistency. Generally speaking, 11.8.2.2 Types of Finish
three basic types of pigments are commonly Numerous types of finishes can be generated
used in mortars: (a) chromium oxide (green (7 Box 11.4: Rendered Finishes), some of

color), (b) cobalt oxide (blue color), and (c) which are smooth while others are textured or
those based on iron oxides (from yellow to mixed with coarse aggregate. Textured fin-
black). ishes are preferable to smooth finishes because
“a very smooth finish is prone to develop
11.8.2.1 Stucco superficial cracking and the occurrence of
Although there are many different definitions water runoff lines, making difficult to guaran-
of stucco, it is broadly defined as a continuous tee a final uniform aspect during execution”
finish coating (for internal and external use) (Flores-Colen and de Brito 2015).
333 11
Box 11.4
Rendered Finishes
There is a wide variety of terms applied to fin-
ishes provided that rendering has evolved as a
craft over hundreds of years. Rendered finishes
can be broadly subdivided into smooth and
rough finishes. Smooth finishes are very simple
and include those techniques in which the final
coat is obtained by successive passages with a
wooden float in order to produce a smooth sur-
face. A variation of this finish type is to elimi-
nate the surface mix to exhibit the finer
aggregate. The plain finish is also a smooth fin-
ish and its planeness relies on the maximum
particle sizes of the sands used; plain finish is .. Fig. 11.42 Stone block effect finish
complex to develop because cracking and/or
discoloration can be generated. Traditionally,
some stucco finishes can be classified as plain
finishes.
Rough finishes are numerous and the traces
made on the final surface are produced by
applying coarser aggregates and different tech-
niques. The most common rough finishes are
scraped, textured, thrown, sprayed, and tyro-
lese. Scraped finish is generated by scraping the
surface with a toothed blade, a timber board
with nails, a timber float lined with a distended
metal net, or other tool, just after the mortar
begins hardening. The process removes some .. Fig. 11.43 Brick effect finish
of the cement-rich surface and drags some of
the coarser sand particles out of the matrix, incorporating 6–14 mm coarse aggregate in the
while exposing others particles. After scraping, final coat, with the mortar being thrown onto
the surface must be scrubbed to remove the the wall and left untrowelled. A dry dash finish
loose particles. The aggregate is selected for its is a very rough finish produced by casting
color and grading. coarse aggregates on a still fresh mortar coat
In textured finish, different may be obtained previously smoothed with a ruler. The aggre-
by using different tools (e.g., trowel blade, gates remain exposed (. Fig. 11.44) and are

hacksaw blade, steel pointed mallet, or bristle afterward lightly tapped with a timber float to
brush) and methods, sometimes to generate a better penetrate the mortar. The aggregates can
stone block effect (ashlar finish—. Fig. 11.42-),
be selected in combination with a pigmented
brick effect (. Fig. 11.43), imitating the classic
mortar to give a range of colors and they are
Roman travertine stone, etc. Thrown finishes commonly marble or quartz.
can be further subdivided into wet dash and Sprayed is a fine texture finish obtained
dry dash. A wet dash finish is achieved by through mechanical spraying of the mortar
over the surface. Sprayed and polished is a fin-

ish in which the protrusion peaks resulting
from spraying are polished with abrasives; in
sprayed and abated, the protrusion peaks are
abated and smoothed with metal float while the
coating is still fresh. Finally, a Tyrolean finish is
produced by spraying or throwing the render
against the wall with the help of a Tyrolean
flicker gun or another device. In this type of
finish, a broad variety of textures and patterns
are possible, relying on how the tool is used.
Sometimes successive layers are sprayed until
the texture desired is achieved. This finish can
be made in a variety of colors and gives exte-
rior walls a characteristically rough, pebbled,
and weathered appearance.
.. Fig. 11.44 Coarse aggregate incorporated in

the final coat of the mortar (coin about 2.5 cm)
11
11.8.3 Technical Mortars the base, (2) unbonded: a screed laid either
onto a separating layer or onto a base not pre-
This group covers a broad variety of mortars pared to achieve bonding, and (3) floating: a
such as screeds, waterproofing mortar, con- screed laid on an acoustic and/or thermal
crete repair and protection mortar, tiles adhe- insulating layer and completely separated
sives mortar, texturing mortar, and many from other building elements, such as walls
others. According to EN 13318 standard, a and pipes” (MPA 2012).
screed is “a layer or layers of screed material Waterproofing mortar is a high-
laid in situ, directly onto a base, bonded or performance, often polymer modified mortar
unbonded, or onto an intermediate layer or containing waterproofing additives for both
insulating layer, to obtain one or more of the interior and exterior use. It is used in water-
following purposes: (a) to obtain a defined proof basements, foundations, retaining walls,
level, (b) to carry the final flooring, and (c) to etc. It is commonly applied to concrete sub-
provide a wearing surface.” Some other rea- strates to seal against water infiltration of
sons for utilizing a screed are the following: meteoric water and/or in areas of low pres-
(a) for providing a smooth flat surface at the sure. Concrete repair and protection mortars
correct level to receive a flooring, (b) for pro- include a range of products to repair and pro-
viding a finishing zone in which many kinds tect concrete to prolong the life of structures,
of flooring can be hosted, (c) to accommodate according to EN 1504-1 standard. This is
services (e.g., cables and pipes), (d) to cover because concrete deterioration can take place
and protect thermal/sound insulation, and (e) due to many reasons such as corrosion, struc-
to accommodate underfloor heating tural damage, water infiltration, and etcetera.
(. Fig. 11.6). Leveling screeds can be classi-

Ceramic tile adhesive mortars are special
fied as: “(1) bonded: a screed that is bonded to mortars used to paste ceramic wall and floor
References
335 11
tiles onto the substrate (. Fig. 11.36). They
11.9 Questions
may be subdivided into three wide types:
cement-based tile adhesive mortar, polymer ??Short Questions
emulsion tile adhesive mortar, and reactive 55 Define mortar
resin tile adhesive mortar. In general, the 55 List the different ways to classify mortars
cement-based type is the most used. This according to European standards
product is regulated in Europe by EN 12004-1 55 What are the main differences between
standard. With regard to other applications, concrete and mortar components?
EN 13888 is devoted to grout ceramic tiles for 55 Enumerate the cementitious materials used
internal and external tile installations on walls in mortars production
and floors (. Fig. 11.45).
55 Explain in a summarized way the main
Finally, texturing mortars (. Fig. 11.46)
mortar admixtures
are designed for the sculpture, or reconstruc- 55 What is the heat of hydration?
tion, of decorative reliefs such as artificial 55 Discuss an example of mix proportion of
rocks, trees, and stones, and the casting or the different mortar components
running of ornamental motifs in relief. They 55 What are the main properties of fresh
can be modeled, molded, carved, and sculp- mortar?
tured and used for fixing decorative elements 55 What are the main properties of hardened
such as natural or artificial stone and brick. mortar?
55 Enumerate the main types of mortars
55 What are the main reasons for using a
rendering mortar?
55 What does sgraffito stucco mean?
55 How is rough finish produced?
55 Explain the two main types of mortar used
in ceramic tiles applications
55 What does texturing mortar means?
??Long Questions
55 Explain the applications of compressive
strength measures in hardened mortar
55 Explain in a summarized way the dry
mortar production
.. Fig. 11.45 Grout for tiles
References
ANCADE (2009) Practical guide to lime mortars.
Spanish National Association of Manufacturers of
Lime and Lime Derivatives, Madrid, 64 p
BDA (2018) Mortar for brickwork. Brick Development
Association, London. 15 p
Chudley R, Greeno R, Kovac K (2020) Building con-
struction handbook, 12th edn. Routledge, Taylor &
Francis Group, 740 p
Flores-Colen I, de Brito J (2015) Renders. In: Goncalves
MC, Margarido F (eds) Materials for construction
and civil engineering. Springer International
Publishing, pp 53–122
.. Fig. 11.46 Decorative relief obtained using textur- MPA (2012) Screeds. Mortar Industry Association,
ing mortar Mineral Products Association, 3 p
MPA (2013) Properties of masonry mortar. Mortar EN 1015-17: 2000. Methods of test for mortar for
Industry Association, Mineral Products masonry. Determination of water-soluble chloride
Association, 9 p content of fresh mortars
MPA (2014) Properties of rendering mortar. Mortar EN 1015-18: 2002. Methods of test for mortar for
Industry Association, Mineral Products masonry. Determination of water absorption coef-
Association, 8 p ficient due to capillary action of hardened mortar
MPA (2015) Factory produced mortar for external ren- EN 1015-19: 1999. Methods of test for mortar for
dering. Mortar Industry Association, Mineral masonry. Determination of water vapor permeabil-
Products Association, 4 p ity of hardened rendering and plastering mortars
Ozerkan NG, Ashan B, Mansour S, Iyengar SR (2013) EN 1015-2: 1999. Methods of test for mortar for
Mechanical performance and durability of treated masonry. Bulk sampling of mortars and prepara-
palm fiber reinforced mortars. Int J Sustain Built tion of test mortars
Environ 2:131–142 EN 1015-21: 2002. Methods of test for mortar for
masonry. Determination of the compatibility of one
Standards coat-rendering mortars with substrates
EN 1015-3: 1999. Methods of test for mortar for
ASTM A1096 / A1096M – 15. Standard test method for
masonry. Determination of consistence of fresh
evaluating bond of individual steel wire, indented or
mortar (by flow table)
plain, for concrete reinforcement
ASTM C109/109M – 2020. Test method for compressive
masonry. Determination of consistence of fresh
strength of Hydraulic Cement Mortars (using 2-in.
mortar (by plunger penetration)
or [50-mm] cube specimens)
ASTM C11 – 2018. Terminology relating to gypsum and
masonry. Determination of bulk density of fresh
related building materials and systems
mortar
ASTM C1180 – 19. Standard terminology of mortar
and grout for unit masonry
masonry. Determination of air content of fresh
ASTM C1384 – 18e1. Standard specification for admix-
mortar
tures for masonry mortars
ASTM C1437 – 15. Standard test method for flow of
masonry. Determination of workable life and cor-
hydraulic cement mortar
11 ASTM C144 – 18. Standard specification for aggregate
rection of fresh mortar
EN 12004-1: 2017a. Adhesives for ceramic tiles.
for masonry mortar
Requirements, assessment and verification of con-
ASTM C185 – 2019. Test method for air content of
stancy of performance, classification and marking
hydraulic cement mortar
EN 12004-1: 2017b. Adhesives for ceramic tiles.
ASTM C207 – 18. Standard specification for hydrated
Requirements, assessment and verification of con-
lime for masonry purposes
stancy of performance, classification and marking
ASTM C219 – 19a. Standard terminology relating to
EN 12878: 2014. Pigments for the colouring of building
hydraulic and other inorganic cements
materials based on cement and/or lime.
ASTM C270 – 19ae1. Standard specification for mortar
Specifications and methods of test
for unit masonry
EN 13139: 2013. Aggregates for mortar
ASTM C596 – 18. Standard test method for drying
EN 13318: 2000. Screed material and floor screeds.
shrinkage of mortar containing hydraulic cement
Definitions
ASTM C91/91M – 2018. Specification for masonry
EN 13888: 2009. Grout for tiles. Requirements, evalua-
cement
tion of conformity, classification and designation
ASTM C979/C979M – 16. Standard specification for
EN 13914-1: 2016. Design, preparation and application
pigments for integrally colored concrete
of external rendering and internal plastering.
ASTM E1602 – 03(2017). Standard guide for construc-
External rendering
tion of solid fuel burning masonry heaters
EN 14889-1: 2006. Fibers for concrete. Steel fibers.
Definitions, specifications and conformity
masonry. Definitions of particle size distribution
EN 14889-2: 2006. Fibers for concrete. Polymer fibers.
(by sieve analysis)
Definitions, specifications and conformity
EN 1504-1:2005. Products and systems for the protec-
masonry. Determination of dry bulk density of
tion and repair of concrete structures. Definitions,
hardened mortar
requirements, quality control and evaluation of
conformity. Definitions
masonry. Determination of flexural and compres-
EN 413-1: 2011. Masonry cement. Composition, specifi-
sive strength of hardened mortar
cations and conformity criteria
EN 934-3: 2009+A1: 2012. Admixtures for concrete,
masonry. Determination of adhesive strength of
mortar and grout. Admixtures for masonry mortar.
hardened rendering and plastering mortars on sub-
Definitions, requirements, conformity, marking and
strates
labelling
References
337 11
EN 998-1: 2016. Specification for mortar for masonry – Thamboo J, Jayarathne N, Bandara A (2019)
part 1: Rendering and plastering mortar Characterisation and mix specification of com-
EN 998-2: 2016. Specification for mortar for masonry – monly used masonry mortars. SN Applied Sciences
part 2: masonry mortar 1:292
ISO 6707-1: 2014. Buildings and civil engineering
works – vocabulary – part 1: general Terms
Further Reading Useful Links

Allen G, Allen J, Elton N, Farey M, Holmes S, Livesey
Brick Development Association. www.brick.ork.uk
P, Radonjic M (2015) Hydraulic lime mortar for
Council for Masonry Research. www.masonryresearch.
stone, brick, and block masonry. Routledge, Taylor
org
& Francis Group, 104 p
European Mortar Industry Organisation. www.
Bayer R, Lutz H (2003) Dry mortar. In: Ullmann’s ency-
euromortar.com
clopedia of industrial chemistry, 6th edn. Wiley-
Mapei. www.mapei.com
VCH, Weinheim, pp 74–94
Mason Contractors Association of America. www.
Domone P, Illston J (eds) (2010) Construction materi-
masoncontractors.org
als – their nature and behaviour. Spon Press,
Mineral Products Association. www.mortar.org.uk
London, 567 p
Sika. www.sika.com
Dugall SK (2008) Construction materials. New Age
Weber Saint-Gobain. www.saint-gobain.com/en/weber
International (P) Ltd., Publishers, New Delhi, 525 p
339 12
Ceramic Products
Contents

12.2.1 Clay and Clay Minerals – 342
12.3 Bricks – 347

12.3.1 efinitions and Types – 347
D
12.3.2 Manufacturing Process – 348
12.3.3 Refractory Products – 354
12.4 Roof Tiles – 357
12.5 Ceramic Tiles – 360

12.5.1 T ypes – 362
12.5.2 Manufacturing Process – 365
12.5.3 Glazes and Frits – 368
12.6 Sanitaryware – 372
References – 374

340 Chapter 12 · Ceramic Products
clay pieces. Its simplicity, strength, and dura-

Summary bility led to further extensive utilization, giv-
This chapter deals with the group of ing it a prevailing place in construction history
building and construction materials termed along with stone. The oldest fired bricks are
ceramic products. They include a variety of found in archeological sites dealing with the
products such as bricks, roof tiles, wall and ancient cities of Babylonia, some of which are
floor tiles, and sanitary ware. After estimated to be built about 6000 years old
summarizing the characteristics of the (. Fig. 12.1).

major types of raw materials used in the Clay-based building materials show aver-
construction ceramic industry, the complex age service lives of over a century and their
world of clay and clay minerals is durability supports the optimization of a raw
introduced, including the geological material with a wide range of benefits for both
environments of formation of these natural building and construction sectors. There is
materials. Main groups of ceramic products large number of ceramic products for con-
are further described. Definition and types struction, from bricks for masonry
of bricks as well as their manufacturing (. Fig. 12.2) to finishing elements such as

process are discussed with the incorporation roof tiles (. Fig. 12.3) and wall and floor tiles

of a heading devoted to refractory bricks.

Roof tiles are then considered. Wall and
floor tiles are the next group of ceramic
products to be summarized. Their definition
and types, manufacturing process, and
glazes and frits products, which are crucial
in the current wall and floor tiles industry,
are introduced. The last heading of the
chapter is devoted to sanitary wear, of great
importance in the present building sector.
12
12.1 Introduction
.. Fig. 12.1 Ruins of the ancient city of Babylon in
As primary raw materials, clays have been Mesopotamia. (Image courtesy of Osama Shukir
extracted from their natural environment for Muhammed Amin)
most of man’s civilized existence. Use of
bricks, roof tiles, and wall and floor tiles was
essential for human beings for many centuries.
The initial utilization of clay-based products
was in sculpted figurines and household ware,
e.g., pots, tableware, storage jars, and etcetera.
The development of ceramic products applied
to building and construction started 6000–
8000 years ago. Their utilization is even men-
tioned in the Bible (for example, Genesis
11:3—and they said to one another, “Come,
let us make bricks, and burn them thor-
oughly”). Brick made by shaping plastic mass
of clay and water, which is then hardened by
drying and firing, is one of the oldest manu-
factured building materials. Bricks were firstly .. Fig. 12.2 Albi Cathedral (France) built with bricks
used without burning in the form of sundried along 13th to 15th centuries
341 12
.. Fig. 12.3 Roof tiles. (Image courtesy of Mazarrón

Cerámicas)
.. Fig. 12.5 Sanitaryware. (Image courtesy of Laufen)
temperature begins the transformation of the

constituent materials from their natural state
to that of a glassy state (incipient fusion).”
12.2 Raw Materials
A broad range of raw materials is used by the

.. Fig. 12.4 Wall and floor tiles. (Image courtesy of ceramic industry to meet the variety of
Pamesa)
demanded products in building and
construction. Raw materials used in the pro-
(. Fig. 12.4). This chapter only considers the
duction of ceramic products mostly include
three main groups of ceramic construction clays blended with other components such as
products cited before, that is, masonry bricks, quartz, feldspars, chamotte (formed of
roof tiles, and wall and floor tiles. A fourth crushed bricks, fragments of roof tiles, and
group, termed sanitaryware (. Fig. 12.5), is
other ceramic remains), and many more. For
also discussed in view of its great importance manufacturing ceramic products, clays are
in current building construction. crucial as they have the ability to be mixed
In this chapter, the term ceramic, used as with water with the goal to form plastic mate-
an adjective according to ASTM C1232 stan- rial (. Fig. 12.6) that can be further molded

dard, means “pertaining to products contain- into different shapes. The resulting material is
ing hydrous silicates of alumina that are finally fired up to high temperature so that the
treated to develop, fired bond,” that is, ceramic products attain hard, weather-resis-
“ceramic materials used for brick and clay tile tant characteristics.
typically consist of clay or other similar earthy Formulation of clay-based ceramics con-
materials that have been fired in a kiln to tem- sists of mixing of one and/or more clays,
peratures above 655°C; the exposure to high which confer plasticity and workability in the
to improve porosity of the finished product.

For instance, CaCO3 is used to provide a buff/
yellow color while BaCO3 is sometimes added
to reduce efflorescence. In a finely dispersed
form, carbon acts as an internal body fuel
thus enhancing the brick appearance. All
additives are added either just before the shap-
ing process or in the raw material preparation,
whether in solid or in liquid form. Moreover,
in order to produce compressible masses,
binders and aggregates are added to the milled
.. Fig. 12.6 Clayey plastic material. (Image courtesy raw materials.
of José Pedro Calvo)
12.2.1 Clay and Clay Minerals
According to Guggenheim and Martin (1995)

(Joint Report of the AIPEA and CMS
Nomenclature Committees), “the term clay
refers to a naturally occurring material com-
posed primarily of fine-grained minerals,
which is generally plastic at appropriate water
contents and will harden when dried or fired.
Although clay usually contains phyllosilicates,
it may contain other materials that impart
.. Fig. 12.7 Kieselguhr (diatomite) quarry. (Image
courtesy of Manuel Pozo)
plasticity and harden when dried or fired.
Associated phases in clay may include materi-
12 als that do not impart plasticity and organic
green state, with mineral modifiers, termed matter.” The naturally occurring requirement
non-plastics, i.e., powdered quartz and feld- of clay excludes synthetics. Plasticity refers to
spar. Regardless of the clay product type to be the ability of the material to be molded to any
manufactured, the mixture is made of three shape. Numerous associated phases are usu-
types of materials (hence the term triaxial ally present in clays: minerals such as quartz,
ceramic): a clay portion that acts as a former, calcite, dolomite, feldspars, oxides, and
providing shaping ability; a quartz (silica) hydroxides, and/or noncrystalline phases such
component that serves as a filler, providing as colloidal silica, iron hydroxide gels, and
strength to the formed object; and the feld- organic gels. ASTM C242 standard establishes
spar that serves as a vitrifying or fluxing agent, that clay is “a natural mineral agglomerate,
lowering the melting temperatures of the clay consisting essentially of hydrous aluminum
and quartz during firing. In some cases, chalk, silicates; plastic when sufficiently wetted, rigid
dolomite, and wollastonite are added as fillers when dried en masse, and vitrified when fired
and fluxing materials. to a sufficiently high temperature.”
Organic additives, e.g., paper binding sub- AIPEA and CMS Nomenclature
stances, foamed polystyrene, and/or inorganic Committees make the point that “plasticity is
auxiliary agents such as kieselguhr or diato- a property that is greatly affected by the chem-
mite (. Fig. 12.7), are added to create greater
ical composition of the material. For example,
pore volume. In the brick and roof tile indus- some species of chlorite and mica can remain
try, metallic oxides such as MnO2, TiO2, Fe2O3, non-plastic upon grinding macroscopic flakes
and minerals such as calcite and/or dolomite even where more than 70% of the material is
are added to obtain the desired color and/or <2 gm esd (equivalent spherical diameter). In
343 12
contrast, other chlorites and micas become
plastic upon grinding macroscopic flakes
where 3% of the material is <2 gm esd” and
that “plasticity may be affected also by the
aggregate nature of the particles in the mate-
rial. For example, many glauconite sands are
composed of (sand size) grains of aggregates
of fine-grained glauconite crystallites.
Although the material may be plastic, they
apparently contain no fines based on a stan-
dard grain-size analysis.”
Guggenheim and Martin (1995) define
clay mineral as follows: “the term clay mineral
refers to phyllosilicate minerals and to miner-
als which impart plasticity to clay and which
harden upon drying or firing.” Again, the
AIPEA and CMS Committees point out that
“currently, minerals known to produce the
property of plasticity are phyllosilicates.
Because minerals are not defined according to
their crystallite size, appropriate phyllosili-
cates of any grain size may be considered clay
.. Fig. 12.8 Spheres closely packed to form a tetrahe-
minerals. Likewise, clay minerals are not dron and an octahedron
restricted, by definition, to phyllosilicates.”
Clay minerals, the main components of
clay products, are a very diverse type of Si4+, although Al3+ usually (and Fe3+ less
hydrous layer aluminosilicates forming the commonly) substitutes for it. The “octahedral
major part of the phyllosilicate group (from sheet comprises two planes of close-packed
the Greek term phyllon, meaning leaf) of min- oxygen ions with cations occupying the result-
erals. They are generally known by geologists ing octahedral sites between the two planes;
as hydrous layer aluminosilicates having parti- the cations are most commonly Al3+, Fe3+,
cle size <2 mm. Clay minerals include 56 min- and Mg2+ but other cations of transition ele-
eral species that were approved by the ments can be present. For its part, the com-
International Mineralogical Association posite layer formed by linking one tetrahedral
according to composition and structure crite- and one octahedral sheet is known as a 1:1
ria. Engineers and soil scientists consider layer; in these layers, the upper-most unshared
clays as any mineral particles with size lower plane of anions in the octahedral sheet con-
than 4 mm. Their “small size and large surface sists entirely of OH- groups” (Huggett 2015).
area to volume ratio gives a set of unique A composite layer of one octahedral layer
properties to the clay minerals, including high sandwiched between two tetrahedral layers is
cation exchange capacities, catalytic proper- termed 2:1 layer.
ties, and plastic behavior where moist” As a consequence, tetrahedral and octahe-
(Huggett 2015). dral sites differ in another important feature:
Two distinct structural features character- the space occupied by a cation in a tetrahedral
ize the crystal structure of clay minerals as a site is smaller than the space occupied in an
consequence of how the large O2− ions are octahedral site. Because cations vary in size,
packed together in space. Clays basically com- small cations tend to occupy tetrahedral sites,
prise sheets of tetrahedra and sheets of octa- somewhat larger cations tend to occur in octa-
hedra (. Fig. 12.8). The general formula for
hedral sites, whereas the largest cations must
the tetrahedral sheet is T2O5, where T is mainly fit into spaces that are even larger than octa-
(. Fig. 12.9) is by far the most abundant clay

.. Table 12.1 Types of structural sites in which
common cations tend to occur in phyllosilicate mineral so that it occurs in most of the clays
mineral structures used in the ceramic sector. An outstanding
role played by kaolinite is “to impart white-
Type of site Cation ness to the ceramic material; its firing behav-
ior is characterized by broad reaction intervals
Tetrahedral only Si4+
and increased refractoriness. However,
Tetrahedral or Al3+, Fe3+ vitrification can be difficult” (Reeves et al.

octahedral 2006).
Octahedral only Mg2+ Ti4+, Fe2+, Halloysite shows 1:1 layer structure simi-
Mn2+ lar to kaolinite except for the fact that the 1:1
Interlayer sites Na+ Ca2+, K+ layers are separated by a layer composed of
H2O molecules where wholly hydrated. It
forms early in the weathering process but it is
usually less stable than kaolinite and gives
way to kaolinite with time. The most impor-
tant characteristic of halloysite is the high
degree of whiteness but its unusual crystalline
structure generally does not provide good rhe-
ological properties. Thus, halloysite is not
commonly used in the manufacture of ceram-
ics products with the exception of some
refractory materials.
In contrast, 2:1 clay minerals are more
diverse from a structural point of view and
are represented by several mineral species.
Pyrophyllite is a 2:1 clay mineral with no sub-
12 .. Fig. 12.9 SEM image showing kaolinite in a kaolin stitution in either sheet and, as a consequence,
sample (Poveda de la Sierra, Spain). (Image courtesy of without layer charge or interlayer cations,
Manuel Pozo) although minor substitution is frequent. The
2:1 clays with the lowest interlayer charge are
hedral sites. Cations with sizes intermediate smectites. Minerals of the smectite group
between the optimum for two sites can occur have capacity to expand and contract with
in either site. For instance, the Al3+ ion can be the addition and loss (through heating),
present in either octahedral or tetrahedral respectively, of water and organic molecules.
sites. . Table 12.1 summarizes the structural
Montmorillonite is a dioctahedral smectite
sites in which common cations usually occur with the charge primarily located in the octa-
in clay minerals. hedral sheet; it has a negative effect on
Clays are often classified according to ceramic properties but small amounts of
their layer type, with the charge of the layer montmorillonite are often added to the
being used to establish subdivisions. In 1:1 ceramic products in order to improve strength
type minerals, the kandite minerals are alu- and plasticity. The second group of clays with
mina octahedra and silica tetrahedra with exchangeable cations is vermiculite. This clay
occasional substitution of Fe3+ for Al3+. mineral is much less abundant in sedimentary
Within the kandite group, kaolinite rocks than smectites. Vermiculite is most
345 12
commonly found along with other soil-
formed clays while coarsely crystalline ver-
miculite deposits are formed from alteration
of igneous rocks.
Mica, illite, chlorite, and fibrous clays
(sepiolite—. Fig.12.10—and palygorskite)

are also 2:1 type minerals. Illite, illitic mica,

or sericite are dominant clay minerals in raw
materials of the structural ceramic sector,
i.e., bricks and roof tiles. Compared with
kaolinite, illite has higher alkali content and
off-white fired color. It “provides high green
strength and plasticity to the unfired body
and its firing features are early sintering
(also said vitrification) and a broad vitrifica-
tion spectrum; moreover, illite plays an
important role in assisting in the fluxing pro-
cess and ensuring that a glassy bond devel-
ops with the other body components”
(Reeves et al. 2006).
From a geological viewpoint, clay miner-
als are the major constituent of fine-grained
.. Fig. 12.10 Sepiolite quarry. (Image courtesy of sediments and rocks (7 Box 12.1).

Manuel Pozo)
Box 12.1
Geology of Clay Minerals als, undoubtedly have been present since early
Clay minerals are an essential component of in Earth’s history” (Hazen and Bish 2013).
soils, lake, estuarine, and ocean sediments, Clays formed through weathering are even-
which cover the vast majority of the Earth’s tually taken away because of erosion processes.
surface. “They are present in almost all sedi- Further transport is favored by the small grain
mentary rocks, the outcrops of which cover size of the clays, which is mainly driven by sus-
approximately 75% of the Earth’s land surface” pension over long distances in flowing water.
(Huggett 2015). Most clays in sediments and Sedimentation of clays “occurs for the most
sedimentary rocks are reworked from older part in lakes and in the oceans. Residence time
clay-bearing sediments and/or weathered igne- of clays in the sedimentary environment is
ous and metamorphic rocks but some clays can greater than in the weathering process” (Velde
form at the Earth’s surface either by transfor- 2012).
mation of preexisting clays or from solution The clay mineral suite in marine deposits is
(authigenesis) (. Fig. 12.11). These clays are

determined by the composition of source rocks
useful environmental indicators so long as they and climate conditions that control rock weath-
are not reworked. Clay minerals “formed dur- ering. The distribution of detrital clay minerals
ing diagenesis in sedimentary basins and/or in estuaries and deltas reflects different settling
during low- grade metamorphism, generally rates of the clays and their tendency to flocculate.
including alteration of pre-existing clay miner- If flocculation does not occur, the fine clay par-
SEDIMENTARY DIAGENETIC
(depositional) (postdepositional)
water sediment
AUTHIGENIC CLAY AUTHIGENIC CLAY
TRANSFORMATION DIAGENIC NEOFORMATION

(suspended particles and colloids) (direct precipitation from ionic or colloidal solutions)
Evaporative Intrasedimentary
SEDIMENTARY NEOFORMATION TRANSFORMATION
(direct precipitation from ionic or colloidal solutions) (dissolution-precipitation from previous phases or epitaxial growth)
AURHIGENIC CLAYS
DETRITAL CLAYS
SEDIMENTARY CLASTIC DEPOSITION

(Inheritance)
water
INHERITED CLAY
.. Fig. 12.11 Diagrammatic sketch showing the relationships between detrital and authigenic clays with
12 emphasis in their models of formation (Pozo and Calvo 2018)
ticles remain in suspension longest and are trans- burial conditions, there are gradual readjust-
ported further offshore. Deep sea clays cover by ments that generate new minerals because of
far the greatest area over large ocean regions variation in temperature (T) and pressure (P)
where the clays settle down slowly. Clay content that modify clay mineral stabilities so that new
and composition in marine sediments are a result clay phases are created in the subsurface. If
of both detrital and neoformation processes. burial progresses toward metamorphic condi-
Regarding nonmarine clays, most continen- tions, increasing P and T will make the clay
tal, freshwater, and saline lacustrine clays are minerals to be transformed and generally
detrital, though several modern saline lakes recrystallized. It means that coarser, new sili-
contain significant amount of neoformed Fe- cate minerals are formed even though they
and Mg-rich smectite. Many “ancient lake show chemical composition and some proper-
deposits contain mainly iron-rich illite but ties similar to the prior clay minerals.
occurrence of smectite and fibrous clays, i.e. The “clay cycle is renewed when metamor-
sepiolite and palygorskite, is noticeable in some phic rocks are brought to the surface where the
Tertiary lake systems in many parts of the weathering hydrolysis interaction creates new
world” (Pozo and Calvo 2018). clay phases” (Velde 2012).
When clay sediments are subjected to
burial, the water/rock ratio changes. Under
12.3 · Bricks
347 12
12.3 Bricks sons: (a) to constitute a durable bond between
bricks and the wall, (b) to decrease the mate-
12.3.1 Definitions and Types rial cost, and (c) to reduce the effective thick-
ness of the bricks and thus decrease firing
According to ASTM C1232 standard, a brick time. Because of these factors and the very
is “a solid or hollow masonry unit of clay or large proportion of the production cost spent
shale, usually formed into a rectangular prism, on fuel, many clay units are perforated at least
then burned or fired in a kiln; brick is a to the extent of 10 to 25% by volume.
ceramic product.” In contrast, EN 771-1 Perforated bricks usually include less than
European standard does not consider the 25% of voids and hence these behave as real
term brick but defines the so-called clay solids in a structural sense. According to EN
masonry unit as a “masonry unit made from 771-1 standard, a vertical perforation is a
clay or other argillaceous materials with or “formed void that passes completely through
without sand, fuel or other additives fired at a a masonry unit perpendicular to the bed face”
sufficiently high temperature to achieve a while a horizontal perforation is a “formed
ceramic bond.” The latter standard does not void that passes completely through a
specify standard sizes for clay masonry units masonry unit parallel to the bed face.”
since it was prepared to encompass all clay Following ASTM C216 standard, “a solid
bricks and blocks available throughout brick can show core holes whose area is no
Europe. Nevertheless, a classical standard more than 25% of the total bed surface of the
clay brick size is 215 mm × 102 mm × 65 mm brick.” While 100% solid bricks are often
(. Fig. 12.12). BDA (2017) points out that

available, the vast majority of bricks are pro-
bricks are a versatile and sustainable building duced with 25% core holes. ASTM C652 stan-
material, providing numerous advantages dard covers hollow bricks and points out that
such as: “(a) highly durable, (b) offer long- “shall be understood to mean hollow clay
term performance, (c) low maintenance, (d) masonry units whose net cross-sectional area
high-thermal mass, (e) reusable and recycla- (solid area) in any plane parallel to the sur-
ble, and (f) generate healthy and comfortable face, containing the cores, cells, or deep frogs,
environments.” is less than 75 % of its gross cross-sectional
Bricks are commonly, but not invariably, area measured in the same plane.” The hollow
in the form of rectangular prisms although bricks in ASTM C652 standard are classified
many other special shapes are produced. based on grade. The standard classifies the
Indentations or perforations (cylindrical holes ability of bricks to resist damage by freezing
passing through the thickness of the brick) where wet. If moisture freezes inside a brick,
(. Fig. 12.12) are provided for different rea- water expands; when many cycles of freeze

and thaw, the face of the brick can eventually

crack and fall off. There are two grades defined
in ASTM C652 standard: SW, meaning severe
weathering, and MW, which means moderate
weathering.
ASTM C1232 standard defines facing
brick as “brick for general purposes where
appearance properties such as color, texture,
and chippage are important; facing bricks are
produced from selected clays and are available
in typical face sizes, various colors, and in
various textures” and building brick as “brick
for load-resisting or other purposes where
appearance properties such as texture or color
are not important (formerly called common
.. Fig. 12.12 Classical standard clay bricks brick).” EN 771-1 standard classified clay
masonry units (bricks) as belonging to one of

the following two groups: LD (low density)
type and HD (high density) type. LD units
comprise “clay masonry units with a gross dry
density of less than or equal to 1,000 kg/m3
for use on protected masonry” while HD units
comprise “all clay masonry units for use in
unprotected masonry or units with a gross dry
density greater than 1,000 kg/m3 for use in
protected masonry.” In this standard, pro-
tected masonry is a “masonry that is protected
against water penetration and is not in con-
tact with soil and ground water” and unpro-
tected masonry is a “masonry that may be
exposed to rain, freeze/thaw and/or may be in
contact with soil and ground water without a
suitable protection.” EN 771-1 standard spec-
ifies requirements and properties for every LH
and HD units in terms of dimensions and tol-
erances, configuration, density, and compres-
sive strength. . Figure 12.13 shows different

types of surface textures.

In terms of use, clay bricks can be classi-
fied as: (a) facing: bricks that are designed to
be exposed, inside or outside the building, (b)
nonload bearing: bricks that do not bear any
load other than their own weight, and (c) load
12 bearing: bricks that have a structural role in
the building. There are several types of brick
bonds (. Fig. 12.14), which are the bricklay-

ing patterns. Bonds are designed to improve

appearance and/or enhance strength.
12.3.2 Manufacturing Process
The manufacturing process of bricks is illus-

trated in . Fig. 12.15. The process can be

subdivided into five main steps: preparation

of raw materials, forming methods, drying,
firing, and packaging.
55 Preparation of Raw Materials
Most brick factories are located nearby a clay

quarry. Very often, not one but several quar-
ries are mined in order to gather different clay
deposits (. Fig. 12.16) thus allowing the

manufacture of a broad range of colors, tex-

tures, and technical characteristics. This is
because clay is a natural raw material whose .. Fig. 12.13 Different types of brick surface textures
properties may change over time. For instance, (BDA 2017)
12.3 · Bricks
349 12
.. Fig. 12.14 Common types of brick bonds
more plastic and less plastic clays can be ing a raw material suitable for specific brick
mixed and the proportion of clay type will be types and/or special product requirements.
decided after the quality and consistency of Clay is mined during the drier seasons and
the resulting product. Blending produces a is left in open air stocked in piles with inter-
better degree of product uniformity, provid- spersed layers where the clays are tipped and
12
.. Fig. 12.15 Manufacturing process of bricks (BDA 2017)
leveled with bulldozers. It is a common prac- homogeneous material and gives the needed
tice to layer a stockpile with several clay types clay properties. Stockpiling insures better
extracted from different parts of the quarry intermixing of the material and minimizes
for ensuring consistency of the final product. segregation; in addition, stockpiling under
Accordingly, each vertical slice produces a open-air conditions favors weathering and
12.3 · Bricks
351 12
.. Fig. 12.16 Different types of clays stored for manu-

facturing bricks. (Image courtesy of Mazarrón
Cerámicas)
disaggregation of the raw material. On the

other hand, rainwater washes out some solu-
ble salts, which later may originate efflores-
cence on the face of brickwork. Consequently,
a “period of several months in the stockpiles
ensures that clays become more plastic and .. Fig. 12.17 Hydraulic excavator and dump truck in a
malleable” (Reeves et al. 2006). The equip- clay quarry. (Image courtesy of SAMCA)
ment used in mining processes is usually
formed of hydraulic excavators combined
with dump trucks (. Fig. 12.17).

To accomplish the correct consistency for

the brick forming process, an adequate prepa-
ration of the clay is essential. The piles are cut
vertically, passing through the different layers,
and the clay is further crushed with several
devices to decrease size of the clayey frag-
ments. Clay fineness not only influences the
appearance of the brick but also its physical
characteristics. A typical installation for clay
sieving might be formed of a primary crusher
for breaking down large lumps of rock to
handy size and a secondary crusher where the
size of the clay fragments is further reduced.
A final crushing step is often available for
decreasing the size of clay fragments up to
1–2 mm (. Fig. 12.18). After crushing, the

.. Fig. 12.18 Milling the clay. (Image courtesy of Maz-
material is usually stored indoors arrón Cerámicas)
(. Fig. 12.19) to protect it from outdoor

weather conditions. being used. In some cases, other materials

In a next step, the clay is fed into a mixer in may be incorporated in the mixture for pro-
which some water amounts are added and ducing specific characteristics; for instance,
thoroughly mixed with the clay to insure con- pigments can be added to generate particular
ditions of moisture and plasticity; the amount colors (. Fig. 12.20).

of water depends on the production method 55 Forming Methods

.. Fig. 12.19 Indoor storing of clays after crushing

and milling. (Image courtesy of Mazarrón Cerámicas)
.. Fig. 12.21 Extrusion of bricks. (Image courtesy of

Mazarrón Cerámicas)
.. Fig. 12.22 Brick cutter (BDA 2017)

12
aim to obtain the optimum physical properties
for extrusion, the moisture content of the mate-
rial is maintained from 11 to 15%. Extruder
machine is generally fitted with bars properly
designed to produce the characteristic perfora-
tions of the bricks. The extruded column or rib-
bon may undergo specific processes in order to
.. Fig. 12.20 Black bricks meet a sought finish appearance. After extru-
sion, the material is cut into bricks to the
In brick manufacturing, forming is the process desired dimensions utilizing a set of wires
whereby the ceramic material is shaped, tex- (. Fig. 12.22). The bricks are further placed

tured (and sometimes colored) prior to firing. onto steel rails or pallets prior to being sent to
In this process, air is as much as possible the dryer.
removed from the raw material mixture. There The extrusion process generates bricks
are several methods of forming clay bricks. with superior physical properties. Extrusion
Extrusion is the most common method to man- also represents a widespread technique in
ufacture most brick types with very accurate forming other ceramic products, as it is the
dimensions. The material is fed from the mixer case for roofing tiles. The process became
into a vacuum chamber. In this device, the air is quite popular provided that the formed prod-
extracted from the clay and the ceramic mate- uct is quite suitable for firing in tunnel kilns.
rial gets off from the chamber as a continuous, In special cases, hand making, the oldest tech-
consolidated column (. Fig. 12.21). With the
nique of forming a brick, is used. Nowadays,
12.3 · Bricks
353 12
handmade bricks are economically attractive and the drying cycle starts. Drying time varies
because they preserve an individual character depending on the composition of the mixture
and are able to meet a broad range of sizes and the technical conditions used, but it usu-
and shapes aimed to historic brickwork ally takes from 24 to 48 hours until complete
rehabilitation. drying of the bricks. Special shapes and large
55 Drying units can take up to a week or more. The dry
bricks are then set onto kiln cars ready to be
After the forming stage, bricks contain water fired.
that must be removed before the bricks are 55 Firing
fired; otherwise, they could explode in the
kilns. The water content in extruded bricks is Firing consists basically of increasing gradu-
around 12%. Drying represents a quite sensi- ally temperatures in the kiln until chemical
tive process that must be carefully controlled and physical alteration of the structure of the
to minimize issues, e.g., distortion and crack- clay by partial fusion (vitrification). In this
ing, inherent to the operation. Drying involves way, relatively weak dried clay is converted
removal of water from inside out in the wet into strong, durable brick. Clay particles and
brick. If the outer skin of the brick dries first, impurities are fused together to produce a
it becomes impossible for the moisture inside hard durable and weather-resistant product.
to escape. Extreme temperatures in the kiln Firing modifies the color and develops the
will force out the moisture so that some crack- strength of the bricks. The complexity of the
ing may occur. The drying stage is important process deals with the variety of clay types,
since it gets down the energy input of the the methods of manufacture, the types of
overall process. kilns, and the variety of ceramic products.
The rate of drying in a tunnel or chamber During firing, reactions take place within the
dryer (. Fig. 12.23) is fitted controlling the
clay body, some of which transform the clayey
temperature, humidity, and air movement. A material and develop new properties. The
typical drying cycle starts with low tempera- effects of firing on a clay body include shrink-
ture (about 30 °C) and high humidity and fin- age, loss of weight, increase strength, and
ishes at relatively high temperature (up to change in color. The firing cycle and tempera-
100 °C) and low humidity. Air movement ture are variable and depend on the composi-
inside the tunnel is controlled by fans, being tion of the clayey mixture. For example,
used to distribute the air around the product light-colored clay often requires higher firing
and remove saturated air. The chamber dryer temperatures than dark-colored ones.
is gradually filled with pallets of wet bricks. Controlling the firing conditions, i.e., the time
When the chamber is full, the door is closed of firing and the rate at which temperature
rises, and adapting the firing parameters to
the raw material properties and desired char-
acteristics of the final product is essential to
assuring that the final product will accomplish
with the needed specifications.
Most bricks are fired throughout a tunnel
kiln (continuous kiln) (. Figs. 12.24,
. 12.25, and . 12.26) at temperatures rang-

ing from 800 to 1000 °C. In this type of kiln,

the bricks are pushed into the kiln on kiln cars
.. Fig. 12.23 Chamber or tunnel dryer (BDA 2017) .. Fig. 12.24 Illustration of a tunnel kiln (BDA 2017)
.. Fig. 12.25 Tunnel kiln. (Image courtesy of Maz-

arrón Cerámicas) .. Fig. 12.27 Discharging by using robots. (Image
courtesy of Mazarrón Cerámicas)
2017). Air becomes hot and can be drawn off

and recycled for utilization in the drying pro-
cess. This makes this type of kiln highly effi-
cient for high productions.
Near the end of the vitrification phase, a
reducing atmosphere can be produced within
the kiln, which generates insufficient oxygen
content for complete combustion. This change
in the process is termed flashing and produces
different hues and shadings from the natural
12 clay colors. For instance, an oxygen-rich stage
will produce red bricks if the clay has high
iron oxide content while the same clay will
.. Fig. 12.26 Top of tunnel kiln showing the burners. generate more purple bricks in the presence of
(Image courtesy of Mazarrón Cerámicas) a reducing atmosphere with low oxygen.
55 Packaging
at one end and come out fired at the other
after a residence time of approximately The majority of currently produced bricks are
24 hours. The fire is stationary and the bricks handled by machines or robots (. Fig. 12.27)

move slowly in the kiln. Many tunnel kilns are at rates of up to 200,000 bricks per shift. The
100–200 m long and up to 3 m high. As the machines gradually remove bricks from kiln
bricks progress throughout the kiln heat cars and reconfigure them into packs of bricks
increases and the process ends at the time the that can be handled by forklift. They can be
required temperature is achieved. palletized, shrink-wrapped, and bagged. As
Regarding the evolution of temperature discussed before, bricks are mainly used in
within the kiln, firing is carried out in three masonry works but occasionally they can be
steps: “(a) pre-heating: this assures total dry- used for other applications (. Fig. 12.28).

ness of the brick and utilizes combustion gas-

ses in the kiln to raise the brick temperature,
(b) firing (stricto sensu): a fuel is used to raise 12.3.3 Refractory Products
and maintain the temperature to the needed
value over a few hours, and (c) cooling: cold Etymologically, refractory is derived from the
air is drawn into the kiln to cool the bricks Latin word refractarius, which means to break,
slowly ready for sorting and packing” (BDA resist, or refuse to subjugate (Poirier 2007).
12.3 · Bricks
355 12
composition and inclusionary cleanliness. The
basic characteristics of refractory products
deal with chemical composition, mineralogy,
microstructure, and porous network. However,
they are commonly classified based on their
principal constituent. Thus, main groups of
refractory materials are as follows: “(a) high-
alumina products - group 1 (Al2O3>56%), (b)
high-alumina products - group 2
(45%<Al2O3<56%), (c) fireclay products
(30%<Al2O3<45%), (d) low-alumina fireclay
products (10%<Al2O3<30%, SiO2<85%), (e)
siliceous products or semi- silica products
.. Fig. 12.28 Bricks used in paving (85%<SiO2<93%), (f) silica products (SiO2>
93%), (f) basic products, based on magnesia,
Thus, refractory products are materials that magnesia-chrome, chrome-magnesia, chro-
resist high temperatures. They have consider- mite, forsterite, dolomite, and (g) special prod-
able economic and strategic importance. ucts, based on carbon, graphite, zircon,
Refractory materials are a vital component for zirconia, silicon carbide, carbides (other than
high-temperature processes such as metals silicon carbide), nitrides, borides, spinels
making, cement production, petrochemical (other than chromite), fused-lime” (European
processes, glass manufacturing, and ceramic Commission 2007).
production since they greatly influence on the Several methods are used by the industry for
quality of the finished product, including manufacturing refractory bricks (7 Box 12.2).
Box 12.2
Manufacturing Refractory Bricks

The production process depends on the partic-
ular combination of chemical compounds and
minerals used to obtain a specified level of
thermal stability, corrosion resistance, thermal
expansion, and other qualities. In the manufac-
ture of refractory bricks (. Fig. 12.29), the

simplest method is to saw shapes from natural

and/or artificially produced raw materials.
Highly refractory products are currently pro-
duced by fine crushing and wet mixing and
later they are shaped by means of extrusion,
slip casting, or isostatic pressing. Nowadays,
the so-called heavy clay ceramic method is the
most used method for the manufacture of
refractory bricks. As a rule, it involves the fol- .. Fig. 12.29 Refractory bricks used in the cement
lowing stages: raw materials preparation, shap- industry. (Image courtesy of Grupo Cementos
ing, drying, firing, and subsequent treatment. Portland Valderrivas)
and oversized material is fed back to the mill-

.. Table 12.2 Most used oxides in
ing devices. Proportioning the different compo-
melting/casting operations (European
Commission 2007) nents is performed utilizing weighing scales;
binders, pore-forming agents, anti-tack agents,
Name Formula Melting and mold lubricants can be also incorporated if
temperature necessary. All the components are fed into mix-
(°C) ers, homogenized, and predensified. Further,
casting slip is obtained by mixing the raw mate-
Alumina Al2O3 2050
rials with a dispersing agent such as water;
Chromium Cr2O3 2275 dust-pressing powder is produced in a dry pro-
III
cess or in a wet or semi-wet process followed by
Magnesia MgO 2S30 spray-drying. Both types of products are used
Dolomite CaO + MgO 2700 in the shaping process. After adequate body
formation time, the green ware is removed from
Silica SiO2 1725
the mold.
Zirconia ZrO2 2700 Drying processes occur in chamber and/or
Zircon ZrSiO4 1770 tunnel dryers and last from one day to several
weeks, depending on the size of the bricks.
Large shapes are dried using controlled mois-
Clay, chamotte, and natural rocks such as ture of the drying air. The remaining humidity
quartzite, dolomite, magnesite, and bauxite as in the brick must be lower than 1% before the
well as synthetic base materials (e.g., sintered firing process begins. Firing involves heating
corundum, silicon carbide, and fused spinel) the refractory material to high temperatures in
are the raw materials for manufacturing refrac- a periodic batch or a continuous tunnel kiln to
tory bricks. They constitute between 70 and constitute a ceramic bond. This process gives
100% of the product composition occupying the raw materials their refractory properties.
12 generally the whole granulometric distribution . Table 12.3 indicates the operating data for

and always the coarser part. With the aim to tunnel kilns utilizing in the manufacture of
make compressible masses, binders and addi- refractory bricks.
tives are commonly added to the milled raw Refractory products are fired at tempera-
materials. “There are several types of binders tures ranging from 1250 to 1850 °C. The firing
and aggregates, such as clay slip, sulphite lye, temperatures for the most important material
coal tar pitch, naphthalene, synthetic resin, groups are in the following ranges: “(a) fireclay
milk of lime, wax, phosphoric acid, soot, bricks: 1,250 – 1,500°C, (b) silica bricks: 1,450 –
graphite, and sulphur” (European Commission 1,500°C, (c) high-alumina bricks: 1,500 –
2007). . Table 12.2 shows a list of the most
1,800°C, and (d) magnesia bricks: 1,400 – 1,800°C”
used oxides in melting/casting operations for (European Commission 2007). In some cases,
refractory bricks with their corresponding the fired refractory products need to be further
melting temperatures. processed by grinding, polishing, and turning in
Raw materials are generally crushed in wet or dry processes. Following this treatment,
coarse, e.g., jaw crushers, and later in fine (ball the products are palletized or packaged and
mills) crushing processes. The crushed and covered with plastic foils to prevent water soak-
milled raw materials are separated in several ing. Refractory bricks are sometimes impreg-
fractions by vibration screens. The fractions nated with coal tar or bitumen to avoid open
obtained are then stored temporarily in silos pores.
12.4 · Roof Tiles
357 12
.. Table 12.3 Operating data for tunnel kilns used in the manufacture of refractory bricks
(European Commission 2007)
Tunnel kilns Unit Magnesia Fireclay Bauxite Silica

bricks bricks bricks bricks
Throughput t/h 2–8 4 4 2.1

Kiln length m 150 113 116 180
Cross section m2 1.3–3 2.4 2.2 2.8
Setting density kg/ 1000–2500 600–1500 600–1300 700–1000
m3
Firing temperature °C 1760–1850 1260 1400 1450
Specific energy requirement kJ/kg 6000–9700 3200 4500 9050
(drying + firing)
Flue-gas volume flow m3/h 15,000–25,000 10,000–15,000 10,000– 1200
15,000
Flue-gas temperature °C 250–400 150–200 150–220 120
12.4 Roof Tiles that a roof tile is “a solid unit of clay or shale,
or both, formed into any of a range of gener-
Roof tiles are a really typical building mate- ally rectangular planar shapes while plastic
rial used for centuries as an integral, essential and fired in kiln” and ASTM C1167 standard
piece of the building envelope. Roof tiles are states that “covers clay tiles intended for use
found on ancient structures dating back as far as roof covering where durability and appear-
as 5000 years ago. Clay roof tiles are widely ance are required to provide a weather-
used for covering sloped roofs (. Fig. 12.30)

resistant surface of specified design; tiles are
in both residential and commercial property manufactured from clay, shale, or similar nat-
applications. Clay roof tile is a durable solu- urally occurring earthy substances and sub-
tion for roofing, outperforming other alterna- jected to heat treatment at elevated
tive roofing materials. . Figure 12.31 shows

temperatures (firing); the heat treatment must
the results of a study undertaken in 2007 on develop a fired bond between the particulate
the life expectancy of home components by constituents to provide the strength and dura-
the US National Association of Home bility requirements of this specification; tiles
Builders. The study showed that life span of are shaped during manufacture by molding,
clay roof tile averages 75 years, which high- pressing, or extrusion and it is permitted to
lights its durability. use the shaping method to describe the tiles.”
A clay roof tile is a “product for discon- According to C1167 standard, clay roof
tinuous laying on pitched roofs, and for wall tiles can be commonly planar or show undu-
cladding, which are manufactured by shaping lating rectangular shape. In this sense, EN
(extrusion and/or pressing), drying and firing 1304 standard defines the following types of
of the prepared clay, with or without addi- roof tiles: “(a) plain tiles: tiles usually with a
tives; all or part of their surface can be cov- flat surface that can be slightly cross cam-
ered with an engobe or glaze” (EN 1304 bered and/or longitudinally cambered and
standard). ASTM C1232 standard points out which have no interlocking system; these tiles
.. Fig. 12.30 Roof tiles in Ptuj, Slovenia. (Image courtesy of Carolina Bustillo)
12
.. Fig. 12.31 Life expectancy of roof components (NAHB 2007)
are generally rectangular, but can have a spe- headlap is fixed due to the presence of lugs on
cially shaped tail (e.g., fish-scale tiles with a the tiles; they are made with their edges either
rounded or sharp front edge), (b) over and parallel or forming a cone, and (c) special
under tiles: tiles with the shape of a gutter tiles: tiles made to shapes that vary from tile
whose design makes it possible either to fix to tile for aesthetic reasons, for example hand-
them with variable headlaps or where their made tiles.”
12.4 · Roof Tiles
359 12
In particular, under tiles are “tiles designed body for providing color, opacity, or other
to be laid with their concave side facing characteristics, and subsequently covered with
upward and resting on the roofing support; a glaze” (ASTM C242 standard). This stan-
under tiles may have no nib, or one or more dard considers numerous types of glazes:
nibs for laying on battens” while over tiles are bright, clear, crystalline, fritted, mat, opaque,
“tiles designed to be laid with their concave raw, semi-mat, slip, and vellum.
side facing downward and straddling two The manufacturing process of clay roof
under tiles; in general, the same units are used tiles is similar to that of clay bricks, excepting
as under tiles when laid with their concave for the shaping step. During this step, large
side facing upward and over tiles when they lumps of clay are extruded, which are further
are laid with their concave side facing down- pressed to give them the final shape of the
ward. However, the profile of under tiles can roof tile. Unlike bricks, which have their final
differ from that of over tiles; they can have, for appearance after extrusion, roof tiles often
example, a flat base or a shape allowing for the need pressing to get the final tile shape. As a
seating of the product on its support; in the rule, the process for producing tiles incorpo-
latter case, under tiles are equipped with two rates the following steps: (a) clay material
lateral upright sides.” preparation: extraction of the raw material
With regard to interlocking systems in from the quarry its transportation to the fac-
roof tiles, EN 1304 standard points out that tory for storage in stockpiles, (b) grinding and
interlock is a “system designed for the assem- screening the clay: the raw material is loaded
bly of two adjoining tiles or fittings and usu- into the feed hoppers where water and other
ally including one or more raised parts called components are added and mixed; the mix-
ribs and one or more concave parts called ture is then ground and homogenized, (c)
grooves.” . Figure 12.32 shows several exam-
extrusion and pressing (applicable to most tile
ples of interlock included in EN 1304 stan- models): the clay mixture is extruded to pro-
dard. duce slabs of clay that are further pressed in a
Roof tiles are available in a variety of molder press to obtain the final format of the
cross-sectional profiles, shapes, sizes (stan- roof tile, (d) drying: depending on the drying
dard dimension of a roof tile is about 400 mm
× 300 mm × 220 mm, with a thickness of
approximately 20 mm), surface textures, and
colors. . Figure 12.33 shows different types

and colors of roof tiles. They can be glazed or

unglazed. Glaze is a type of ceramic coating
consisting in glass-based fired coating,
although it can include engobe, which is “a
permeable or impermeable clay-based fired
coating” (EN 1304 standard), or “can be .. Fig. 12.33 Roof tiles showing different shapes and
made of a slip coating applied to the ceramic colors. (Image courtesy of Mazarrón Cerámicas)
.. Fig. 12.32 Examples
of interlock (EN 1304
standard)
According to ISO 13006 and EN 14411

standards, ceramic tiles are “thin slabs made
from clays and/or other inorganic raw materi-
als, generally used as covering for floors and
walls, usually shaped by extruding (A) or
pressing (B) at room temperature, but may be
formed by other processes (C), then dried and
subsequently fired at temperatures sufficient
to develop the required properties.” ASTM
C242 standard defines tile as “a ceramic sur-
facing unit, usually relatively thin in relation
to facial area, made from clay or a mixture of
.. Fig. 12.34 Surface texture for imitating old roof clay and other ceramic materials, called the
tiles body of the tile, having either a glazed or
unglazed face and fired above red heat in the
method used, the process can take between course of manufacture to a temperature suffi-
one and three days, (e) firing: achieving a ciently high to produce specific physical prop-
maximum temperature in the kiln of approxi- erties and characteristics.” The glaze is the
mately 1000 °C, and (f) packaging. With impermeable vitrified covering, which may
respect to the firing temperature, it is slightly provide improved surface technical perfor-
higher than in brick manufacturing. mance and greater decorative possibilities.
Some further treatments can be also incor- Unglazed (UGL) tiles are fired only once
porated in the manufacturing process, in par- while glazed tiles (GL) receive vitrifiable coat-
ticular factory-applied hydrophilic or ing between the first and second firing (in the
hydrophobic agents, which change the behav- case of double-fired tiles) or before the sole
ior of the surface of the clay roofing tiles or firing (in the case of single-fired tiles). Ceramic
fittings where it is wetted by water. With respect tiles are incombustible and are not affected by
12 of surface textures, they can include “hollows, light.
raised areas, spots or colors, etc. characterizing Ceramic (wall and floor) tiles are impor-
an entire batch and produced specifically for tant wall and floor covering elements used in
aesthetic purposes (to imitate the appearance the building industry. The maintenance and
of old tiles, for example -. Fig. 12.34)” (EN

renovation sector is of special importance to
1304 standard). these products. Ceramic tiles can be also used
for external facades, swimming pools, and
public areas. . Figure 12.35 shows the world

12.5 Ceramic Tiles tile production in 2018 while . Fig. 12.36

illustrates the world tile production by geo-

The production of tile dates back to ancient graphical area in 2018. The European indus-
times, including the Egyptians, the try is by far the biggest exporter and sells
Babylonians, and the Assyrians. For instance, ceramic tiles worldwide (. Fig. 12.37). A sig-

the Step Pyramid for the Pharoah Djoser, built nificant part of the European tile industry is
in ancient Egypt around 2600 B.C., contained concentrated in two regions: the Sassuolo
colorful glazed tile. Ceramic tiles were further region in Italy (Emilia-Romagna) and
manufactured in almost every major European Castellón in Spain (Comunidad de Valencia).
country and later in the United States. At the Most common shapes of ceramic tiles are
start of the twentieth century, ceramic tiles squares and rectangles although other polyg-
were produced on industrial scale; the discov- onal geometries such as hexagons or octagons
ery of the tunnel kiln about 1910 increased are available. Tile sides can range from only a
the automation of the ceramic tile manufac- few centimeters (mosaic tiles) to slabs with
ture. Nowadays, the whole process of ceramic 60–100 cm sides. Thickness usually ranges
tile production is highly automated. from about 5 mm for wall tiles to over 25 mm
12.5 · Ceramic Tiles
361 12
Values in millions of squared meters
16,000
13,280 13,587
14,000 13,099
11,980 12,428 12,475
12,000 10,634 11,236
9,637
10,000 8,606
8,000
6,000
4,000
2,000
2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018
.. Fig. 12.35 World tile production in 2018 (ACIMAC 2019)
.. Fig. 12.36 World Oceania EU

tile production by 0.0% 10.4% Other Europe
geographical area in Africa 4.7%
2018 (ACIMAC 2019) 5.5%
NAFTA
2.7%
Central-South
America
8.1%
Asia
68.6%
35.0%
31.6%
30.0%
25.0%
20.8%
20.0%
15.0%
10.0%
3.0% 4.8%
5.0% 2.8% 2.0%
0.0%
0.0%
EU Other Europe NAFTA South America Africa Oceania
.. Fig. 12.37 Percentage of exports outside integrated area in 2018 on total production (ACIMAC 2019)
in some extruded tiles. An extruded tile is a tional, commercial, and/or technical reasons.
tile “whose body is shaped in the plastic state Thus, a broad classification of wall and floor
in an extruder -method A-, the column tiles was adopted in European and
obtained being cut into tiles of pre-determined International standardization. According to
dimension, and which is designated as Group EN 14411 standard, “ceramic tiles are subdi-
A.” Traditional terms used for extruded prod- vided into nine groups (. Table 12.4) based

ucts are “split tiles and quarry tiles; they com- on the method of manufacture (shaping
monly indicate double-extruded and method) and water absorption (E).” Water
single-extruded tiles, respectively” (ISO 13006 absorption is associated with porosity of the
standard). The term quarry tile refers to tile: high water absorption means high poros-
extruded tiles with water absorption coeffi- ity while low water absorption is derived from
cient of a mass fraction not exceeding 6%. the compact, vitrified structure of the tile.
Ceramic tiles can be shaped by dry-pressing Thus, each tile product group is manufactured
(method B). Thus, dry-pressed tile is “tile by means of specific process (extrusion, dry
formed from a finely milled body mixture and pressing) and featuring specific porosity and
shaped (e.g., in dies or molds) at high pres- water absorption. In general, A (extruded
sure, and which is designated as Group B” tiles), BIa (dust-pressed tiles with impervious
(ISO 13006 standard). body), BIb-BII (dust-pressed tiles with com-
pact body), and BIII (dust-pressed tiles with
porous body) are the important groups since
12.5.1 Types the rest of ceramic tile groups represent just a
minor part of the global production.
There are different types of ceramic tiles in From a commercial viewpoint, the three
the market: shaped through dust pressing or main types (more extended denominations)
extrusion; with porous, compact, or vitrified of ceramic tiles are the following: (a) wall tile,
bodies; with white (whitish) or colored (red- (b) stoneware tile, (c) porcelain tile, (d) rustic
dish) bodies; unglazed or glazed. They can be stoneware tile, and (e) earthware tile. Many
12 grouped based on different criteria but water other types could be noticed depending on the
absorption and shaping method are probably region of the world, country, specific charac-
the common way to classify wall and floor teristics of the manufacturing process, and
tiles. This is because commercial names are etcetera.
generally imposed by cultural, formal, func- 55 Wall Tile
.. Table 12.4 Classification of ceramic tiles with respect to water absorption and shaping (EN 14411
standard)
Shaping Group I E ≤ 3% Group IIa3% < E ≤ 6% Group IIb Group III

6% < E ≤ 10% E > 10%
A Extruded Group Ala E ≤ 0.5% Group AIIa-1a Group AIIb-1 a Group AIII
Group Alb Group AIIa-2 a Group AIIb-2a

0.5% < E ≤ 3%
B Dry Group Bla E ≤ 0.5% Group BIIa Group BIIb Group BIIIb
pressed
Group Blb
0.5% < E ≤ 3%
aGroups AIIa and AIIb are divided into two parts (Parts 1 and 2) with different product specifications
bGroup Bill covers glazed tiles only. There is a low quantity of dry-pressed unglazed tiles produced with water
absorption greater than 10 % that is not covered by this product group
363 12
Wall tile, majolica tile, or simply tile is the tra- 70 cm. Complementary tiles typically include
ditional name given to dry-pressed, glazed strips, moldings, and border products.
ceramic tile with high water absorption rate 55 Stoneware Tile
(11–15%); it falls into group BIII (GL)
(. Table 12.4). The tiles can be single or dou-
Stoneware floor tile, stoneware tile, rustic
ble fired although nowadays they are com- stoneware, ceramic floor tile, vitrified floor tile,
monly single fired. The tile body or base, also glazed ceramic floor tile or simply stoneware is
known as the bisque, can be white or colored, a glazed, dry-pressed, single-fired ceramic
ranging from ochre to yellowish brown or red- floor tile with the red semi-vitreous body or
dish; the color of the bisque does not affect base having low (˂3%) or medium to low water
properties of the tile. The tile body has fine, absorption (3% ≤ E < 6%); it falls into groups
uniform texture, without grain, inclusion, or Bib, GL and BIIa, GL shown in . Table 12.4.

pores that are easily visible. The surfaces and The color of the body can be white, pale, or
edges are even and well finished. somewhere between ochre and dark brown,
In the top surface or tile face, glaze con- although color does not influence the main
sists of an application of vitreous coating properties of the tile. The tile body has a fine,
with a broad choice of colors covering the homogeneous texture without grain, inclu-
piece; the piece can be decorated sions, or pores easily visible. The glaze of the
(. Fig. 12.38). It gives the product certain
top surface can be matt to high gloss and
technical and aesthetic properties: imperme- white or single colored. It can be decorated
ability, ease of cleaning, shine and color, fea- with different patterns. They are generally
tures that make tiles particularly suitable for single fired.
indoor wall coverings. Most wall tiles are The tile face is glazed with an application
square or rectangular in shape and they are of vitreous coating covering the piece, lending
manufactured in many sizes; most common the fired product certain technical and aes-
size ranges from 10 cm × 10 cm to 35 cm × thetic properties: impermeability, shine, color,
and surface texture. These properties make
the product suitable for indoor floors in both
domestic and public areas. Some types of
stoneware are specifically resistant to frost
and ice and abrasion, so that they can also be
used as cladding on façades as well as outdoor
floors. Most tiles of this group are square in
shape, size ranging from 10 cm × 10 cm to
60 cm × 60 cm, although rectangular pieces
can be found in the market. Most common
special types include insets, listels, skirting
tile, step tile, and step skirting tile.
55 Porcelain Tile
Porcelain tile is a universally accepted term

although it is also known as porcelain stone-
ware, industrial stoneware, and etcetera. It is
one of the most recent types of ceramic tiles
to become available on the market. Porcelain
tile is defined in ISO 13006 and EN 14411
standards as “fully vitrified tile with water
absorption coefficient less than or equal to a
mass fraction of 0.5%, belonging to groups
AIa and BIa” (. Table 12.4) and “a ceramic

.. Fig. 12.38 Decorated wall tiles mosaic tile or paver that is generally made by
the dust-pressed method of a composition and aesthetic properties as well as high chemi-
resulting in a tile that is dense, fine-grained, cal and mechanical resistance of polished por-
and smooth with sharply formed face, usually celain stoneware make this product ideal for
impervious and having colors of the porcelain all urban areas: interior, exterior (with the
type which are usually of a clear, luminous option of nonslip versions), intense or very
type or granular blend thereof ” (ASTM C242 intense pedestrian transit area, commercial
standard). and industrial spaces, facades, airports, areas
Porcelain tile is dry-pressed, generally subject to freezing, etc. Most tiles are square
unglazed, single-fired ceramic tile with very or rectangular in shape and most common
low water absorption (less than 0.1%) and sizes vary from 15 cm × 15 cm to 60 cm ×
broad range of colors. Glazed tiles are also 120 cm. Complementary tiles include listels,
available; the glazed face is known as glazed insets, step tiles, and skirting tiles.
porcelain stoneware and the face of unglazed 55 Rustic Stoneware Tiles
porcelain stoneware is the same material as
the base. The top surface of unglazed porce- Rustic stoneware tile is the common name for
lain tiles has usually an embossed pattern for extruded ceramic tiles generally unglazed and
decorative goal, or embossed diamond-shaped with low, medium to high water absorption
dots, grooves, or angles to provide nonslip rate; they should not be confused with glazed
protection where used in outdoor floors and/ stoneware tiles showing rustic look. Rustic
or industrial applications. In glazed porcelain stoneware tiles are used in a great variety of
tiles, the top surface is covered by a vitreous applications such as cladding of façades,
coating that may be single colored or deco- indoor and outdoor floors, even in public and
rated. The color of the tile body varies industrial spaces. Finish includes slightly
depending on the type of product. The tile uneven surface, edges, and color that insure
surface shows fine, uniform texture, with no special decorative characteristics. A wide vari-
heterogeneous elements visible unless added ety of types can be found in this group, includ-
intentionally. The surfaces and edges are even ing quarry tiles (extruded tiles with water
12 and well finished except in the case of some absorption not exceeding 6%—EN 14411
varieties with intentional rustic finish. standard), split tiles, known also by the
Porcelain stoneware tiles can be used as German name Spalplatten, and salt glazed
they are after firing (natural porcelain stone- tiles.
ware) though the face of the tile can be Most rustic stoneware tiles are square
strongly polished to give smooth, intense and rectangular in shape, size ranging from
shine (polished porcelain) or be polished to a 11 cm x11 cm to 45 cm × 45 cm, and show
lesser degree (semi-polished or lappato fin- variable thickness, depending on the type of
ish—. Fig. 12.39). The excellent technical
tile and format. Rustic stoneware tiles mainly
fall into groups AI, UGL (unglazed extruded
ceramic tiles with water absorption <3%)
and AIIa (unglazed extruded ceramic tiles
with a water absorption rate of 3% ≤ E < 6%)
(. Table 12.4).

55 Earthenware Tiles
Earthenware tile is the common name for a

broad variety of tiles showing very different
characteristics, the only coincidences being
rustic appearance, high water absorption rate,
and the fact that most of tiles are unglazed.
.. Fig. 12.39 Porcelain tiles with lappato finish. (Image
They are often produced in small, discontinu-
courtesy of Tiles of Distinction) ous quantities and generally in artisan style.
365 12
Based on those features, earthenware tiles are
particularly suitable where rustic look is
required in rooms and/or buildings. The tile
body is earth colored and lacking in unifor-
mity, with easily visible grains, pores, and
incrustations. The surfaces and sides of the
tiles are clearly uneven, which is considered
inherent in this type of tile. Earthenware tiles
come in a great variety of shapes and sizes. It
is important to note that the top surface
might need to be treated with some chemical
products, before or after the tiles are laid, for
aesthetic purposes (a gloss finish) and/or
functional ones (stain prevention, resistance .. Fig. 12.40 Indoor store of Feldspar. (Image cour-
to cleaning products, waterproofing). tesy of Pamesa)
Earthenware tiles mainly fall into groups
AIIb UGL (extruded ceramic tiles with a
water absorption rate of 6% < E ≤ 10%) and
AIII, UGL (extruded ceramic tiles with a
water absorption rate of E < 10%)
(. Table 12.4).

12.5.2 Manufacturing Process
Ceramic tile manufacturing embraces differ-

ent processes depending on the ceramic tile
type. Whichever the case, the process is com-
posed basically of the following stages: (1)
preparing the raw materials, (2) spray-drying .. Fig. 12.41 Ball mills. (Image courtesy of Pamesa)
(3) molding, (4) drying, (5) glazing, (6) firing,
(7) sorting and packaging. Many of these electrolytes, e.g., sodium silicate or diphos-
steps are currently accomplished using auto- phate, are added to the mixture in order to
mated equipment. decrease energy consumption by water reduc-
55 Preparing the Raw Materials tion during the drying process. Provided that
raw materials are used immediately after
The manufacturing process starts with the mined in the quarry, their homogenization is
selection of raw materials. Clays and kaolin important in order to guarantee suitable char-
are the most typical plastic raw materials used acteristics of the final product.
in the production of ceramic tiles. Chamotte, Proportioning of raw materials is per-
quartz, feldspars (. Fig. 12.40), calcium car-
formed gravimetrically taking into consider-
bonate (calcite), dolomite, and talc are the ation moisture of the raw materials. After
nonplastic raw materials that develop differ- weighing, the precrushed materials are milled,
ent functions in the composition of the including water and electrolytes, in order to
ceramic body. Thus, for instance, feldspar acts disperse and reduce particle size. The grinding
as fluxing agent while calcite allows the for- process can be either wet or dry although wet
mation of crystalline phases. Similar raw grinding is the commonly used method. Thus,
materials along with glaze frits, metal oxides, clays are dispersed in water in ball drum mills
and colorants are used for glazes. Very often, (. Fig. 12.41), which may be batch and con-

tinuous mills, until reaching the 2% residue of

63 μm. The resulting suspension is known as
slip or barbotine (. Fig. 12.42). After fine

grinding (to a particle size <0.1 mm), the bar-

botine is stored in stirred storage tanks. Water
content of the slip is around 35%.
55 Spray-drying
In the current ceramic tile industry, ceramic

powders for wall tiles are mainly produced by
wet grinding and spray-drying (7 Box 12.3).
.. Fig. 12.42 Barbotine. (Image courtesy of Pamesa)
Box 12.3
Spray-Drying
Spray-drying is used to reduce the water con-
tent of the slip by means of a spraying process.
This process is broadly used in the wall and
floor tile industry.
The “technical command of raw material
wet grinding and the excellent performance of
spray-dried powders led to wide-scale indus-
12 trial application of the spray drying process in
the last 40 years” (Durgut et al. 2015). In this
method, the slip is pumped, sprayed, and dried
using hot gases inside the spray dryer, also
termed atomizer and the process simply atomi-
zation (. Fig. 12.43 and . Fig. 12.44), which

consists of a rapidly rotating disk or nozzle. It

allows to control the humidity and the granu-
lometry of the product. In detail, the aqueous
suspension of raw materials resulting from wet
ball milling (solids content around 60 to 70%)
.. Fig. 12.44 Illustration of a spray drier. (Illustration

.. Fig. 12.43 Spray drier. (Image courtesy of Pamesa) courtesy of SACMI)
367 12
The elements obtained in the spray-drying

process are termed atomized powder or atom-
ized clay. This form of powder has high flow-
ability, facilitating accurate filling of the press
dies and the subsequent pressing of quite large
single tiles. Organic slip additives are often
added to maximize the sliding characteristic of
the powder. The powder is later stored in silos.
Currently, certain companies are specialized in
the preparation of spray-dried or atomized
powder. The companies further try to deliver
the prefabricated material directly to the plants
of the ceramic industry where manufacturing
process occurs.
.. Fig. 12.45 Granules of atomized powder Gases used in the spray-drying process
come from a conventional air-gas or fuel oil
is sprayed under pressure to produce fine drop- burner. Alternatively, where there is a turbine-
lets that contact a stream of hot air moving ver- type cogeneration system, a special air-flow
tically. The further process of drying of the burner can be installed without a combustion
droplets produces highly uniform, more or less air fan so as to give further energy savings,
spherical hollow granules (. Fig. 12.45) with a
thereby cutting the cost of the drying process.
median particle size of about 100 μm and a The “high energy and water consumption
water content of 5.5% (average value between involved in spray drying, in addition to emis-
4% and 7%). “Drying is carried out at tempera- sions, remain major issues of the global manu-
tures of between 400 and 550°C” (European facturing process of ceramic tiles”(Durgut
Commission 2007). et al. 2015).
55 Molding 55 Drying
Dry pressing is the most common method of Just after molding, the bisque is quite fragile
molding tiles although extrusion techniques so that it should undergo further drying.
are used for certain types of ceramic tiles. The Because moisture of the produced tiles ranges
atomized clay powder is loaded into molds between 5 and 7%, the tiles must be dried to
where the fluidity of the atomized product is lower moisture between 0.2 and 0.5% with the
an essential factor, being then hydraulic aim to insure adequate firing and glazing if
pressed to form the bisque. The hydraulic needed. Excessive water content would cause
presses have appropriate dies in order to the tiles to crack, to break, and/or to undergo
obtain the desired dimensions, formats, and glazing errors during firing. The bisques are
effects. They reach pressure of about 35 MPa, dried mainly in tunnel dryers, roller dryers,
which guarantees maximum compaction, and vertical dryers. The process of drying is
high productivity rates, and optimum consis- carried out at temperatures that change based
tency in the press cycle time. This process is on the type of technology, e.g., in vertical dry-
essential since all further operations will ers between 200 and 220 °C whereas in tunnel
depend on the adequate formation of the tile. dryers temperature ranges between 300 and
Final tile dimension, commonly known as 350 °C. Drying time changes between one and
format of the tile, depends on the characteris- four hours depending on the water content of
tics of the mold used. the green body.
materials and the type of product required”

(European Commission 2007). Tile firing is
performed at temperatures of between 1050
and 1150 °C in classic tunnel kilns, where fir-
ing lasts from 20 to 50 hours, whereas in mod-
ern roller hearth kilns (. Fig. 12.47) the firing

process is accomplished in one to two hours.

In this process, the heat is basically transmit-
ted by convection and radiation. After final
firing, the finished product (mainly unglazed
.. Fig. 12.46 Glazing process. (Image courtesy of porcelain stoneware tiles) can go through an
Pamesa) additional step consisting of polishing the
workpiece surface by mechanical abrasion.
55 Glazing 55 Sorting and Packaging
When unglazed tiles are produced, firing is the To guarantee maximum quality, the next stage
next phase after drying. If the tiles are to be in the manufacturing process deals with sort-
glazed, surface of the dried tiles will be first ing of the tiles and detecting of any faulty
covered with one or more layers of glaze pieces. Although sorting was originally done
(. Fig. 12.46). This process gives the tiles a

by hand, the process is now performed auto-
series of technical and aesthetic features matically using recognition software based on
including color, gloss, and surface texture. a series of predetermined parameters. This
Moreover, glazed tiles are impermeable, easy enables tiles that are irregularly shaped or
to clean, and they are chemically and mechan- with faulty coloring to be removed. During
ically resistant. To prepare the glaze, similar this operation, the ceramic products are clas-
methods as for the tile body are used. After a sified in terms of the detection of visual
batch formulation, raw materials are weighed, defects (color, drawing, sand, corners, etc.)
12 mixed, and dry or wet milled. The milled and/or in terms of dimensions. Depending on
glazes are then applied using one of the many the number and importance of defects, tiles
methods available, e.g., spraying and water- are usually classified into first and second
ing. Dry glazing is also used. This technique quality and discards. Due to small differences
implies the application of powders, glass in the raw materials and the complex produc-
materials, and/or granulated glazes onto a tion process, not all tiles result in the same
wet-glazed tile surface. Additionally, silk tonality and physical dimensions. Accordingly,
screen printing machines can be used for dec- the tiles are assigned to different batches, each
oration purposes. containing same quality, caliber, and tonality.
55 Firing Packing and palletizing are final stages in the
ceramic tile manufacturing process.
Firing represents a crucial stage in the manu-
facture of ceramic tiles. In this process, several
reactions take place, changing the microstruc- 12.5.3 Glazes and Frits
ture of the tile, e.g., reducing porosity, and
creating quality properties such as good Glazes are main components of the different
mechanical strength, size stability, resistance coatings applied to ceramic tiles. ASTM C242
to chemical agents, and fire and easy cleaning standard defines glaze as “a ceramic coating
(. Table 12.5). During the firing stage, “the

matured to the glassy state on a formed
key variables in the thermal cycle are the firing ceramic article, or the material or mixture
time and temperature and the kiln atmosphere, from which the coating is made.” This stan-
which depend on the composition of the raw dard considers many types of glazes: “bright
369 12
.. Table 12.5 Physical and chemical properties of wall and floor tiles
Characteristics Floors Walls

Dimensions and surface quality Interior Exterior Interior Exterior
Length and width X X X X

Thickness X X X X
Straightness of sides X X X X
Rectangularity X X X X
Surface flatness (curvature and warpage) X X X X
Surface quality X X X X
Physical properties Interior Exterior Interior Exterior
Water absorption X X X X
Breaking strength X X X X
Modulus of rupture X X X X
Resistance to deep abrasion—unglazed tiles X X
Resistance to surface abrasion—glazed tiles X X
Linear thermal expansion X X X X
Resistance to thermal shock X X X X
Resistance to crazing—glazed tiles X X X X
Frost resistance X X
Coefficient of friction X X
Moisture expansion X X X X
Small color differences X X X X
Impact resistance X X
Chemical properties Interior Exterior Interior Exterior
Resistance to staining
—glazed tiles X X X X
—unglazed tiles X X X X
Resistance to acids and alkalis of low X X X X
concentration
Resistance to acids and alkalis of high X X X X
concentration
Resistance to household cleaning agents and X X X X
swimming pool chemicals
Lead and cadmium release—glazed tiles X X X X
Where glazes are applied onto the surface

of the ceramic tile and after fired, they gener-
ate an impermeable, protective, and decorative
layer. Glazes are usually produced by injection
and spraying of a slip into a stream of hot air,
followed by size grading of the resulting solid
glaze particles. Major glaze components are
.. Fig. 12.47 Roller hearth kiln. (Image courtesy of silica (glass former), additives acting as fluxes
Pamesa) such as alkalis, alkaline earths, boron, lead,
and etcetera, opacifiers (zirconium, titanium),
glaze: a colorless or colored ceramic glaze and coloring agents (iron, chromium, cobalt,
having high gloss; clear glaze: a colorless or manganese, tin, nickel, and etcetera). Coloring
colored transparent ceramic glaze; crystalline agents are insoluble and are made up of fine
glaze: a glaze containing macroscopic crys- solid particles, which are physically and chem-
tals; leadless glaze: a ceramic coating matured ically stable. In the glaze preparation process,
to a glassy state on a formed article, or the the components are usually ground in discon-
material or the mixture from which the coat- tinuous drum ball mills until a preset reject is
ing is made, to which no lead has been deliber- performed. In the next process, the glaze
ately added; mat glaze: a colorless or colored passes through vibrating sieves and conditions
ceramic glaze having low gloss; opaque glaze: of the aqueous suspension are thus adjusted.
a nontransparent colored or colorless glaze; Many different glazes are formulated based on
raw glaze: a glaze compounded primarily the product type and the desired properties of
from raw constituents, that is, containing no the final product.
prefused materials; semi-mat glaze: a colorless The key ingredient of modern glazes for
or colored glaze having moderate gloss; slip ceramic tiles is the so-called frits (7 Box 12.4),

glaze: a glaze consisting primarily of a readily which are inorganic products of melting that
fusible clay or silt; and vellum glaze: a semi- has been cooled to a solid state without
12 mat glaze having a satin-like appearance.” c
rystallization.
Box 12.4
Frits
The term frit comes from the French word
fritte, which means fused material. A frit is “a
product made by quenching and breaking up a
glass of a specific composition, used customar-
ily used as a component of a glaze, body, or
porcelain enamel” and a fritted glaze is “a
glaze in which a part or all of the fluxing con-
stituents are perfused” (ASTM C242 stan-
dard). The American Chemical Society defines
frits as “a mixture of inorganic chemical sub-
stances produced by rapidly quenching a mol-
ten, complex combination of materials, .. Fig. 12.48 Glassy appearance of ceramic frits.
confining the chemical substances thus manu- (Image courtesy of ANFFECC)
factured as non-migratory components of
glassy solid flakes or granules” (. Fig. 12.48).
ceramic wall and floor tiles enable better fired
In general, frits used in glaze compositions for quality, lower melting temperature, fewer
371 12
defects, better clarity, smoother surface, Frits are supplied to the ceramic tile indus-
brighter colors, faster firing, and lower thermal try by frit manufacturers. A great part of the
expansion. produced frits are used for the formulation of
Ceramic frits “are vitreous compounds compositions and mixed in different propor-
obtained by fusing crystalline raw materials in a tions with other nonfritted raw materials,
melting kiln at high temperature (1350–1550°C) additives, and ceramic colors. Numerous types
followed by quick cooling” (Gonzalvo and of frits are available in the market. Some
Irún) (. Fig. 12.49). Raw materials for frits
examples are the following: (a) transparent
production can be natural or synthetic compo- frits: they retain glassy nature through the
nents such as oxides, silicates, carbonates, alu- complete firing cycle to assure good transpar-
minosilicates, borates, etc. After fusing, the ency; they are suitable for better color tonality,
melt is cooled quickly, either by a laminating especially in dark-colored designs, (b) opaque
process or by cooling in water, which trans- frits: opacity take place through the partial
forms it into a fragmented solid formed by tiny solubility of zircon in the silicate melt and its
glass pieces that is practically i nsoluble in water crystallization while cooling; the resulting zir-
and most commonly used acids and bases. In con crystals have a significantly higher index
water cooling, the melted mass falls onto a of refraction than the glassy matrix and thus
water receptacle where solidifies, breaking up in scatter light effectively, (c) matt frits: they are
tiny pieces. In air-cooling system, the melted manufactured by forming microcrystalline
frit passes across two laminating rollers that surfaces that scatter light; mattness depends
laminate the vitreous molten. The result is a on shape and dimensions of the crystals
thin layer of material that falls onto a vibrator, formed, and (d) satin-matt frits: they are matt
which breaks the product into tiny scales. An glazes with a smooth and pleasant texture,
advantage of this system is that the frit does not containing multiple melt phases that solidify
need to be dried afterward. in a nonhomogeneous way.
.. Fig. 12.49 Scheme of the ceramic frit fabrication process (Gonzalvo and Irún 2006)
12.6 Sanitaryware sation of body and glaze is carried out by per-

manent magnets to prevent coloring the
Sanitaryware is used for sanitation purposes. products through magnetic impurities”
It includes lavatory bowls, bidets, washbasins, (European Commission 2007).
cisterns, drinking fountains, and etcetera. Nowadays, use of waste materials in sani-
Sanitary ware is defined by ASTM C286 stan- taryware production is common with two
dard as a “porcelain enameled ware such as main goals: “(a) to introduce recycled and sec-
sinks, lavatories, and bathtubs” while ASTM ondary materials into the vitreous sanitary-
C242 standard defines the term china sanitary ware body in a percentage of between 15%
ware as a “glazed, vitrified whiteware fixtures and 40% will enable the body firing tempera-
having a sanitary service function.” Due to tures to be lowered by 80–100°C, thereby
adequate properties such as good corrosion reducing production costs, and (b) to improve
and abrasion resistance, glazy surface with environmental sustainability of the ceramic
different colors, the utilization of sanitary production process through energy saving,
ware for sanitation purpose has not yet been reduction in CO2 emissions and protection of
replaced by other materials. natural resources” (Fortuna et al. 2016).
The manufacturing process of sanitary- The casting process (. Fig. 12.50) usually

wares can be subdivided into five main stages, takes place in plaster molds. Water leaves the
namely: preparation of raw materials, shap- casting slip through the porous areas of the
ing, drying and glazing, firing, and subsequent plaster molds to form the body. Time for body
treatment. For sanitaryware porcelain bodies, formation is lowered by pressure of up to
commonly used raw materials include kaolin, 3 MPa. After the separation of body and
clay, feldspar and/or feldspathoid, quartz, and mold, the mold marks are fettled and further
calcium carbonate. A typical batch consists of treated. Handling and dressing of the body
“40–50% kaolin and clay, 20–30% quartz, are carried out automatically. The green ware
20–30% feldspar, and between 0–3% calcium is allowed to dry under environment tempera-
carbonate” (European Commission 2007). ture for one to three days before sent to drier.
12 Kaolin and clay are stored preferably in lumps Moisture content of the green ware before
with a maximum water content of 15%. For drier will change from 22% to 12%.
its part, the hard materials, e.g., quartz and The green ware is dried in two stages. After
feldspar, are ground and applied with a water leather-hard drying, the green ware is per-
content of less than 1%. The raw materials fectly treated. A next white drying minimizes
preparation is performed predominantly in a water content down to less than 1%. The dry-
wet preparation process. Thus, kaolin and ing processes take place principally in tunnel
clay are elutriated in water and impurities are and chamber dryers (. Fig. 12.51). After

removed from the slurry by screening. In the

next stage, the screened clay suspension is
homogenized in tanks by slow stirrers. The
proportioning of hard materials is performed
gravimetrically and electrolytes are added.
Further storage in stirred tanks over two days
increments the shaping characteristics of the
casting slip.
Regarding glaze materials, they are pro-
portioned and then mixed and ground in ball
mills (batch) or in horizontal or annual gap
mills (continuous). “Binding agents (e.g. car-
boxymethyl cellulose or polyamine) are added
to the glaze in order to maximize adhesion .. Fig. 12.50 Casting sanitaryware industrial process
and gripping strength after grinding; deferri- (Fortuna et al. 2016)
12.7 · Questions
373 12
12.7 Questions
??Short Questions
55 Enumerate the main raw materials for
manufacturing clay-based building
materials
55 What does chamotte mean?
55 List some examples of plastic and
nonplastics materials used in ceramic
products
.. Fig. 12.51 Exit of tunnel dryer. (Image courtesy of 55 Define the term clay and clay mineral
Marcheluzzo Ceramics) 55 List the main types of clays according to
their layer type
white drying, the green ware is inspected and 55 Define the term clay masonry unit included
the surface is cleaned of dust and foreign par- in European standard
ticles. Glaze is then applied by spraying onto 55 What is a brick?
the surface of the ware. “Thickness of the 55 Explain the significance of horizontal
glaze is between 0.3 and 0.5 mm, depending perforations and vertical perforations in
on the color of the body and the opacifiers bricks
share of the glaze; spraying in an electric field 55 Classify bricks in terms of use
maximizes the quality of the glaze” (European 55 What is the main goal of ceramic refractory
Commission 2007). The glazes are basically products
made up of quartz, feldspar and/or feld- 55 List the firing temperatures of the main
spathoid, kaolin, earth alkaline metal carbon- groups of refractory products
ate, and zinc oxide. The opacifiers are 55 Define the term roof tile
zirconium silicate and rarely, because it is 55 What is the difference between under tiles
expensive, tin oxide. Due to environmental and over tiles?
issues, many plants worldwide have ceased 55 Is the phrase “manufacturing process of
using coloring materials and all their products clay roof tiles is exactly in the same way as
are currently white. clay bricks” true or not?
During the firing process, several kiln 55 Define ceramic tile
types, i.e., shuttle, roller kiln, and tunnel kiln, 55 Classify ceramic tiles according to EN
can be used. As a rule, sanitary ware kilns 14411 standard
have three zones: preheating, firing, and cool- 55 List the main methods of ceramic tiles
ing zones. In the preheating zone, the com- shaping
bined water is mechanically and chemically 55 What is a porcelain tile?
extracted from the ware. In the firing zone, all 55 Explain the term frit
raw materials are fused together as also glaze 55 Define sanitary ware
is. At the cooling zone, sudden cooling is pro-
voked to create glossy surface. Kiln maximum
temperature is around 1250 °C. Once the ??Long Questions
ceramic product is fired, it will be moved to a 55 Explain in summary form the
sorting area. After sorting, mounting sur- manufacturing process of bricks
faces are abraded by wet grinding and polish- 55 Explain the main groups of ceramic wall
ing. In special cases, fittings are added to and floor tiles
lavatory bowls and cisterns followed by final 55 Explain the manufacturing process of
packaging. sanitaryware
References ASTM C1167 – 11 (2017). Standard Specification for

Clay Roof Tiles
ASTM C1232 – 17. Standard Terminology for Masonry
ACIMAC (2019) World production and consumption of
EN 771-1:2011+A1:2015. Specification for masonry
ceramic tiles. Association of Italian Manufacturers
units. Clay masonry units
of Machinery and Equipment for Ceramics,
EN 1304:2013. Clay roofing tiles and fittings. Product
Machinery Economic Studies, 14 p
definitions and specifications
BDA (2017) The UK clay brickmaking process. Brick
EN 14411:2016. Ceramic tiles. Definition, classification,
Development Association, London. 20 p
characteristics, assessment and verification of con-
Durgut E, Pala CI, Kayaci K, Altintas A, Yildirim Y,
stancy of performance and marking
Ergin H (2015) Development of a semi-wet process
ISO 13006:2018. Ceramic tiles. Definitions, classifica-
for ceramic wall tile granule production. J Ceram
tion, characteristics and marking
Process Res 16(5):596–600
European Commission (2007) Reference document on
best available techniques in the ceramic manufactur- Further Reading
ing industry. European Commission, 260 p Ahmed A, Sturges J (2014) Materials science in con-
Gonzalvo C and Irún M (2006) The manufacture of struction – an introduction. Routledge, London,
frits, glazes and ceramic colours. Social, economic 394 p
and environmental challenges in the international Allen E, Iano J (2013) Fundamentals of building con-
context. Qualicer 2006, 20 p struction: materials and methods, 6th edn. Wiley,
Fortuna DM, Martini E, Fortuna A, Salvaia E, Tabacchi New York, 1024 p
D and Pavese A (2016) The use of waste materials in Beall C (2004) Masonry design and detailing – for archi-
sanitaryware production. Ceramic World Review, tects, engineers and contractors, 3rd edn. McGraw-
108, 15 p Hill Inc., 624 p
Guggenheim S, Martin R (1995) Definition of clay and Claisse PA (2016) Civil engineering materials.
clay mineral: joint report of the AIPEA and CMS Butterworth-Heinemann, Elsevier, Oxford, 528 p
nomenclature committees. Clay Miner 30:257–259 Everett A (2014) Materials, 5th edn. Routledge, Taylor
Hazen R, Bish DL (2013) Clay mineral evolution. Am & Francis Group, 272 p
Mineral 98:2007–2029 Dugall SK (2017) Building materials. Routledge,
Huggett JM (2015) Clay minerals. In: Reference module London, 405 p
in earth systems and environmental sciences, 8 p Focus On Sanitaryware (2018) Ceramic World Review
NAHB (2007) Study of life expectancy of home compo- No. 129, pp 88–123
nents. National Association of Home Builders, MPA (2013) Brick and block production. Mineral
12 Bank of America Home Equity, 19 p Products Association Ltd., 9 p
Poirier J (2007) Refractory materials. In: Boch P, Nièpce Soutsos M, Domone P (2017) Construction materials:
JC (eds) Ceramic materials – processes, properties their nature and behaviour, 5th edn. CRC Press,
and applications. ISTE Ltd., London, pp 357–387 Taylor & Francis Group, 820 p
Pozo M, Calvo JP (2018) An overview of Authigenic Taylor (2013) Materials and construction: an introduc-
Magnesian clays. Fortschr Mineral 8:520, 22 p tion. Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, 348 p
Reeves GM, Sims I, Cripps JC (eds) (2006) Clay materi- Valente de Almeida J (2015) Ceramics. In: Goncalves
als used in construction. Engineering Geology MC, Margarido F (eds) Materials for construction
Special Publication No 21. Geological Society, and civil engineering. Springer International
London, 525 p Publishing, pp 303–334
Velde B (2012) Introduction to clay minerals – chemis-
try, Origins, Uses and Environmental Significance. Useful Links
Springer Science & Business Media, 198 p Ceramic World Web www.ceramicworldweb.it
Kohler Group www.kohlercompany.com
Standards Marcheluzzo Ceramics www.marcheluzzo-ceramics.
ASTM C216 – 17a. Standard Specification for Facing com
Brick (Solid Masonry Units Made from Clay or Mazarrón www.ceramicamazarron.com
Shale) Pamesa www.pamesa.com
ASTM C242 – 20. Standard Terminology of Ceramic SACMI www.sacmi.com
Whitewares and Related Products The Brick Development Association www.brick.org.uk
ASTM C286 – 99 (2017). Standard Terminology The Brick Industry Association www.gobrick.com
Relating to Porcelain Enamel and Ceramic-Metal The European brick and tile industry www.tiles-
Systems bricks.eu
ASTM C652 – 19a. Standard Specification for Hollow The European Ceramic Industry Association
Brick (Hollow Masonry Units Made From Clay or cerameunie.eu
Shale) World Ceramic Tiles Forum www.worldceramics.org
375 13
Glass
Contents
13.3 lassification of Glass Types by Chemical

C
Composition – 383
13.3.1 Soda-Lime Silicate Glass – 384
13.3.2 Borosilicate Glass – 385
13.3.3 Lead Crystal and Special Glass – 386
13.5 Glass Products – 388

13.5.1 Flat Glass – 388
13.5.2 Tempered Glass – 391
13.5.3 Laminated Glass and Laminated Safety Glass – 392
13.5.4 Insulating Glass – 393
13.5.5 Curved Glass – 395
13.5.6 Fibrous Glass – 395
13.5.7 Glass Blocks and Pavers – 397
13.6 Glass Recycling – 397
References – 398

376 Chapter 13 · Glass
Summary
This chapter introduces glass as building
and construction material. First of all, raw
materials used in the manufacture of glass
are presented, silica sand being the most
important raw material for glass making.
Next heading is devoted to the classifica-
tion of glass types by chemical composi-
tion. Soda-lime silicate glass is the most
important type in building applications.
Manufacturing processes of glass products
are described. Later on, the main types of .. Fig. 13.1 Obsidian
basic glass products used in construction
are considered: flat (float) glass, tempered (Gonçalves 2015). In general, the term glass is
glass, laminated glass, insulating glass, applied to the group of silicate glasses that
curved glass, glass wool, and glass blocks account for around 95% of total glass produc-
and pavers. Finally, recycling of glass is tion. They are formed by about 70–80% sili-
summarized. con dioxide (SiO2).
However, the glassy state is not limited to
oxides but it also results from fast cooling of
13.1 Introduction several sulfur and selenium compounds.
Under specific circumstances, glass can be
The term glass does not have a convenient produced from certain oxide-free metallic
simple definition (Pfaender 1996). As a conse- alloys and many organic liquids transform
quence, glass is a shared word for an endless into a glassy state at low temperatures.
number of materials with different composi- Consequently, one of the most typical defini-
tions in a glassy state. ASTM C1720 standard tions of glass is as follows: glass is an inor-
defines glass as “an inorganic product of ganic product of melting, which assumes a
13 fusion that has cooled to a rigid condition solid state where cooled without crystalliza-
without crystallizing; a noncrystalline solid or tion. Needed to say that the use of the term
an amorphous solid.” Thus, glass does not glass is restricted to inorganic components.
consist of a regular network of crystals but of In the Stone Age, people were utilizing
an atoms irregular network. It is the noncrys- naturally occurring glass where they needed a
talline or amorphous structure of glass that tool with sharp edge or an arrowhead. The art
produces its transparency. Glassy materials of making glass has been known to humans
can also occur naturally. For example, obsid- since ancient times. Glass originated in the
ian (. Fig. 13.1), often found in volcanic

Near East; the earliest findings were in Egypt
areas, is more or less compositionally compa- and in Eastern Mesopotamia (Iraq).
rable to man-made glass. It means that glass “Glassmaking developed independently in
was used even before it was manufactured. Mycenae (Greece), China, and North Tyrol”
Several chemical materials possess the (Pfaender 1996). Nowadays, there are
capability to generate vitreous structure. The improved techniques of manufacturing glass
most important inorganic materials are oxides that produce a great variety of glass products
of silicon (Si), boron (B), germanium (Ge), meeting the industry requirements. In this
phosphorus (P), and arsenic (As). “Where respect, glass is one of the few building mate-
cooled quickly after melting, these oxides rials that combining tradition with techno-
solidify without crystallization, forming glass; logical innovation.
between the glass and liquid state, amorphous Glass products are present in a broad vari-
materials are essentially supercooled liquids” ety of colors and shapes, with many applica-
377 13
tions ranging from the ubiquitous glass panels flat glass sector is the second largest sector of
(screens, windows), containers (bottles, jars) the European glass industries and represents
to the less common (but important) applica- about 29% of the total EU glass production.”
tions such as fiberglass for insulation or glass Flat glass, which is the most important glass
for electronics (sealant/solder glass). Glass is a product in construction, is the usual material
unique and extremely versatile material that for windows, façades, and interior glazing. It
can be engineered to show specific optical, can be then processed to obtain other glass
thermal, chemical, and mechanical properties. products such as toughened glass, laminated
In the world of construction, it is almost glass, etc. Glass is the most typical product for
impossible to conceive the contemporary glazing, offering the following benefits: “(a) it
architecture without glass. This material is an can be made transparent or translucent, (b) it
integral part of many façades and roofs. In is quite cheap to produce, (c) it is relatively
the last decades, the increased application of hard and generally scratch resistant, (d) it is
glass in construction was due to the following quite inert and largely unaffected by exposure
characteristics of glass: “(a) very high com- to normal atmospheres, (e) it is an excellent
pressive strength and resistance to corrosion, insulator, (f) it is easy to cut, (g) it has excel-
(b) recyclability, (c) reduction of energy con- lent resistance to chemicals, and (e) it has
sumption, (d) recent advancements in glass excellent optical properties” (Bhavikatti
coatings, and (d) growth of the demand for 2012).
the architecture of thinner and more trans-
parent structures” (Pariafsai 2016). In addi-
tion, glass has not thermal and electrical 13.2 Raw Materials
conductivity, which is essential in exterior
glazing. Glass industry utilizes a broad range of raw
The two main categories of glass are con- materials. The majority are solid inorganic
tainer glass (e.g. bottles) and flat glass (win- compounds, varying from very coarse materi-
dows in buildings and cars) (. Fig. 13.2). als to finely divided powders. In general, the
According to the Glass Europe Alliance, “the raw materials for glass manufacturing are
40
35
30
Milion Tonnes
25
20
15
10
0
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2013 2015 2016 2017
YEARS
Flat Glass Container Domestic Reinforcement GF Others
.. Fig. 13.2 Europe glass production evolution by sectors from 2006 to 2017. (Source: Glass Alliance Europe)
abundant in nature, ready available, relatively materials can exert different functions simul-
harmless, natural, or man-made substances. taneously. . Table 13.1 lists the most com-

The raw materials used in glassmaking are mon raw materials used for the manufacture
generally classified based on the function they of glass. They are forming materials, e.g., sil-
provide to the final glass and/or in the melting ica sand, cullet, intermediate/modifying mate-
process; it is important to note that some raw rials, e.g., soda ash, limestone, feldspar, and
.. Table 13.1 Raw materials used for the production of glass (Scalet et al. 2013)
Raw material Form Description Source comments
Glass-forming materials
Silica sand Granular Principal source of Quarried either as granular sand or as
SiO2 sandstone, which is subsequently crushed,
graded, and treated to remove impurities High
purity is required
Process cullet Granular Glass Recycled glass from the manufacturing process.
(internal cullet) Glass composition identical to the glass
produced
Post-consumer Granular Glass Recycled glass from collection schemes.
cullet (external Preliminary purification and sorting of the
cullet) post-consumer glass is normally needed. Cullet
purity and color homogeneity can be variable
Intermediate and modifying materials
Sodium carbonate Granular Principal source of Manufactured from natural salt using the
(Soda ash- Na2O Solvay process in Europe, and so contains some
Na2CO3) NaCl. Natural sodium carbonate also imported
from the United States. African sources rarely
used in Europe
13 Limestone Granular Principal source of Natural material quarried/mined, crushed, and
(CaCO3) and CaO graded. In the stone wool sector, limestone is
brunt lime used in larger pieces, usually >50 mm in
diameter
Dolomite (CaCO3. Granular Source of CaO and Natural material quarried, crushed, and
MgCO3) and MgO graded. In the stone wool sector, dolomite is
burnt dolomite used in larger pieces, usually >50 mm in
diameter
Nepheline syenite Granular Principle source of Quarried, crushed, and graded. Low in iron
(3Na2O. aluminum oxide in content. Major sources in the world: Norway.
K2O.4Al2O3 8SiO2) clear glass China and Canada
Oxides of Granular Source of A12O3 Used in high temperature insulation wools (i.e.,
aluminum ASW/RCF)
Zirconium oxide Granular Source of ZrO2 Used in high temperature insulation wools
(ASW/RCF)
Potassium Granular Source of K2O Used in special glass (lead crystal, TV glass,
carbonate etc.) and is a synthetic product
379 13
Colemanite Powder Source of boron Natural borate from Turkey, used in continuous
glass filaments
Borax Granular Source of boron Synthetic sodium borate, mainly from
California, USA
Boric acid Granular Source of boron Synthetic product mainly used in continuous
(H3BO3) glass filaments
Feldspar Granular Source of A12O3 Main source of alumina in colored soda-lime
glass. Natural product
Fluorspar (CaF2) Granular Source of fluorine Natural product used mainly in opal glass
Lead oxides Powder Source of PbO PbO carriers in lead crystal glass and special
glass
Barium carbonate Granular Source of BaO Manufactured product used mainly in special
glass
Basalt Granular Aluminosilicate In the stone wool sector, it is used in larger
pieces usually >50 mm in diameter
Anhydrous Granular Refining and Manufactured product
sodium sulfate oxidizing agent,
source of Na2O
Calcium sulfate Granular Refilling and Natural material or manufactured product
and gypsum oxidizing agent,
secondary source of
CaO
China clay Powder Source of alumina Natural product used mainly in continuous
filament glass fiber
Sodium nitrate Granular Refining and Manufactured product
oxidizing agent,
source of Na2O
Potassium nitrate Granular Refining and Manufactured product
oxidizing agent,
source of K2O
Antimony oxide Powder Refining and Manufactured product, mainly special glass
oxidizing agent formulations
Arsenic trioxide Powder Refining and Manufactured product, mainly special glass
oxidizing agent and lead crystal formulations
Slag (Ca, Al, Mg, Granular Source of aluminum By-product of blast furnace. Particle size must
Fe silicate and oxide, modifying be adjusted to raw material of glass
sulfide) oxides, refining
agents, fluxes and
coloring agents
(continued)
Carbon Granular Reducing agent Manufactured or processed natural product,

or powder small amounts used to produce a glass with a
reduced oxidation state when manufacturing
green, amber, and sometimes clear glass
Sodium chloride Crystals Fining agent Used in some borosilicate glasses
Coloring agents
Iron chromite Powder Coloring agent Quarried, crushed, and graded. Iron chromite
(Fe2O3.Cr2O3) is the coloring agent used for producing green
container glasses and colored flat glass
Iron oxide (Fe2O3) Powder Coloring agent Manufactured product used mainly as a
coloring agent in green and amber glasses
Titanium oxide Powder Coloring agent Manufactured product used mainly as a
coloring agent in amber borosilicate glasses
Cobalt oxide Powder Coloring agent Manufactured product used both as a
decolorizer and as a colorant to produce blue
glass
Selenium metal/ Powder Coloring agent Manufactured product, also trace quantities
zinc or sodium used as a decolorizer (color corrector). Large
selenite quantities used for bronze glass
coloring/discoloring agents, e.g., iron chro- can form glass on their own. SiO2 is by far
mite, iron oxide. The selection of the raw the most common network former in com-
materials is based on different criteria such as mercial glasses. Silica sand is the most impor-
composition and presence of impurities, avail- tant raw material for glass making so that it
13 ability, stability, melting/dissolution features, is the principal source of silica (SiO2) matrix
and costs. Obviously, raw materials can be (7 Box 13.1: Geology of Silica Sands). For

processed before their delivery, for example to this reason, glass making historically evolved
reduce the grain size to desired specifications in locations sourcing pure silica sand. It
and/or to eliminate impurities. should be free from iron contents for best
Silicon is the predominant element in the quality glass. Although it is possible to pro-
Earth’s crust (about 75% in total), combin- duce glass with 100% quartz, the high melt-
ing with oxygen to form silica (SiO2). Only ing point (about 1700 °C) of silica makes it
silica, with its high level of purity (as grains so expensive that its utilization is restricted
of rock or sand), is appropriate for manu- to certain technical applications, e.g., glass
facturing transparent glass. Crystalline silica for use in laboratories and/or for optics and
is a polymorphic material that exists in sev- optoelectronics. Therefore, other components
eral crystalline forms with the same chemical such as sodium and potassium carbonates are
composition, i.e., quartz, tridymite, and cris- added to lower down the fusing temperature
tobalite. “If the molten silica is slowly cooled, until approximately 1450 °C. Moreover, by
the silica tetrahedrons are rearranged three adding fluxing agents, generally sodium car-
dimensionally, re-establishing covalent bonds, bonate, the molten glass becomes less viscous
and crystal is made; where silica cools quickly, and more workable. The presence of iron
the tetrahedrons are randomly structured and oxide in the sand, which will color the grass
glass is made” (Gonçalves 2015). green or brown, is critical in determining
Network formers are the backbone of whether the sand is suitable to make clear or
the glass and correspond to oxides, which colored glass.
381 13
Box 13.1
Geology of Silica Sands Quartz can be found in all three of the

Silica sand is an industrial term used for sand or earth’s rock types: igneous, metamorphic, and
easily disaggregated sandstone with very high sedimentary. Nevertheless, is particularly prev-
percentage of quartz (silica) grains. For a par- alent in sedimentary rocks because quartz is
ticular source of silica sand to be appropriate for extremely resistant to physical and chemical
glass industry, it must not only contain high pro- breakdown by the weathering process. In gen-
portion of SiO2 but it should not contain certain eral, silica sand is a product of mechanical and
elements and/or compounds, e.g., Fe2O3, in chemical weathering of quartz-bearing igneous
excess. Moreover, silica sand is typically needed and metamorphic rocks (e.g., granites and
to be well-sorted, that is, to be formed of grains some gneiss). The stable mineral fragments,
of fairly uniform size. Larger grains will melt e.g., quartz and zircon, are further transported
slower than small grains so that they can remain and deposited mainly by water. The action of
unmelted while finer grains are more likely to waves and streams can later change the depos-
include refractory and iron oxide mineral grains. its until a relatively pure deposit of silica sand
Silica sands typically show narrow grain-size dis- remains. Many silica sand grains are very well
tribution (generally in the range from 0.5 to rounded indicating several cycles of deposition
0.1 mm). Most sources of silica sand used by and transport. Super mature sands often are
glass industry do not satisfy these requirements, more than 95% quartz with some natural
and therefore, they are not suitable for glassmak- deposits containing up to 99% quartz.
ing. In fact, “the complexity of gangue mineral Silica sand can be produced from sand-
removal and the possibility to achieve a concen- stones, quartzite (. Fig. 13.4), and loosely

trate with a needed chemical composition (in cemented or unconsolidated sand deposits
excess of 95% silica content) as well as the size ranging from Carboniferous to Recent in age.
and, in some cases, shape of grains are all factors Less commonly, silica is concentrated in hydro-
that play a major role in deciding on the of silica thermal quartz veins. The veins can reach up to
in glassmaking” (Grbes 2016). . Figure 13.3 is

some meters in thickness. Silica sands world-
an example of quality silica sand with high silica wide come from geological formations with
content, homogeneous grain size, and well- very distinct geological histories. Marine shore-
rounded and spherical grains. line and coastal aeolian environments are
among the most prospective settings for the
accumulation of quartz. “As well as marine
shoreface environments, marine intertidal and
deltaic settings are also considered prospective
.. Fig. 13.3 Example of quality silica sand with

high silica content, homogeneous grain size, and
well-rounded and spherical grains. (Benson and
Wilson 2015) .. Fig. 13.4 Quartzite quarry
environments for the generation of silica sands”

(Hickin et al. 2010).
A good example of silica sand producing
environments is the combination of coastal
aeolian deposits and marine offshore and
shoreface deposits that were reworked by aeo-
lian processes. Glacial deposits commonly tend
to be heterogeneous and are not usually appro-
priate for utilization as silica sand for glass
industry. Also identified as potential unconsoli-
dated sources are “Quaternary sand dune .. Fig. 13.5 Open pit (quarry) silica sand exploi-
deposits derived from older glaciofluvial or tation. (Image courtesy of Samca)
sandy glaciolacustrine sediments and (or)
sandy bedrock units that have been reworked Silica sand deposits are usually surface
along major rivers; and deposits of paleobeach mined in open pit operations (. Fig. 13.5)
ridges and dunes” (Levson et al. 2012). with standard mining equipment, but dredging
Scott (2011) summarized the following main and sometimes underground mining are also
geological settings for silica sand deposits: “(a) used. The location of a silica sand deposit in
passive continental margins: silica sand is an relation to market is an essential factor to
accumulation of high-purity quartz sand derived determine the economic feasibility of a deposit.
from a granitic or other quartz-rich rock in the Following extraction, the silica sand is pro-
hinterland; it forms as a bedded deposit, often cessed to obtain a product free of any contami-
along with kaolinitic clay, (b) basement: quartz nant and separated by grain size, regardless of
(crushed to make silica sand) is located in peg- the eventual end use. In general, silica sand
matites or other veins or masses containing only deposits need some form of processing to
quartz, and (c) surface deposits: there are two upgrade them into marketable form. As a con-
possibilities – (1) quartz sand as aeolian dunes, sequence, an essential factor to define a silica
sometimes partly or wholly reworked as fluvial sand deposit as a resource is its particle size and
13 sediments and/or (2) quartz-rich sands locally
derived from the weathering of pre-existing
the ease with which the impurities can be
extracted as well as the level of losses generated
schists, gneisses, granites or quartzites”. in the process.
Soda ash (Na2CO3) is the main source for pally in the form of limestone. It can also be
sodium oxide (Na2O); sodium carbonate is added as dolomite, which contains both cal-
currently produced using the Solvay method. cium carbonate and magnesium carbonate.
During melting, the sodium oxide becomes Addition of lime makes the glass fluid and
part of the melt and the carbon dioxide is adequate for blowing, drawing, rolling, press-
released. Sodium sulfate is added as a refining ing, and spinning; lime also imparts durability
and oxidizing agent, sodium sulfate being also and toughness to glass.
a secondary source of sodium oxide. Aluminum oxide (Al2O3) is incorporated
Potassium carbonate (K2CO3) acts as a flux- into the formulation to enhance chemical
ing agent and it is employed in some processes resistance and for increasing viscosity at lower
especially for special glass. Other metal oxides temperature. It is generally added as nephe-
are added to the glass for reinforcing the line syenite, feldspar, alumina, or feldspathic
structural network to improve the hardness sand. Lead oxides (PbO and Pb3O4) increase
and chemical resistance. Calcium oxide (CaO) brilliance and weight and make the glass
shows a same effect, and it is added to the softer and easier to cut and engrave. Barium
glass as calcium carbonate (CaCO3) princi- oxide (derived from barium carbonate), zinc
13.3 · Classification of Glass Types by Chemical Composition
383 13
oxide, or potassium oxide can be used as alter-
natives to lead oxide although they produce
lower density and brilliance than those associ-
ated with lead crystal; in particular, barium
increases the refractive index. Boron trioxide
(B2O3) increases glass resistance to chemical
corrosion as well as thermal and electrical
resistance. It is “essential in some products,
particularly special glass (borosilicate glasses)
and in glass fibers (glass wool and continuous
filaments); the most important effect deals
with reduction of the glass expansion coeffi-
cient, but in fibers it also changes viscosity .. Fig. 13.6 Glass cullet for recycling. (Image courtesy
of Glass Technology Services)
and liquidity to aid fiberization, and confers
resistance to attack by water” (Scalet et al.
2013). Cerium is sometimes added to absorb industrial sources). The composition of exter-
infrared rays. nal cullet is difficult to determine accurately
Fluoride-bearing materials, e.g., fluorspar so that presence of impurities can reject its
(CaF2), are used to obtain opacity of certain usability in certain product groups, e.g., float
glass products. Fluoride is also used to opti- glass. In general, the quantities of internal
mize surface tension and liquidity properties. cullet added to the process can range between
Other elements such as copper, chromium, 25% in soda-lime products to 50% in other
manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, vanadium, products, depending on the kind of final prod-
titanium, selenium, and cadmium are used to uct. For cullet to be melted into new products,
impart color to silicate glasses. In present the cullet must meet: “(a) needed glass indus-
days, the final color of the glass is essential in try quality standards, (b) consistency of com-
glass manufacturing; thus, a very large group position in sufficient quantity, and (c) price
of different colors can be generated based on targets to warrant utilization instead of raw
the addition of specific elements. Coloring batch materials” (Rue 2018). . Table 13.2
agents are commonly added in small propor- shows an example of batch calculations for
tions, below 1 wt%. They may be added either industrial glass manufactured using sand,
in the principal batch or into the canal follow- soda ash, limestone, dolomite, and sodium
ing the furnace. Iron is the most commonly feldspar whereas . Table 13.3 shows the

found coloring element in silicate glasses. resulting glass composition of that industrial
Nowadays, an essential raw material in glass.
glass making is glass cullet (pieces of waste
glass) (. Fig. 13.6). The usage of cullet may
Classification of Glass Types

greatly decrease the energy consumption since 13.3

cullet has lower energy need than virgin mate- by Chemical Composition
rial (broken glasses act as a flux). Thus, every
1 ton of cullet substitutes about 1.2 tons of The most common classification of glass types
virgin raw materials. In addition to energy is by chemical composition, which provides
saving, the use of cullet lows down the quan- four main groups: soda-lime glass, borosili-
tity of raw materials, reduces energy con- cate glass, lead crystal, and special glass. The
sumption to produce the raw materials, thus first three groups account for over 95% of all
increasing the life of the furnace. glass produced at present in the world while
Cullet can be internal (rejected glass from the remaining 5% is targeted to thousands of
the production line) and external (post- special glass formulations manufactured in
consumer glass from consumer or external small quantities (Scalet et al. 2013).
.. Table 13.2 Simplified example of batch calculation for industrial glass prepared from sand, soda ash,
limestone, dolomite, and sodium feldspar from a batch components and quantities point of view (Hubert
2019)
Raw material Composition Quantity in Amount of oxide entering Melting loss

(wt%) batch (kg) the glass (kg) (kgCO2)
Sand 99.95 SiO2 1000 999.5 SiO2

0.05 Fe2O3 0.5 Fe2O3
Soda ash 50 Na2O 350 175 Na2O 175
(Na2CO3) Rest CO2
Limestone 56 CaO 150 84 CaO 66
(CaCO3) Rest CO2
Dolomite 30.5 CaO 200 61 CaO 95
(1 – x)CaCO3 • 22 MgO Rest 44 MgO
xMgCO3 CO2
Sodium feldspar 68.7 SiO2 80 55 SiO2
(Na2O • Al2O3 • SiO2) 19.5 Al2O3 15.6 Al2O3
11.8 Na2O 9.4 Na2O
Total 1780 1444 336
lime glass, soda ash glass, soda glass, and soft

.. Table 13.3 Glass composition of the indus-
glass). “More than 90% of the world’s glass
trial glass generated from the batch composition
production is based on soda lime silicate oxide
of . Table 13.2 (Hubert 2019)
13

glasses” (Lebullenger and Mear 2019).

Total oxide Glass composition According to ASTM C162 standard, soda-
in glass (kg) (wt%) lime silicate glass is “glass composition con-
taining soda (Na2O), lime (CaO), and silica
SiO2 1054.5 73.04 (SiO2) as the main ingredients.” EN 572-1
Na2O 184.4 12.81 European standard dealing with soda-lime
CaO 145 10.01
silicate glass products for glass in buildings
defines the chemical composition of this type
MgO 44 3.00 of glass as shown in . Table 13.4.
Al2O3 15.6 1.10 The soda-lime silicate glass is generally

Fe2O3 0.5 0.04
cheap and available in a clean and clear state.
Typical soda-lime glass composition in oxides
Total 1444 100 can be expressed as 71–75% silicon dioxide,
12–16% sodium oxide, 10–15% calcium oxide,
and low levels of other components designed
13.3.1 Soda-Lime Silicate Glass to impart specific properties to the glass. The
composition depends on the particular raw
Most of industrial glasses, including those materials and the processing conditions. In
aimed to construction sector, show similar some cases, part of calcium oxide or sodium
compositions and are collectively termed oxide may be substituted by magnesium oxide
soda-lime silicate glass (also known as soda- and potassium oxide (K2O) respectively.
13.3 · Classification of Glass Types by Chemical Composition
385 13
.. Table 13.4 Magnitude of the proportions by

mass of the constituents of soda-lime silicate
glass (EN 572-1 standard)
Constituents Proportion by mass of element

(%)
Silicon (Si) 32–35

Calcium (Ca) 3.5–10.1
Sodium (Na) 7.4–11.9
.. Fig. 13.8 Fire-resistant glazing. (Image courtesy of
Magnesium 0–3.7 Westyle Ltd.)
(Mg)
Aluminum (Al) 0–1.6 food and/or liquids. “The higher the alkali
Othersa <5 content of the glass, the higher the thermal
expansion coefficient and the lower the resis-
aProperties other than photometric characteris- tance to thermal shock and chemical attack;
tics shall not be significantly altered by these
thus, soda-lime glasses are not generally suited
other components
to applications involving extreme or rapid
changes in temperature” (Scalet et al. 2013).
13.3.2 Borosilicate Glass
Borosilicate glass, used commonly in the con-

struction industry for fire-resistant glazing
(e.g., fire resistant to 2 hours integrity)
(. Fig. 13.8), contains a certain proportion

of boron oxide (B2O3) instead of calcium

oxide. ASTM C162 standard defines borosili-
cate glass as “a silicate glass with B2O3 content
above 4 weight percent, characterized by a
.. Fig. 13.7 Glass in buildings moderate to low thermal expansion, long in
viscosity versus temperature, and low in den-
sity.” EN 1748-1-1 standard states that boro-
Soda-lime silicate type is used in many silicate glass is a “silicate glass containing
building and construction applications, between 7% and 15% boron oxide. As a result
including door and window glasses in build- of the composition it has a high thermal
ings (. Fig. 13.7). In fact, most glasses used
shock resistance and a very high hydrolytic
in buildings are almost exclusively soda-lime and acid resistance.” . Table 13.5 shows

silicate glass. The quality of the glass can be chemical composition in oxides of borosili-
enhanced by adding alumina and magnesium cate glasses where used in buildings. As
oxide, and the glass is then termed crown glass. expressed in EN 1748-1-1 standard, “glasses
The widespread use of soda-lime glass results with this composition are characterized by
from its chemical and physical properties. high resistance to chemical corrosion and
Among the most important of these proper- temperature change (low thermal expansion
ties is excellent light transmission, hence its coefficient).” In addition to these properties,
utilization in flat glass and transparent arti- boron trioxide is important in the fiberization
cles. It has a smooth, nonporous surface that of the glass melt. Thus, a further application
is largely chemically inert so that it can be eas- of borosilicate glass is the production of glass
ily cleaned and does not affect the taste of fiber.

.. Table 13.5 Chemical composition (in oxides)

of borosilicate glasses (EN 1748-1-1 standard)
Silicon Dioxide SiO2 70–87%

Boron Oxide B2O3 7–15%
Sodium Oxide Na2O 0–8%
Potassium Oxide K 2O 0–8%
Aluminum Oxide Al2O3 0–8%
Others 0–8%
.. Fig. 13.9 Salt crystallization in bricks

13.3.3 ead Crystal and Special
L
Glass
one type of glass to another. Since the first
The other two big groups of glasses are not man-made glass articles, some millennia ago,
commonly used in construction. Lead oxide is the manufacturing of glass constantly
commonly utilized for replacing much of the enhanced to produce better, cheaper prod-
calcium oxide in the batch to manufacture a ucts, while reducing power consumption and
product termed lead crystal or lead crystal glass. the environmental issues of the glass fabrica-
Typical products of this type of glass are high- tion process. As a rule, the manufacture of
quality drinking glasses, decanters, bowls, and glass involves four main stages: batching,
decorative items. Special glasses form an melting, fining or refining, and forming or
extremely diverse group, which covers the spe- shaping. The first three stages are required in
cialized low volume, high-value products. Their all manufacturing processes while the form-
composition varies broadly in view of the ing and further operations depend on the
needed properties of the products. Some exam- final product to be produced. A typical indus-
13 ples of this group of glass are optical glass, glass
for electrotechnology and electronics, glass seals
trial glass melting tank is illustrated in
. Fig. 13.10.

and solders sintered glass, glass ceramics, etc. During the batching process, the adequate
EN 14178-1 standard describes a specific mixture of raw materials is chosen according
type of glass termed basic alkaline earth sili- to chemistry, uniformity, particle size, and
cate glass, used for manufacturing float glass end-product. The batch is prepared in the
(see next heading). It is defined as “flat, trans- batch house and fed via a batch charger into
parent, clear or tinted float glass with a chem- the furnace, commonly on top of a bath of
ical composition according to . Fig. 13.9, molten glass at high temperature. The batch
having parallel and polished faces obtained by will then undergo a series of reactions and
continuous casting and floating on a metal processes to produce a glass melt. Thus, the
bath.” It refers to a group of glass products melting process is the combination of the
formed mainly of silicon dioxide but contain- individual raw materials at high temperature
ing alkaline earth oxides in varying amounts (approximately 1600 °C) to produce a physical
besides calcium oxide. transformation that results in molten glass
being formed; it is the key phase in the manu-
facture of glass because the molten glass can
13.4 Manufacturing Process be later easily worked into a finished product.
Glass furnaces are used to melt the raw
Depending on the type of glass requested and materials, and different furnaces are used

the amount produced, the processing and depending on the end products. In continuous
manufacturing techniques differ greatly from furnaces, the melting phases occur simultane-
387 13
.. Fig. 13.10 Typical industrial glass production process in a melting tank. (Hubert 2019)
ously in different locations within the tank.

The mixture of raw materials trickles into the
input end of the melting tank, onto the sur-
face of the glass bath, and melts there until
they have fused to form a glassy mass of mate-
rial, which is then removed from the other end
as a viscous mass. The “residence time of the
glass melt in the furnace varies significantly by
the type of glass produced, being the mini-
mum residence time an essential factor to
ensure glass quality; normally, the higher the
quality of glass produced, the longer the resi-
dence time, in order to assure perfect homog-
enization” (Scalet et al. 2013). .. Fig. 13.11 Essential steps taking place in a glass
The glass melt must be completely homog- melting tank. (Hubert 2019)
enized and free of bubbles before it can be
formed into products. This is because the The glass cools down to 1000–1200 °C in a
complete dissolution and even distribution next phase. After that, the glass can be worked
of all components and the elimination of the further in the forming and shaping phase.
bubbles from the molten glass are essential Thus, the molten glass can be manufactured
for most glass products. As a consequence, to desired shapes by different methods, e.g.,
principal aim of the glass fining or refining blowing, compression molding, utilizing
technique is to manufacture a molten glass appropriate processes for the manufacture of
of uniform composition and clear of gas or flat glass, glass fibers (both short and long),
air bubbles (in order to achieve the desired glass wool or matting for insulation, light
homogeneity). It should bear in mind that bulbs, containers, e.g., bottles, and many
the refining process in a continuous furnace more. Glass furnaces are designed specifically
is the most delicate of the melting phases. for making a specific product, that is, a float
. Figure 13.11 shows the essential steps that
glass furnace can manufacture several glasses
must be followed in a glass melting tank. with different thicknesses or colors during its
lifetime but will never manufacture fibers or

bottles.
13.5 Glass Products
Since this book considers materials for con-

struction, the main types of basic glass prod-
ucts that must be taken into account are the
following: flat (float) glass, tempered glass,
laminated glass, insulating glass, curved glass, .. Fig. 13.12 Float glass in West Midtown Ferry Ter-
glass wool, and glass blocks and pavers. minal, New York. (Image courtesy of Pilkington)
fridges or ovens), electronics, furniture, and

13.5.1 Flat Glass etcetera.”
In 1952, Alastair Pilkington, technical
The term flat glass exclusively refers to all director of Pilkington Brothers (UK), devel-
glasses manufactured in a flat shape regardless oped a method known as the float glass pro-
of the method of production. According to cess (7 Box 13.2: Float Glass Process), a

ASTM C162 standard, flat glass is “a general technique that would revolutionize the flat
term covering sheet glass, plate glass, float glass process from the 1960s onwards
glass, and various forms of rolled glass.” Most (Pilkington 1969). Nowadays, the float glass
flat glass is produced with basic soda-lime sili- process is the dominant method in glass man-
cate glass. The transparency of glass has made ufacture due to the high quality of the result-
its utilization quite desirable in building coning glass (it produces glass with an outstanding
struction for centuries. However, the difficul- surface quality without the need for any addi-
ties in producing flat glass for glazing tional treatment) as well as the relatively low
objectives led to many different methods of productions costs. According to ISO 16293-1
production over the years. At the start of the and EN 572-1 standards, float glass is a “flat,
13 twentieth century, sheet glass was manufac- transparent, clear or tinted soda-lime silicate
tured by means of a continuous, automated glass having parallel and polished faces
rolling and/or drawing process developed out obtained by continuous casting and flotation
of the manual methods of the past. The big on a metal bath.” ASTM C162 standard
issue was that glasses produced by those meth- defines float glass as a “flat glass that has been
ods needed extensive ground and should be formed on molten metal, commonly tin.”
polished afterward, which was time-Float glass is the most important glass prod-
consuming and costly. uct in construction applications (. Fig. 13.12)

Glass For Europe (the trade association and represents the material commonly used
for Europe’s flat glass sector) points out that for windows, facades, interior glazing, and
“the largest flat glass market is the building automotive applications. Almost all flat glass
industry, which accounts for more or less 80% is currently manufactured by float process in
of the output. About 15% is processed into plants that operate continuously 24 hours a
glazing for the automotive and transport day, 365 days a year in order to reduce costs
industry. The 5% remaining is shared among and environmental footprint. On average, a
glass for many different applications such as float glass plant produces 650 tons of glass
solar applications, appliances (for example per day.
13.5 · Glass Products
389 13
Box 13.2
Float Glass Process the glass pours onto the float bath. It is
The designation float glass comes from the formed by a steel casing supported by a
glass method in which the glass melt “floats” on steel framework; it is lined with refractory
a liquid bed of tin. The basic principle of the blocks that contain the molten tin. A
float glass process (also known as the Pilkington slightly reducing atmosphere is maintained
process) is to pour the molten glass onto a bath in the bath by the injection of a mixture of
of molten tin, forming then a ribbon with the nitrogen and hydrogen since it is essential
upper and lower surfaces becoming parallel to prevent the oxidation of the tin surface,
under the influence of gravity and surface ten- which would damage the contact surface
sion. . Figure 13.13 illustrates de float glass

between the glass and the tin. Molten tin is
process. It consists of the following steps: used as the bath liquid because it is the only
1. Melting—The quality of the glass is directly substance that remains liquid and without
influenced by the melting process. In this a significant vapor pressure over the
step, fine grained ingredients closely con- required temperature range. In this sense,
trolled for quality are mixed to make a tin has several advantages: relatively inex-
batch, which flows into the heated furnace pensive, nontoxic, and nonreactive.
at 1500–1600 °C. In the furnace, simultane- Moreover, the presence of impurities is not
ously but in separate zones, take place dif- an issue because they can be easily cleaned
ferent essential processes such as melting, from the cooled surface of the glass. At the
refining, and homogenizing. As a conse- beginning of the floating process, the tem-
quence, the complex glass flow is driven by perature of the glass is about 1000 °C and,
high temperature gradients that controls all where is leaving the float bath as a solid rib-
stages of melting preprocess. The glass bon, the temperature decreases to approxi-
flows, through channels, into the floating mately 600 °C. In this process, a sheet of
bath. At this moment, the glass is free from glass is formed by flotation. As it passes
inclusions and bubbles and flows smoothly over the surface of the bath, an uniform
and continuously. thickness is developed, assuming the near
2. Float Bath—The molten glass flows from perfect flatness of the molten tin. The thick-
the furnace along a refractory-lined canal, ness of the glass ranges commonly between
which can be heated to maintain the correct 1.5 and 19 mm while the width can range
glass temperature. At the end of the canal, from 3 to 5 m.
.. Fig. 13.13 Illustration of the float glass process

3. Annealing—Once the ribbon of glass is After annealing, glass inspection for ensuring
formed in the bath, it passes to an annealing the highest quality is carried out while cutting
chamber termed lehr since considerable to order and packing of the products are the
stresses are developed in the ribbon as the final processes previous glass is sold in the mar-
glass cools. Thus, glass is gradually cooled ket in square meters. Online coatings can be
from 600 to 60 °C with the aim of reducing applied to enhance the performance of the
residual stresses caused during the forming product. Some float production lines specialize
process to an acceptable level. The annealing in body tinted (colored) solar-control glass
range of temperatures determines the where additional minerals are added to pig-
strength, flatness, and cutting properties of ment the glass for absorbing more infrared
the glass at room temperature. This operation energy and visible light.
requires time and space, existing a continuous
200 m ribbon of glass from the pouring of
glass onto the float bath to the cutting line.
The vast majority of flat glass produced in

glass melting plants will be further processed
and transformed to increase some of its prop-
erties before being installed onto a final prod-
uct. Thus, float glass represents the starting
point for further treatment. The possible ways
for subsequent treatment are carried out in
several stages and are aimed at modifying the
glass for functional and/or decorative reasons.
Depending of the product and application for
which it is destined, processing activities will .. Fig. 13.14 Coated glass in the Zagreb International
include coating, tempering, laminating, and Airport. (Image courtesy of Saint Gobain)
13 much more.
55 Surface Treatments—Coatings materials applied onto the surface of a glass
substrate by various methods of deposition)
The glass surface can be modified by various in order to modify one or more of its proper-
means. The treatment can in turn influence a ties.” ISO 11479-1 standard outlines a similar
number of glass properties, create new func- definition but describes coating as “one or
tions, and/or achieve artistic effects. Coating more layers applied to the glass using either
(e.g., metalizing and enameling) is one of the the pyrolytic, sol-gel or vacuum (sputtering)
most common surface treatment of the glass deposition method.” ASTM F3006 standard
(. Fig. 13.14). The term coated glass covers
defines organic-coated glass as “a manufac-
any type of glass to which coating is applied. tured assembly consisting of a sheet of glass
Examples of coated glasses are low-emissivity covered on one or both surfaces with either:
glass, solar-control glass, selective, high-per- (1) an adhesive-applied organic film or sheet-
formance glass, and self-cleaning glass (Dodd ing, or (2) an applied coating.”
2017). According to EN 1096-1 standard, The most used coatings in float glass are
coated glass is a “glass substrate (basic glass, metallic films and metal oxide films. The coat-
special basic glass, chemically strengthened ings usually consist of systems with several
basic glass, thermally treated basic and special individual layers and are either applied to the
basic glass, laminated glass or laminated surface of the glass during the manufacturing
safety glass) to which has been applied a coat- process, for instance while the surface is still
ing (one or more thin solid layers or inorganic fluid (the so-called on line method or hard
391 13
coating), or after the sheet glass is produced pressed (in order to be able to accommodate
(termed offline method or soft coating). The higher tensile stresses without damage) in
former results in strong and durable bond such a way that the inherent compressive
between the glass and the coating while the strength must be overcome first before tensile
coating applied in the offline method is gener- strength can build up in the glass (Weller et al.
ally less resistant to environmental influences 2009). Accordingly, the structural perfor-
and mechanical actions. The main advantage mance of glass is improved through artificial
of online coating deals with hardness so that prestressing. Therefore, tempered or tough-
the coated surface can be glazed to exterior ened glass is a glass thermally (or chemically)
sides of the glass unit. An example of popular treated to improve its mechanical perfor-
online coating is reflective glass. In offline mance. For structural glass applications, tem-
methods, there are several application meth- pering is the most important processing
ods such as dip coating, chemical or physical method.
vapor deposition to apply soft coatings onto ASTM C162 standard defines tempered
glass surfaces. The magnetron sputtering pro- glass as “a general term for glass that has been
cess at room temperature and under high vac- subjected to a thermal treatment character-
uum is the most common technique. Typical ized by rapid cooling to produce a compres-
coating materials are tin oxide and silver. The sively stressed surface layer,” EN 12150-1
total coating thickness is just about 0.01– standard defines thermally toughened safety
0.1 μm. The main disadvantage of soft coat- glass as a “glass within which a permanent
ings deals with their susceptibility to aggressive surface compressive stress, additionally to the
air pollution and mechanical damage. basic mechanical strength, has been induced
Enamelled glass is a type of glass pro- by a controlled heating and cooling process in
duced by applying ceramic paint onto the order to give it greatly increased resistance to
glass surface, and then it is subjected to drying mechanical and thermal stress and prescribed
and tempering processes. The glass may be fragmentation characteristics” and ISO 12540
enamelled by a roller coating machine or by a standard defines flat tempered safety glass as
silk screen printing method. By using the “tempered (thermally toughened) glass which
roller technology, the resulting colors will be has not been deliberately given a specific pro-
more opaque. Enamelled glass can appear file during manufacture.”
opaque, translucent, and transparent, depend- Tempered glass is two to five times more
ing on the colors chosen, glass thickness, and resistant than ordinary glass. Moreover,
viewing angle. Enamelled glass is always tem- it breaks into small harmless pieces
pered (see next heading) since thermal treat- (. Fig. 13.15), with edges that are not sharp,

ment is necessary to applying the ceramic preventing people from getting injured
inks. (tempered glass is also called safety glass).
Tempering creates permanent stress that can
sometimes distort images reflected from cer-
13.5.2 Tempered Glass
The special optical properties of glass, its

good hardness, light-fastness, thermal stabil-
ity, and resistance to radiation and chemicals
all give good reputation to glass as building
material. However, some disadvantages are
low tensile strength, dependent on the surface
properties, and brittle fracture behavior. The
tempering process plays an essential role to
compensate these weaknesses; that process
shows some similarities to that used in pre-
stressed concrete. Thus, the glass is overcom- .. Fig. 13.15 Small pieces of broken tempered glass
tain angles. This is considered an intrinsic The possibility of fracture without any
feature of tempered glass but not a defect. load-bearing reserves prohibits the utilization
Besides high tensile strength, tempered glass of single panels as load-bearing elements in
exhibits thermal fatigue and impact resis- building structural applications. This issue
tances by far higher than those of float glass. can be overcome by bonding two or more
The glass can be partially tempered to pro- sheets of glass by means of viscoelastic inter-
duce the so-called heat strengthened glass. It layers (Weller et al. 2009). The brittleness of
undergoes the same manufacturing process glass itself cannot be modified but lamination
as toughened safety glass except that the provides a means of producing a glass pane
cooling process is slower. The great advan- with a form of ductility. According to ASTM
tage of this type of glass is its suitability for C1172 standard, “depending on the number,
further processing to form laminated safety thickness, and treatment of lites, and the num-
glass. ber and thickness of interlayers, the glass shall
Chemical tempering is an alternative tem- be laminated for applications including, but
pering process that does not involve thermic not limited to, safety, security, detention, hur-
effects, produces a different residual stress ricane/cyclic-wind resistance, blast resistance,
profile, and can be applied to any thickness bullet resistance, sound reduction, and deco-
of glass; this type of tempering is extremely rative glazing.”
rare in structural applications. Chemically Laminated glass is composed of a tear
strengthened glass is a “glass that has been resistant plastic film (polyvinyl butyral or
ion-exchanged to produce a compressive ethylene-vinyl acetate) laminated between two
stress layer at the treated surface” -ASTM layers of glass under pressure and heat.
162 standard-). The cation exchange takes Although the glass pieces are not stronger
place by immersing the glass in a potassium than the standard glass, the composite multi-
nitrate solution for approximately 16 h at layer lamination results in a stronger unit.
400 °C. The mechanical resistance of tem- Laminated glass will shatter like standard
pered glass chemically increases by five times glass but the plastic film will hold the pieces of
compared to ordinary glass. Chemical tem- glass in the frame, reducing the chance of
pering gives ordinary glass properties identi- injury. In respect of the manufacturing pro-
13 cal to those of glass that has been thermally cess, after the polymeric film is placed between
tempered. Despite its cost and other limita- two sheets of glass, the composite is intro-
tions, chemical tempering is the only option duced in an autoclave at approximately 140 °C
for some shaped glass as it is broadly used where the heat treatment under pressure of up
in aircraft windows where high strength thin to 14 bar helps it to stick and ensure that there
glass is needed. are not air inclusions between the glass and
the interlayer.
Advantages of laminated glass include
13.5.3 aminated Glass and
L (NIH 2017): “(a) better acoustical properties
Laminated Safety Glass than standard or tempered glass, (b) in thicker,
multi-layer forms, laminated glass can be blast
Laminated glass is defined as “a flat-lite of and bullet resistant, (c) it can be drilled, cut
uniform thickness that is fabricated by bond- and otherwise modified in the shop or field,
ing two or more monolithic glass lites or plies increasing fabrication flexibility, (d) UV-
of equal thickness together with polyvinyl absorbing additives in the plastic film can
butyral (PVB) interlayer(s)” (ASTM E2461 blocks up to 99% of UV transmission, (e) it
standard) and as an “assembly consisting of does not have the optical distortion associated
one sheet of glass with one or more sheets of with heat treating, and (f) it will remain in the
glass and/or plastic glazing sheet material frame when broken, unlike standard or tem-
joined together with one or more interlayers” pered glass, providing a degree of security and
(ISO 12543-1 standard). separation.”
393 13
.. Fig. 13.17 Bullet-resistant glass in a house. (Image

courtesy of Silatec)
bonate sheets. For instance, bullet-resistant

glass (a “security glazing that affords a defined
resistance against the firing of specified weap-
ons and ammunition” -EN 1063 standard-)
(. Fig. 13.17) has four or more glass lami-

nates.
Fire glazing (. Fig. 13.8) is also lami-

nated glass. Fire-resistant laminated glass is

“laminated glass where at least one interlayer
.. Fig. 13.16 Façade of the Prada store in Tokyo man- reacts to the high temperature to give the
ufactured with laminated glass product its fire resistance” (ISO 12543-1). The
laminates can be made of different types of
PVB is the most widely used interlayer glass (e.g., float glass, and thermally tough-
(with a nominal thickness of 0.38 mm) since it ened glass) connected with special fire inter-
is reasonably economical, extremely ductile layers and/or materials like PVB. There are
and energy absorbing, and resistant to ultra- three different types of fire glazing (fire resis-
violet light. Other alternatives to PVB are tance classifications) (EN 357 standard): “(a)
ethylene-inyl acetate (EVA) and polyurethane E (integrity only): protection of fire and
(PU). As an example, the all glass façade of smoke, (b) EW (integrity with radiation pro-
the Prada store in Tokyo (. Fig. 13.16) is
tection): protection of fire and smoke as well
manufactured from rhomboidal panes of as reduce of thermal radiation (limited to 15
PVB-bonded laminated glass (some units are kW/m2), and (c) EI (integrity with insulation):
flat but others are curved). protection of fire and smoke as well as reduce
Safety glass is a generic term often used to of thermal radiation in terms of an insula-
describe glass that is stronger than the stan- tion. For design calculations, the laminate of
dard glass, and which will not fracture into the fire glazing can be treated as normal lami-
loose, sharp shards. Historically, laminated nated glass depending on the type of inter-
safety glass was developed for the automotive layer” (Feldmann and Kasper 2014).
sector to prevent damages in case of accidents.
For most new construction and renovation
projects, laminated safety glass is used where 13.5.4 Insulating Glass
these characteristics are required. Because it
can prevent the fall out of dangerous glass Glass is poor conductor of heat compared to
shards after fracture, it is commonly used as metals but not an adequate insulator for the
safety glazing and as overhead glazing in sky- level of thermal performance needed in mod-
lights. The impact resistance of laminated ern buildings. Addition of plastic layers by
glass can be increased by the utilization of laminating does not sufficiently enhance ther-
thicker interlayers, increasing the number of mal performance. Thus, most of glasses cur-
laminates and/or by the inclusion of polycar- rently used in building façades are in the form
of insulating glazing units (IGU), either dou- and constantly seal the perimeter for prevent-
ble- or triple-glazed (. Fig. 13.18). An insu-
ing gas escaping and to avoid moisture pene-
lating glass unit (IGU) is “a preassembled trating into the dry cavity (. Fig. 13.19).

unit, comprising lites of glass, which are With a cavity just 12 mm wide, no special infill
sealed at the edges and separated by dehy- gas, and uncoated glasses, the thermal trans-
drated space(s), intended for vision areas of mittance compared to a monolithic pane is
buildings. The unit is normally used for win- reduced by half. The thermal performance
dows, window walls, picture windows, sliding can be further enhanced adding a low-
doors, patio doors, skylights, or other types of emissivity coating on one or all of the layers
fenestration” (ASTM E2190 and ISO 20492-1 of glass. Besides energy saving, insulating
standards. EN 1279-1 standard defines (IGU) glass units can improve transparency by
as an “assembly consisting of at least two reducing condensation on the warm air side.
panes of glass, separated by one or more spac- Insulating glass is one of the most important
ers, hermetically sealed along the periphery, glass products and can be made of all the
mechanically stable and durable.” glass types mentioned previously. Double
The leading idea of the IGU is to fill the (two glass panels with on cavity) or triple glaz-
airspace between the glass panes during the ing (three glass panels with two cavities) are
manufacturing process with either dry air or a available in the market.
low-conductivity gas (e.g., argon and xenon) As the cavity between the glass panels is
gas-tight (width of 12 up to 20 mm), it can be
filled with dehumidified air or inert gas to
enhance efficiency of the insulation. The width
of the cavity should be sufficient to provide an
insulating layer of still air or gas, but not so
wide that convection currents can become
established. The spacer between the glass
panes includes a desiccant component to
absorb moisture from the air trapped in the
cavity when the unit is assembled. Desiccants
13 materials were originally silica gel but now
they are materials that can absorb large quan-
tities of moisture and lower the dew point
.. Fig. 13.18 Insulating glass units in a gallery. (Image inside the unit to around −80 °C when first
courtesy of JELD-WEN Glass) sealed.
.. Fig. 13.19 Design of an insulated glass unit

395 13
The primary vapor seal between the metal
spacer and the glass is a bead of poly-
isobutylene (PIB), which has very low vapor
permeability and remains sticky and flexible
over a broad range of temperatures. The bead
of PIB must be continuous and must close any
junctions in the spacer to create a complete
seal. To ensure a firm connection plus addi-
tional sealing, a secondary, outer seal is essen-
tial to hold the two panes together and locate
the spacer. Polysulfide secondary sealants are
popular for units that will be framed so that
the polysulfide will not be exposed to UV
radiation, which breaks down its adhesion to .. Fig. 13.20 Curved glass used in the Sage, Newcastle
glass, and some polyurethane sealants are Upon Tyne (UK)
used for the same purpose. Units whose edges
will be exposed to sunlight, for frameless glaz- product to be manufactured: thermally
ing or structural silicone glazing, for example, toughened glass, laminated safety glass, and/
are sealed with silicone secondary sealants, or multipane insulating glass. This type of
which are resistant to UV but often tend to be glass is commonly employed for automotive
more flexible. glazing, although it is barely found in archi-
tectural applications mainly because of high
manufacturing cost.
13.5.5 Curved Glass
Curved glass, formerly known as bent glass, is 13.5.6 Fibrous Glass

glass that has been heated past its softening
point and formed into a curved shape According to Glass Alliance Europe (the
(. Fig. 13.20). ASTM C162 and ISO

European Glass Sector), the continuous fila-
11485-1 standards define curved or bent glass ment glass fiber sector, in which the glass wool
as “flat glass that has been shaped while hot market is included, is one of the smallest sec-
into a body having curved surfaces.” It is tors of the glass industry in Europe in terms
mainly manufactured by shaping the float of tonnage (2%) although the products have a
glass at temperature of 600 °C. Several types relatively high value to mass ratio. Glass wool
of production methods can be used to intro- is one type of mineral wool (MW) products
duce the curvature: “(a) gravity bending and covered by ASTM C168, EN 13162, and ISO
annealing, (b) gravity bending and quench- 9229 standards. For instance, ASTM C168
ing in a mold or in a bending quench, and (c) standard defines fibrous glass (more or less
pressure bending” (Feldmann and Kasper similar to glass wool) as “a synthetic vitreous
2014). The method is more difficult in com- fiber insulation made by melting predomi-
parison to the manufacture of flat glass nantly silica sand and other inorganic materi-
mainly in view of a reliable prestress. As the als, and then physically forming the melt into
bending technology is continuously fibers; commonly referred to as fiber glass.” In
improved, a maximum float glass panel with particular, glass wool is a kind of fibrous
3.2 × 6 m dimensions can currently be bent. material made from melted glass raw materi-
However, maximum size depends on the final als (7 Box 13.3: Glass Wool).

Box 13.3
Glass Wool
Glass wool is an insulating component manu-
factured from fibers arranged using a binder
into a texture similar to wool (hence the name
glass wool). It is usually manufactured with
sand, limestone, and soda ash, including also a
high proportion of cullet and other minerals
and/or components, e.g., basalt, dolomite,
bauxite, recycled mineral wool, and slag from
the steel industry. Materials are firstly individu-
ally weighed and mixed before they are taken to
the furnace. The melt then flows from the fur-
nace and is applied to the spinning wheels. The
fibers are drawn from the spinning wheels with
a powerful air stream that is blown into the
spinning chamber. Meanwhile, binder and cool-
ing water are added to the flow of fibers.
De-dusting oil gives the wool water-repellent
properties and reduces any dust during cutting
and in the finished products. The wool is then
conveyed into the curing oven, where water is
evaporated and the binder is cured by hot air .. Fig. 13.21 Batts of glass wool
supplied from two natural gas-fired burners.
After leaving the curing oven, the wool is con-
veyed through a cooling section where ambient
air from the production hall cools it in prepara-
tion for cutting. Finally, the wool is cut to size.
13 The mineral raw materials are melted at
approximately 1400–1500 °C. The glass fiber is
thin as 4–6 μ diameter and uniform because it is
made by high speed centrifugal process. Glass
wool gives excellent thermal insulation effect
with special water-repellent treatment. It is suit-
able for fire-resisting constructions or fire areas
because it does not create toxic gases during fire.
.. Fig. 13.22 Installing glass wool in an interior
In addition, it has sound absorption effect and
partition
durability for shock, pressure, and vibration.
Glass wool insulation has long history of of application of glass wool insulation prod-
utilization in a broad range of insulation appli- ucts are the following: “(a) exterior walls and
cations. It is one of the most widely used insu- internal surface of any walls and reinforced
lation form worldwide due to its thermal and concrete elements, (b) interior partitions
acoustic properties, lightweight, high tensile (. Fig. 13.22) and adjacent walls, (c) walls

strength, and very good resilience. Glass wool adjacent to staircases and elevator shafts, (d)
insulation is commonly preferred in applica- back of radiator (reduces heat losses caused by
tions with service temperatures up to transfer), (e) thermal insulation and acoustic
250 °C. Glass wool products have numerous insulation on the facade, and (f) Interior ther-
thicknesses and densities, coming in the form mal insulation and acoustic insulation of
of rolls or batts (. Fig. 13.21). Some examples

wooden carcass buildings” (Scalet et al. 2013).
13.6 · Glass Recycling
397 13
13.5.7 Glass Blocks and Pavers impact loads perpendicular to the visible sur-
faces. The varying forms of glass blocks (type,
EN 1051-1 European standard points out that thickness, size, shape, and patterns) together
“glass blocks are molded airtight, hollow with the installation systems may combine to
glass bodies for use in vertical applications generate a great variety of design solutions.
(e.g. walls)” and “glass pavers are molded Dimensions can range from 90 × 90 × 20 mm
glass bodies, either solid or hollow, for use in to 300 × 300 × 100 mm. They are translucent,
non-vertical applications (e.g. floors).” ISO can be tinted, and are available with smooth
21690 standard defines hollow glass block as and textured surfaces. Their edges are sealed
“two pressed glass bodies fused together to with a grit-bearing plastic material so that
form an airtight seal enclosing a cavity,” good bond is obtained with mortar.
dished glass block as “pressed glass body hav-
ing a concave face” and solid glass block as
“one piece cast or pressed glass body without 13.6 Glass Recycling
a concave face.”
Glass blocks are generally manufactured The proper nature of glass materials prepared
by fusing or bonding together two or more by cooling a liquid and presenting the revers-
units under applied pressure to form an air- ible glass transition phenomenon allows their
tight seal. In contrast, glass pavers can be pro- infinite recyclability. Thus, a glass free of pol-
duced as a single piece and/or by fusing or lutants can be recycled indefinitely without
bonding together two or more units to form losing any of its qualities. It is a recyclable
an airtight seal. The center of the block or solid that can be recycled in a closed-loop
paver is hollow and is under a partial vacuum, procedure (. Fig. 13.24). This is mainly true

which adds to the insulating properties of the for glass bottles, which have a recycling fre-
block. Both types of glass units are manufac- quency varying from 50% to 80%. Glass cullet
tured from soda-lime silicate glass conform- can be also re-injected into window glass fur-
ing to EN 572-1. naces.
Glass unit masonry with glass blocks (also Benefits of recycling glass are clear and
termed glass bricks) is used to build up a great constant: “(a) energy savings: an increase of
variety of nonbearing walls (. Fig. 13.23) or
10% of recycled glass in place of virgin raw
used as nonbearing infill in window openings. materials allows 3% energy saving, (b) limiting
They possess high degree of acoustic and the release of CO2: 1t of recycled glass saves
thermal insulation. Glass blocks must be used more than 500 kg of CO2, (c) decreasing the
in such a way that they only support their own removal of natural resources: for each kg of
weight in parallel with the visible surfaces and cullet used in replacement of the raw material,
horizontal load, generated by wind and by there is a saving of 1.2 kg of virgin materials,
(d) optimizing logistics, thus minimizing the
carbon footprint linked to transportation,
and (e) avoiding landfilling or incineration”
(Lebullenger and Mear 2019).
.. Fig. 13.24 Flow diagram process for glass recycling

in a closed-loop procedure. (Lebullenger and Mear
.. Fig. 13.23 Glass blocks in a nonbearing wall 2019)
glass furnaces, and (f) logistic networks from

building site to glass furnace” (Van Marcke
and Schreuder 2013).
13.7 Questions
??Short Questions
55 What is a glass
55 Explain the two main categories of glasses
manufactured. What is the most important?
55 Define silica sand and the most important
.. Fig. 13.25 End-of-life building flat glasses geological environments of formation
55 What is glass cullet?
The vast majority of flat glass used in 55 List the four types of glasses based on their
buildings could be dismantled and recycled. chemical composition
However, as glass is less than 1% of construc- 55 Define soda-lime silicate glass
tion and demolition waste (CDW) (7 Chap. 55 List the primary operations to manufacture
19), any objective of recycling glass from glass
CDW does not serve as a motivation to set up 55 Define flat glass and its main applications
flat glass collection organization. Despite its 55 What is the most common treatment of the
recyclability, end-of-life building glass is prac- glass?
tically never recycled into new glass products. 55 Explain the term laminated glass and its
As an alternative, glass is crushed together basic applications
with other building materials and put into 55 How is insulated glass designed?
landfills. This is enabled by its inert character- 55 What does the product termed glass wool
istics. It presently has low market value means?
because there is a lack of organized collection 55 Explain the applications of glass blocks
systems to consider flat glass from CDW as and pavers
13 secondary raw material. Landfill costs are 55 List the benefits of recycling glass
commonly cheaper than the cost of separately 55 Explain the current market situation of flat
collecting and treating building glass, particu- glass recycling
larly in countries with low landfill taxes/fees in
place.
In general, there are three categories of ??Long Questions
glass used in buildings: (a) glazing from large 55 Explain in detail the raw materials com-
building (façades), (b) glazing from residential monly used for the production of glass
collective buildings and individual houses 55 Explain in detail the float glass process
(generally integrated in windows), and (c)
glass used for interior applications (balus-
trades, glass walls, mirrors, etc.). The proper References
collection and recycling of these end-of-life
building flat glasses (. Fig. 13.25) must
Benson ME, Wilson AB (2015) Frac sand in the United
include the following steps in the process: “(a) States—a geological and industry overview.
U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2015–
dismantling of the window, glazing or other 1107, 78 p
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lection of the dismantled window, glazing or Publishing House Pvt Ltd., New Delhi, 405 p
other flat glass products, (c) segregation of the Dodd G (2017) Glass. In: Soutsos M, Domone P (eds)
glass from the window, (d) treatment to Construction materials – their nature and behav-
iour. Spon Press, London
remove pollutants from glass, (e) recycling in
References
399 13
Feldmann M, Kasper R (2014) Guidance for European Standards
structural design of glass components. European
ISO 9229: 2007. Thermal insulation. Vocabulary
Commission, Joint Research Centre, Scientific and
ISO 11479-1: 2011. Glass in building. Coated glass.
Policy Reports, 208 p
Physical defects
Gonçalves MC (2015) Glass. In: Goncalves MC,
ISO 11485-1: 2011. Glass in building. Curved glass.
Margarido F (eds) Materials for construction and
Terminology and definitions
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ISO 12540: 2017. Glass in building. Tempered soda lime
Grbes A (2016) A life cycle assessment of silica sand:
silicate safety glass
comparing the beneficiation processes. Sustainability
ISO 12543-1: 2011. Glass in building. Laminated glass
8:11. 9 p
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Hickin AS, Ferri F, Ferbey T, Smith IR (2010)
tion of component parts
Preliminary assessment of potential hydraulic frac-
ISO 16293-1: 2008. Glass in building. Basic soda lime
ture sand sources and their depositional origin,
silicate glass products. Definitions and general phys-
northeast British Columbia: British Columbia
ical and mechanical properties
Ministry of Energy, Mines and Petroleum Resources
ISO 20492-1: 2008. Glass in Buildings. Insulating glass.
Geoscience Reports 2010, pp. 35–91
Durability of edge seals by climate tests
Hubert M (2019) Industrial glass processing and fabri-
ISO 21690: 2006. Glass in building. Glass blocks.
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Specification and test methods
Springer handbook of glass. Springer Nature
ASTM C162 - 05(2015). Standard Terminology of Glass
Switzerland AG, pp 1193–1230
and Glass Products
Lebullenger R, Mear FO (2019) Glass recycling. In:
ASTM C168 – 19. Standard Terminology Relating to
Musgraves JD, Hu J, Calvez L (eds) Springer hand-
Thermal Insulation
book of glass. Springer Nature Switzerland AG,
ASTM C1172 – 19. Standard Specification for
pp 1353–1378
Laminated Architectural Flat Glass
Levson V, Pyle L, Fournier M (2012) Identification of
ASTM C1720 - 17e1. Standard Test Method for
potential silica sand deposits in the Northwest
Determining Liquidus Temperature of Waste
Territories: Northwest Territories Geoscience
Glasses and Simulated Waste Glasses
Office, Northwest Territories Open File 2012-6, 76 p
ASTM E2190 – 19. Standard Specification for Insulating
NIH (2017) Laminated and tempered glass. National
Glass Unit Performance and Evaluation
Institutes of Health, Division of Technical
ASTM E2461 - 12(2017). Standard Practice for
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Determining the Thickness of Glass in Airport
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Traffic Control Tower Cabs
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ASTM F3006 – 20. Standard Specification for Ball Drop
Pfaender HG (1996) Schott guide to glass, 2nd edn.
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Springer Netherlands, 207 p
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Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series
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13
401 14
Bituminous Materials
Contents
14.2 History – 404
14.3 Manufacture of Bitumen – 406

14.3.1 istillation – 406
D
14.3.2 Blending – 408
14.4 Bitumen Constitution – 408

14.4.1 sphaltenes – 408
A
14.4.2 Maltenes – 409
14.5 Properties of Bitumen – 409
14.6 Types of Bitumen – 410

14.6.1 enetration Grade Bitumen – 410
P
14.6.2 Polymer-Modified Bitumen – 411
14.6.3 Bitumen Emulsion – 413
14.6.4 Cutback Bitumen and Fluxed Bitumen – 415
14.6.5 Oxidized Bitumen – 415
14.7 Bitumen Testing – 416

14.7.1 eedle Penetration – 416
N
14.7.2 Softening Point – Ring and Ball – 417
14.7.3 Penetration Index – 417
14.7.4 Force Ductility – 418
14.7.5 Fraass Breaking Point – 419
14.7.6 Bending Beam Rheometer (BBR) – 419
14.7.7 Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR) – 419
14.7.8 Multiple Stress Creep and Recovery Test (MSCRT) – 420
14.8 Durability of Bitumen – 420

14.9 Bitumen Applications – 422
14.9.1 avements – 422
P
14.9.2 Waterproofing – 426
14.9.3 Paints – 428
14.10 Sustainability – 429

14.10.1 I n-Plant Asphalt Recycling – 431
14.10.2 In-Situ Asphalt Recycling – 431
References – 432
14.1 · Introduction
403 14
Summary
This chapter deals with bituminous
materials, which are mainly used in road
construction. Complex terminology is
discussed before introducing the use of
bitumen in ancient times. Manufacture of
bitumen, i.e., distillation and blending, is
then summarized along with the main
features of the internal structure of bitumen
(asphaltenes and maltenes). Next heading
is devoted to describe the main properties
of bitumen. Five main bitumen types are
defined as follows: penetration grade
bitumen, polymer-modified bitumen,
bitumen emulsion, cutback bitumen and
fluxed bitumen, and oxidized bitumen. The
principal test methods for measuring
specific properties of bitumen are outlined,
including the significant needle penetration
test and softening point—ring and ball.
Durability of bitumen, mainly expressed as
aging of the bitumen products, is then
overviewed. The next section of the chapter
deals with main applications of bituminous
.. Fig. 14.1 Road construction using bituminous
materials: pavements, waterproofing materials. (Image courtesy of Nynas)
(shingles and membranes), and paints.
Finally, sustainability of bituminous The chapter focuses on bitumen produced
consumption is discussed, with emphasis by petroleum (crude oil) refining, including
on reclaimed (recycled) asphalt pavement. those crude oils sourced and processed from
oil sand and oil shale deposits. Although
other bitumen-like deposits exist, i.e., natural
14.1 Introduction asphalt, lake asphalt, and rock asphalt, in this
chapter the term bitumen only refers to prod-
The term bituminous materials commonly uct obtained from petroleum through various
include all materials constituted by aggregate refining processes. It should be bear in mind
bound with either bitumen or tar, the latter that petroleum bitumen is known under dif-
term being used as a binder material before ferent names. For instance, the term bitumen
the era of bitumen. Bituminous materials are is traditionally used in Europe as synony-
used almost exclusively in road construction mous of asphalt or asphalt binder used in
(. Fig. 14.1) although bitumen meets indus-
North America. In other countries, the term
trial applications and other forms of con- asphalt is commonly used to describe mix-
struction, such as roofing elements, paints, tures of bitumen with mineral components,
special coatings for waterproofing, etc. At e.g., aggregates. For instance, ISO 15642 stan-
present, a broad variety of bituminous mate- dard defines asphalt mix as an “homogeneous
rials are used in construction, each showing paving product consisting of sized mineral
own distinctive characteristics. Technical, eco- aggregates, possibly including additives and
nomic, and environmental criteria must be filler, collectively and uniformly coated with
considered when selecting suitable materials binder.” Therefore, it is important to know
for every application. the country where technical reports are per-
404 Chapter 14 · Bituminous Materials
formed in order to establish the means of

material production if consulting reports
dealing with asphalt and bitumen chemistry
and behavior.
Coal-derived products, e.g., coal tar, are
different from bitumen and the two materials
(bitumen and coal tar, or simply tar) should
be treated as separate chemical entities.
Although incorrect, tar is often referred to as
bituminous material. Coal-derived products
are manufactured by high-temperature pyrol-
ysis (>800 °C) of bituminous coals and differ
.. Fig. 14.3 Asphalt pavement used in an airport.
from bitumen substantially in composition (Image courtesy of Nynas)
and physical characteristics. Thus, coal tar
can be defined as dark brown to black, highly
cations in 2015. Bitumen has more than 250
aromatic material manufactured during high-
known applications, most of them used in
temperature carbonization of bituminous
paving and roofing applications: “(a) 85%
coals. Bitumen content in coal tar is relatively
of all the bitumen is estimated to be used as
low. As already commented, coal tar was in
the binder in various kinds of asphalt pave-
the past in roofing and paving industries as an
ments (e.g., roads, airports -. Fig. 14.3-,
alternative to bitumen.

etc.), (b) about 10% of the bitumen is esti-

United Nations statistics Division esti-
mated to be used for roofing (e.g., shingles,
mates that world production of bitumen in
hot-applied built-up roofing, cold-applied
2018 was approximately 119 Million tons.
roll-on roofing, etc.), and (c) the remaining
. Figure 14.2 shows global bitumen appli-
part (about 5% of the total) is used for a

variety of applications (water pipe coating,

Secondary bitumen paints, waterproofing, and sealing
Roofing Uses
materials, etc.); this sector is generally
(10%) (5%)
termed other applications” (Asphalt Institute
and Eurobitume 2015). According to
Eurobitume, “approximately 93% of all the
14 bitumen supplied in Europe in 2017 was
intended for paving applications whereas
the remaining 7% went into industrial and
other applications.”
14.2 History
Paving Bitumen is one of oldest engineering
(85%) materials known to humanity. Bitumen was
.. Fig. 14.2 Global bitumen use (Asphalt Institute and
used since the beginning of civilization
Eurobitume 2015) (7 Box 14.1).

14.2 · History
405 14
Box 14.1
Bitumen in Ancient Times

The bitumen used by early civilizations
occurred naturally, being originated where
crude petroleum reached the surface of the
earth through cracks and fissures. After evapo-
ration of volatile components, natural bitumen
occurred as soft workable mortars and/or hard
brittle black veins of rock formations. The ear-
liest known use of bitumen was by Middle
Paleolithic Neanderthals some 40,000 years
ago. At Neanderthal sites such as Gura Cheii
Cave (Romania) and Hummal and Umm El
Tlel (Syria), bitumen was found adhered to .. Fig. 14.4 Baby Moses is discovered in a basket
stone tools. The use of bitumen and other on the Nile River. (Illustration courtesy of Bible
petroleum-related materials has been observed Blender)
for almost 6000 years. During this time, the uti-
lization of petroleum progressed from simple
use of bitumen in Mesopotamian seepage sites the Egyptians used bitumen as a waterproofing
to present-day refining operations that yield a material. Moreover, they generally used bitu-
large variety of products. men to impregnate the wrappings of mummies
It is “widely believed that the term bitumen as a preservative; the utilization of bitumen in
originated in the ancient and sacred language embalming methods on Egyptian mummies
of Hindus in India, Sanskrit; in which jatu was extensive after 1100 BC. Moreover, the
means pitch and jatu-krit means pitch creat- infant Moses´ basket was waterproofed with
ing” (Self 2015). Because extensive crude oil bitumen (. Fig. 14.4). Bitumen floating on the

deposits occur in the Middle East, the ancient Dead Sea was described by Dioscorides, in
inhabitants of this part of the world were quick 40 AD, as Judaicum bitumen. Roman writers
to appreciate the excellent waterproofing, adhe- such as Diodorus Siculus (first century BC)
sive, and preservative properties of bitumen. and Pliny the Elder (first century AD) cited
From 5000 to 6000 BC, in the Tigris-Euphrates sales of this material to Egyptians for embalm-
valley, the Sumerian civilization had a prosper- ing processes. Many millennia later, with the
ous shipbuilding industry based on the manu- advent of Islam, Muslim physicians began to
facturing and use of bitumen for caulking and prescribe it for skin ailments and wounds.
waterproofing. In the Indus Valle (now in Many other references to bitumen can be
Pakistan), there were found well- preserved found in documents written during the Greek
water tanks with bitumen dating back to about Empire and the Roman Empire. Afterward,
3000 BC. “early scientists (alchemists) throughout the
Phoenicians caulked the seams of their Middle age often mentioned the utilization of
merchant ships with bitumen. Herodotus bitumen. In later times, both Christopher
claimed that bitumen was used in the construc- Columbus and Sir Walter Raleigh (depending
tion of buildings in Babylon and, in 2600 BC, upon the country of origin of the biographer)
were credited with the discovery of the bitumen

deposit on the island of Trinidad and appar-
ently used the material to caulk their ships”
(Speight 2016). Many centuries ago, Arabian
scientists developed methods in order to distil-
late petroleum, which were introduced into
Europe by way of Spain.
There are several references to bitumen in
the Bible. Although the precise type of material
cannot be determined, there is little doubt that
bitumen was the product named. The earliest
mention to bitumen deals with use as a mortar
in the construction of the Tower of Babel .. Fig. 14.5 Tower of Babel. (Abel Grimmer-
(. Fig. 14.5) and, in Genesis, Noah’s ark is

courtesy of Galerie De Jonckheere-)
pitched “within and without with pitch.”
14.3 Manufacture of Bitumen 14.3.1 Distillation
Bitumen currently used in roads and buildings Straight reduction using atmospheric and
is refined from carefully selected crude oils. It vacuum distillation is the most common refin-
includes the nondistillable fraction, often ing process for manufacturing bitumen
technically termed (vacuum) residue. Crudes (. Fig. 14.6). The process involves crude oil

from different countries vary depending on heated up to temperatures between 300 and
their bitumen content; bitumen, as a fraction 350 °C with the aim to separate the lighter
of crude oils, generally ranges from 20% to fractions from the nonboiling component,
50%. Crudes from the Middle East and the which is known as atmospheric residuum.
North Sea need further processing even after These lightest fractions from the crude oil
distillation to get the final bitumen; those stand as vapor and are obtained from the top
sources have very small bitumen content. In of the distillation column while heavier frac-
14 contrast, crudes from the Caribbean and tions remain as liquids that are settled at the
around countries produce the highest content base of the column. The heaviest fraction
of bitumen that can be extracted. In general, taken from the crude oil distillation process is
heavy crude oils are used to produce bitumen also known as the long residue, which is a
of the needed quality although, as an addi- complex mixture of high molecular weight
tional challenge, those crude oils contain hydrocarbons. As a consequence, they need
higher sulfur percentage (>1%). further processing before it can be used as
Several refining methods account for the feedstock for the production of bitumen.
generation of different types of bitumen and To remove the last traces of the lighter
enable to produce specific characteristics in fractions and prevent thermal transformation
the final product. Thus, both properties and of the molecules, the atmospheric residue is
quality of bitumen depend principally on the further incorporated into a vacuum distilla-
crude oil(s) used in its production. Producers tion unit under a vacuum of 10–100 mm Hg
commonly blend several crude oils together in at temperature between 350 and 425 °C, which
order to get consistent, high-quality bitumen generates gas oil, distillates, and short residue.
that meets accurate engineering specifica- In this step, the pressure depletion lowers
tions. Two main processes in bitumen manu- boiling temperature and prevents unwanted
facture can be distinguished: distillation and thermal cracking of the molecules. Hardness
blending. of residuum is defined by pressure and tem-
14.3 · Manufacture of Bitumen
407 14
.. Fig. 14.6 Schematic representation of the crude oil distillation process (Petrauskas and Ullah 2015)
perature conditions within the vacuum pro- (maltenes) are converted into relatively higher
cess and consequently the grade of bitumen molecular weight components (asphaltenes)
produced. The short residue obtained from (see definitions of these terms in 7 Sect.
the vacuum distillation is the feedstock used 14.4). As a consequence, there is reduction in
to manufacture over 20 different grades of penetration, comparatively greater increase in
bitumen. softening point, and lower temperature sus-
Certain solvents are used for separating ceptibility. The “penetration and softening
the lubricant and bitumen components of point of the blown bitumen are affected by
crude without changing their chemical struc- factors such as viscosity of the feedstock,
tures. Thus, many different types of bitumen temperature in the blowing column, residence
are manufactured according to the solvent time in the blowing column, origin of the
used, e.g., propane and butane. By monitoring crude oil used to manufacture the feedstock,
several variables in the vacuum distillation and air-to-feed ratio” (Petrauskas and Ullah
process, bitumen with different degrees of 2015).
hardness can be produced. Changing the length of air-blowing pro-
For specific applications, bitumen can be cess varies the extent of the reaction and gen-
later processed by blowing air at elevated tem- erates distinct final products. Depending on
peratures with the aim of altering its physical the degree of oxidation, two different types of
properties. This is an oxidation process that bitumen can be manufactured: air-rectified
implies passing air through the material at bitumen and oxidized bitumen. Vigorously air
temperature between 240 and 320 °C. The blowing is carried out to produce oxidized
main objective of the process is to stiffen the bitumen while limited amount of air blowing
bitumen, which corresponds to an increment is required for air-rectified bitumen. The
in softening point, reduce in penetration, and amount of blowing depends on the tempera-
increment in viscosity. As a result, some rela- ture in the column and, to minor degree, on
tively low molecular weight components the residence time. As a consequence, select-
ing a suitable bitumen feedstock, control of and porphyrin structures” (D’Melo and
the viscosity of the feed, and the conditions in Taylor 2015). Thus, bitumen materials
the column, a range of blown grades of bitu- produced from different crude oils show the
men are manufactured. following approximate main chemical compo-
Fully blown or oxidized bitumen is mainly sition: (a) carbon: 81–89%, (b) hydrogen:
used in roofing applications as well as for 8–12%, (c) sulfur: 0–7%, (d) oxygen: 0–1.5%,
flooring mastics and coatings while air- and (e) nitrogen: 0–1%. This composition can
rectified or semi-blown bitumen is suitable for obviously vary depending on the source of the
paving and some roofing applications. In crude oil(s) from which the bitumen is pro-
addition, to serving as the raw material for duced, the modifications caused by blowing
producing other types of bituminous binders during manufacture, and the aging processes.
air-rectified bitumen is used extensively in the Although the exact chemical composition
manufacture of various types of hot mix of bitumen is extremely complex, bitumen can
asphalt (HMA) and are widely used in road be separated into two wide chemical groups
construction for surface, binder, and base termed asphaltenes and maltenes. The latter
courses. can be further subdivided into saturates, aro-
matics, and resins. It is essential to describe
bitumen in terms of families of components
14.3.2 Blending because the estimated order of magnitude of
the number of individual chemical compo-
Bitumen is produced to meet specifications nents is about 10,000. The different fractions
either directly in the refining process or by can be separated using solvent extraction,
blending with bitumen having different physi- adsorption by finely divided solids and
cal properties. Blending the higher and lower removal of unadsorbed solution by filtration,
viscosity residues in the required proportions chromatography, and/or molecular distilla-
can take place at the refinery, terminals, and/ tion used in combination with one of the pre-
or at a third-party facility where blend com- vious techniques.
ponents and finished products can be easily
transported and distributed for use. Each pro-
cessing technique results in different grades of 14.4.1 Asphaltenes
bitumen products, including hard grade bitu-
men, cutback bitumen, emulsions, and Asphaltenes constitute the complex fraction
14 polymer-modified bitumen. of polar cyclic aromatic hydrocarbons with
the highest molecular weight. The bitumen
components of this family are black or brown
14.4 Bitumen Constitution amorphous solids insoluble in low molecular
weight alkanes such as pentane, hexane, and
Bitumen is a complex chemical mixture of heptanes. They are sometimes referred to as
molecules, mainly polar and nonpolar hydro- n-heptane insolubles. In addition to carbon
carbons, with small amounts of similar het- and hydrogen, asphaltenes often contain some
erocyclic species and functional groups nitrogen, sulfur, and oxygen. For any given
including sulfur, nitrogen, and oxygen atoms. bitumen, the content in asphaltenes fraction
Bitumen can “contain trace amounts of changes based on selected solvents (n-pentane,
metallic elements such as aluminum, copper, n-hexane, or n-heptane). Color and other
vanadium, nickel, iron, lead, magnesium, cal- physical properties of the isolated asphaltenes
cium, and many others; these elements occur are also solvent dependent. Asphaltenes show
mainly in the heavier or involatile components particle size ranging from 5 to 30 microns and
of oils, some of them as inorganic contami- hydrogen/carbon (H/C) atomic ratio of
nants possibly in colloidal form, but also as approximately 1/1. They constitute from 5%
inorganic salts, transition metal complexes to 25% of the bitumen; increase in the asphal-
14.5 · Properties of Bitumen
409 14
.. Table 14.1 Typical elemental analysis of the four groups of bitumen with a penetration value of 100 dmm
(Chipperfield 1984)
Yield on Carbon: Hydrogen: Nitrogen: Sulfur: Oxygen: Atomic

bitumen: %w %w %w %w %w ratio:
%w H/C
Asphaltenes 5.7 82.0 7.3 1.0 7.8 0.8 1.1

(n-heptane)
Resins 19.8 81.6 9.1 1.0 5.2 – 1.4
Aromatics 62.4 83.3 10.4 0.1 5.6 – 1.5
Saturates 9.6 85.6 13.2 0.05 0.3 – 1.8
tene content produces harder, more viscous 14.5 Properties of Bitumen

bitumen with lower penetration, higher soft-
ening point and, consequently, higher viscos- Each bitumen is designed and manufactured
ity. Therefore, the asphaltene content has a for a specific application. Irrespective of the
large effect on the rheological characteristics main physical characteristics, conditions such
of the bitumen. as application temperature and other
application-related factors must be taken into
account for understanding and evaluating
14.4.2 Maltenes exposure potential of the bitumen. Moreover,
properties of the bitumen materials manufac-
The second family of bitumen components is tured in a refinery can be further modified for
maltenes. They form the n-heptane soluble specific end uses. Paving bitumen is commonly
fraction of bitumen (solvent dependent too). determined according to specific physical
The maltenes can be further subdivided into properties such as consistency, adhesion, vis-
resins (highly polar hydrocarbons) and oils cosity, hardness, and brittleness, all of them at
(subdivided into aromatics and saturates). If a given temperature. Those attributes are
small amounts of solvent are used, resins, essential for efficient bitumen pavement appli-
which form a part of the maltenes fraction, cations and resulting quality and durability of
may be adsorbed onto the asphaltene sur- the pavement.
faces, yielding a higher percentage of Bitumen materials are thermoplastic sol-
asphaltenes. Maltenes include polar cyclic ids, or semi-solids at ambient temperature. As
aromatic hydrocarbons of relatively lower a consequence, these materials soften as the
molecular weight (as compared to asphaltenes) temperature increases and harden if the tem-
termed resins, less polar aromatic unsaturated perature reduces. At high temperature, viscos-
hydrocarbons (alkenes and dienes) called aro- ity decreases with increasing temperature, that
matics, and nonpolar saturated hydrocarbons is, the bitumen materials behave as Newtonian
(straight-chain alkanes or n-alkanes, isoal- liquids. For this reason, bitumen must be
kanes, and other branched-chain alkanes and heated for handling and foreseen application.
cycloalkanes) that form the saturates fraction. Since the viscosity of bitumen changes with
Thus, the acronym SARA (Saturates, temperature, bitumen is graded based on
Aromatics, Resins, and Asphaltenes) is widely ranges of consistency at a standard tempera-
used to assess the chemical composition of ture. Consistency is the word used for describ-
bitumen. An elemental analysis of the above ing the degree of fluidity and/or plasticity of
four groups from a 100 pen bitumen is detailed bitumen at any temperature. This represents a
in . Table 14.1.

fundamental feature of bitumen. “Careless
temperature and mixing control can cause ductility is more temperature-sensitive”

more hardening damage to paving bitumen (Speight 2016).
than many years of service on a roadway” Chemical composition is commonly simi-
(Speight 2016). lar for the different bitumen materials.
The thermoplastic attribute of bitumen However, some changes can take place in rela-
allows for the mixing, placement, and compaction to the original crude oil and processes
tion of the asphalt mix to constitute an effec- during refining and blending. Chemical con-
tive bitumen pavement that can be expediently stituents of bitumen determine its consistency.
turned over to traffic. Thus, paving bitumen is Thus, “the relative proportion of asphaltenes
worldwide classified by the permissible range (high molecular weight) is responsible for
of penetration value, which is indicative of the strength and stiffness; resins are responsible
consistency of the material at temperature of for adhesion; and oils (low molecular weight)
25 °C. As a rule, the softer the bitumen, the are responsible for viscosity and fluidity”
higher the penetration. The presence of polar (EAPA and NAPA 2011).
molecules in the bitumen results in affinity to
aggregates, thus providing an adhesive and
waterproof substance. Some products, e.g., 14.6 Types of Bitumen
oxidized bitumen, need relatively high temper-
atures to become a liquid and demonstrate There are several types of bitumen available in
elastic behavior. The physical properties of the the market with different properties, specifica-
bitumen not only make this material adequate tions, and applications, which are used
for a certain use but also determine the condi- depending on requirements of the consuming
tions under which the material must be han- industry. By product type, the market is basi-
dled and placed in the structure. cally split into penetration grade bitumen,
With the purpose to perform over a wide polymer-modified bitumen, bitumen emul-
range of temperature, the bitumen should dis- sion, cutback bitumen, and oxidized bitumen.
play reduced temperature susceptibility. It
means that viscosity and plasticity of bitumen
will change with temperature. If temperature 14.6.1 Penetration Grade Bitumen
changes at the same rate while viscosity and
plasticity change scarcely, then it means that Penetration grade bitumen (. Fig. 14.7)

the temperature susceptibility of the bitumen embraces refinery bituminous materials show-
14 is low. Knowledge of the temperature suscep- ing a range of viscosity values. The term
tibility of the bitumen used in a paving mix- derives from the penetration test used to char-
ture is significant since that factor controls the acterize this type of bitumen according to
temperature at which binder mixes the aggre- hardness. A combination of air-blowing, sol-
gate; similarly, the temperature susceptibility vent precipitation, or propane deasphalting
controls the temperature at which mixture processes can be used to manufacture differ-
should be compacted on the roadbed. In ent grades in the bitumen. The majority of
short, temperature susceptibility is relevant penetration grade bitumens are used in road
since the bitumen must be fluid enough at construction applications. Over recent years,
high temperature to allow coating of the “the tendency was to use harder bitumen that
aggregate particles during mixing. produces asphalts with superior properties to
Another important engineering property those manufactured using softer grades”
of bitumen is ductility, which measures the (Vondenhof and Clavel 2015).
ability of bitumen to be pulled, drawn, or Penetration grade bitumen is specified
deformed. “In paving bitumen, the presence using penetration and softening point tests
or absence of ductility is usually more inter- although designation is exclusively by the pen-
esting than the actual degree of ductility etration value. This is expressed as pen grade,
because paving bitumen with high degree of for instance 40/60 pen grade or 100/150 pen
14.6 · Types of Bitumen
411 14
last recent years, the tendency has been to use
harder bitumens in asphalts.
14.6.2 Polymer-Modified Bitumen
Products that are mixtures of bitumen with

nonbituminous components can be classified
as polymer-modified bitumen (PMB). “In
addition to the use of conventional bitumen
in paving, one method of achieving more
resilient bitumen mix (to decrease the amount
of deformation and cracking) is to modify the
bitumen with polymers (modifiers) that make
it suitable for given applications and improve
performance” (Haggam et al. 2014). Thus,
polymer-modified bitumen is the bitumen
type obtained by modification of strength and
rheological properties of the penetration
grade bitumen adding polymers, chains of
repeated small molecules, in quantities rang-
ing from 2% to 8% by mass. The “polymers
.. Fig. 14.7 Penetration grade bitumen. (Image cour- tend to be either plastics or rubbers and alter
tesy of Nynas) strength and viscoelastic properties of the
penetration grade bitumen by increasing its
grade. Pen grade values are related to the elastic response, improving its cohesive and
material consistency at temperature of fracture strength and providing greater ductil-
25 °C. Penetration index zero is attributed to ity” (Airey 2010). In general, modified bitu-
bitumen with penetration of 200 dmm at men shows higher viscosity, higher softening
25 °C (the unit of penetration is the decimilli- point, and lower Fraass temperature than the
meter −0.1 mm-) and softening point of corresponding conventional (unmodified)
40 °C. Bitumen grading using the penetration bitumen. In the last three decades, “PMBs
test is based on the assumption that less vis- became increasingly popular as an alternative
cous bitumen exhibits deeper needle penetra- to penetration grade bitumens in the upper
tion than more viscous bitumen. Since “the layers of asphalt pavements” (Vondenhof and
penetration depth is empirically correlated Clavel 2015).
with the in-service performance of the bitumi- Natural and synthetic polymers were used
nous binder, bituminous binder with high since the early twentieth century to improve
penetration number (soft bitumen) is used in bitumen properties. Modified bitumen is usu-
cold climates while bituminous binder with ally classified as follows: “(a) bitumen modi-
low penetration number (hard bitumen) is fied with natural or synthetic rubber, (b)
used in warm climates” (Speight 2016). The bitumen modified with crumb (recycled) rub-
specification for penetration grade bitumens ber, (c) bitumen modified with thermoplastics,
is contained in ASTM D946/D946M and EN e.g. polyolefins like polyethylene, polypropyl-
12591 standards. As an example, . Table 14.2
ene, atactic polypropylene, olefinic thermo-
shows specifications for paving-grade bitu- plastic copolymers, (d) bitumen modified with
mens for a specified range of penetrations block copolymers, e.g. styrene-butadiene,
(EN 12591 standard). In general, “the pene- styrenebutadiene-styrene, and ethylene vinyl
tration bitumen grades ranges from 15 to 450 acetate, and (e) bitumen modified with reac-
for road bitumen but the most commonly tive polymers, e.g. poly-isocyanates, polyure-
used range is 25 to 200” (Airey 2010). In the thanes, and polyureas” (Neves et al. 2015).
14
412
.. Table 14.2 Specifications for paving-grade bitumens with penetrations from 20 × 0.1 mm to 220 × 0.1 mm; Tables 1A and 1B of EN 12591 standard combined
(Vondenhof and Clavel 2015)
Property Test method Unit 20/30 30/45 35/50 40/60 50/70 70/100 100/150 160/220
Penetration at 25 °C EN 1426 0.1 mm 20–30 30–45 35–50 40–60 50–70 70–100 100–150 160–220
Softening point EN 1427 °C 55–63 52–60 50–58 48–56 46–54 43–51 39–47 35–43
Resistance to hardening at EN 12607-1
Chapter 14 · Bituminous Materials
163 °C
Retained penetration % ≥55 ≥53 ≥53 ≥50 ≥50 ≥46 ≥43 ≥37
Change of mass (absolute value) % ≤0.5 ≤0.5 ≤0.5 ≤0.5 ≤0.5 ≤0.8 ≤0.8 ≤1.0
Increase °C ≤8 ≤8 ≤8 ≤9 ≤9 ≤9 ≤10 ≤11
in softening point – severity 1
or or or or or or or or or
Increase °C ≤10 ≤11 ≤11 ≤11 ≤11 ≤11 ≤12 ≤12
in softening point – severity 2 a
Flash point EN ISO 2592 °C ≥240 ≥240 ≥240 ≥230 ≥230 ≥230 ≥230 ≥220
Solubility EN 12592 % ≥99.0 ≥99.0 ≥99.0 ≥99.0 ≥99.0 ≥99.0 ≥99.0 ≥99.0
Penetration index Annex A b –
Dynamic viscosity at 60 °C EN 12596 Pa s ≥440 ≥260 ≥225 ≥175 ≥145 ≥90 ≥55 ≥30
Breaking point (Fraass) EN 12593 ≤–5 ≤–5 ≤–7 ≤–8 ≤–10 ≤–12 ≤–15
Kinematic viscosity at 135 °C EN 12595 mm2/s ≥530 ≥400 ≥370 ≥325 ≥295 ≥230 ≥175 ≥135
413 14
Thermoplastic elastomers account for works needing properties that cannot be
largest utilization of polymers in bitumen achieved with classical mixtures. One example
modification. These products generally stiffen deals with “modified bitumens and modified
bitumen at high temperature, making bitumen bitumen emulsions used in surface coatings,
less brittle at low temperature. Thermoplastic cold-set bitumen microagglomerates, high
elastomers are able to confer good elastic modulus bitumen blends, asphalt mortars,
properties on thermo-modified binder while porous asphalt and rough microconcrete, and
plastomers and reactive polymers are added asphalt concrete” (Neves et al. 2015). EN
to improve rigidity and reduce deformations 14023 standard reports specifications for
under load. “Styrene–butadiene–styrene polymer-modified bitumen in pavement con-
(SBS) block copolymers are probably the structions.
most often used bitumen modifiers for paving
applications” (Speight 2016). In the last
10 years, intense efforts for eliminating stock- 14.6.3 Bitumen Emulsion
piles of discarded tires resulted in widespread
utilization of crumb rubber in bituminous Whatever the end use, application conditions
blends. Reactive polymers were recently intro- commonly need bitumen to behave as a
duced as bitumen modifiers. These products mobile liquid. This type of bitumen is com-
improve the consistence of the material and monly termed bitumen emulsion (7 Box 14.2).

reduce the oxidative aging. Bitumen emulsion provides an environmen-

Polymer-modified bitumen mixtures are tally friendly option in which the bitumen is
commonly used for many applications, either liquefied in small particles by dispersion in
in original construction or in maintenance water.
Box 14.2
Bitumen Emulsions (the continuous phase) treated with a small

Bitumen emulsions consist of discrete globules quantity of emulsifying agent; by proper selec-
of bitumen (5–10 μm and smaller) dispersed tion of an emulsifying agent and other manu-
within a continuous phase of water (an emul- facturing controls, emulsified bitumens are
sion is a two-phase system formed by two produced in several types and grades” (Speight
immiscible liquids, one being dispersed as fine 2016). Currently, bitumen emulsions are used
globules within the other). The binder can be for road maintenance and repairs and for parts
either a penetration grade bitumen, a cutback, of structural pavements. Worldwide consump-
or modified bitumen. The emulsifying agent tion of bitumen emulsions by type of applica-
coats the surfaces of the bitumen droplets and tion is shown in . Fig. 14.8.

maintains them suspended in the water prior to In general, an emulsifier having a long
application. After application, the bitumen hydrocarbon chain with either a cationic or
emulsion breaks and the water separates and anionic ending is the most common component
evaporates. Emulsions are brownish in color used to disperse the bitumen globules. It pro-
during application but, after breaking, the bitu- vides an electrochemical environment in which
minous binder returns to its original black the ionic part of the chain has an affinity
color. Bitumen emulsion is also designated as toward water and the bitumen is attracted by
liquid bitumen in order to distinguish this hydrocarbon part. In paving applications, cat-
material from typical semisolid to solid bitumi- ionic emulsions are preferred since they facili-
nous binders. “In the emulsification process, tate the adhesion with the aggregates, which are
hot binder (the discontinuous phase) is negatively charged. The “viscosity of emulsions
mechanically (using a colloid mill) separated is important because a large proportion of
into minute globules and dispersed in water emulsions are applied by spray. It increases
Surface dressing
Bond and tack coats
Soil stabilisation
Microasphalt and slurries
Cold mixes
Recycling
.. Fig. 14.8 Worldwide consumption of bitumen emulsions by type of application (Jair 2015)
with bitumen content and is very sensitive for

values greater than about 60%” (Airey 2010).
The stability of emulsions is dependent on
a number of factors: (a) types of bitumen
emulsifier and its quantity: anionic emulsion
needs substantial water loss before they break
while cationic emulsion breaks by physico-
chemical action before much evaporation has
taken place, (b) water evaporation rate: it
depends on ambient temperature, humidity,
and wind speed as well as rate and method of
application, (c) bitumen quantity: increasing
the bitumen content will increase the breaking
14 rate, (d) size of bitumen globules: the smaller
their size, the slower will be the breaking rate,
and (e) mechanical forces: the greater the mix-
ing friction or, in the case of surface dressing,
the rolling and traffic action, the quicker the
emulsion will break.
For using bitumen emulsions in paving
applications (. Fig. 14.9), they must remain

fluid enough for adequate applications and sta- .. Fig. 14.9 Bitumen emulsion in paving application
ble enough to keep the bitumen particles sus-
pended in the water phase until it is in contact Emulsified bitumen may be used with cold or
with the aggregate or pavement surface. After heated aggregate and with aggregate that is dry,
the emulsion is applied, the bitumen droplets damp, or wet. Bitumen emulsions must comply
coalesce (break) due to water evaporation and with ASTM D977, D2397/2397M, and EN
neutralization of the electrostatic charges. Time 13808 standards, which specify the technical
in which the bitumen droplets break is com- requirements and performance classes of emul-
monly termed breaking time or setting time. sions used in paving applications.
415 14
14.6.4 utback Bitumen and Fluxed onds) through a standard viscometer; accord-
C
Bitumen ingly, grades of 50, 100, and 200 seconds can
be produced.
Cutback and/or fluxed bitumen is blended Cutback bitumens must commonly com-
bitumen with more or less volatile hydrocar- ply with a distillation specification and a pen-
bon components (fuels), mainly kerosene. etration requirement on the residual bitumen.
Cutback bitumen is a grade of bitumen that This insures that, during application and in
comes under penetration grade bitumen. It is service, the diluent will evaporate at consistent
manufactured by diluting (cutting back) bitu- and predictable rate and that the residual
men with a volatile petroleum component, bitumen will show appropriate properties in
e.g., kerosene, that reduces temporarily the service. Time for curing and viscosity of cut-
bitumen viscosity, resulting in a soft and back bitumen can be varied and will be con-
workable product at lower temperature than trolled by the dilution of volatile oil, the
pure uncut bitumen. After application, the volatility of the added oil, and the proportion
volatile component is evaporated and the of solvent to binder. The degree of fluidity
bitumen reverts to its former viscosity. generates different grades of cutback bitu-
The majority of cutback bitumen is used men. Some cutback bitumens are fluid at ordi-
in spray applications as surface treatments, nary atmospheric temperature while others
handled at temperature ranging from ambient are much more viscous and require heating to
to 150 °C. In these applications and some melt in order to be sufficiently suitable for
types of bituminous mixture, it is necessary to construction operations. Cutback bitumen is
have a fluid bitumen that can be applied and generally sprayed at temperature ranging
mixed at relatively low temperatures, but hav- from 130 to 170 °C (compared with 75–85 °C
ing an adequate hardness after laying. for conventional bitumen emulsion). During
Cutback bitumens are commonly used for spraying, between 10% and 15% of the kero-
spraying and some mixing applications. sene evaporates, and a further 50% dissipates
Nevertheless, “it should be noted that cutback from the surface dressing in the first few years
bitumen has been largely replaced with the after application.
more environment friendly bitumen emul- Fluxed bitumen (bitumen whose viscosity is
sion” (NAPA and EAPA 2011). reduced by addition of flux oil) commonly uses
Cutback bitumens are classified based on a relatively nonvolatile solvent oil that softens
the solvent used to liquefy in order to produce the bitumen without increasing the volatility of
rapid-, medium-, or slow-curing bitumen. the bitumen. Fluxed bitumen differs from cut-
Based on “relative speed of evaporation, cutback bitumen, which is also a reduced viscosity
back bitumens are divided into three types: (a) bitumen, in that the flux oils show negligible
rapid curing, (b) medium curing, and (c) slow volatility at ambient temperature compared
curing. Rapid-curing cutback bitumen con- with the petroleum solvents used to produce
sists of bitumen mixed with a volatile solvent cutback bitumen. ASTM D2026/2026M,
and/or light distillate, often in the naphtha D2027/2027M, and D2028/2028M standards
boiling point range (approximately boiling cover cutback petroleum asphalts for utiliza-
range 30–190°C). Medium-curing cutback tion in the construction and treatment of pave-
bitumen is bitumen mixed with a solvent of ments while EN 15322 standard specifies
intermediate volatility or medium distillate, technical requirements for cutback and fluxed
commonly in the kerosene boiling point range bituminous binders.
(approximately boiling range 190–290°C).
Slow-curing cutback bitumen is bitumen 14.6.5 Oxidized Bitumen
mixed with diluent of low volatility (approxi-
mately boiling range in excess of 260°C)” The refinery bitumen is further treated by
(Speight 2016). In some countries, cutback introduction of processed air (air blowing) to
bitumen is designated by flow time (in sec- produce oxidized bitumen (air-blown bitumen,
air-refined bitumen). This consists of intro-

ducing air under pressure into soft bitumen
under controlled temperature conditions in
order to accomplish with the physical proper-
ties required for industrial use of the final
product. Compounds of higher molecular
weight are formed by the reaction of the intro-
duced oxygen and bitumen components. Thus,
the asphaltenes content increases at the
expense of the maltenes content, resulting in
harder bitumens. This harder mix shows lower
ductility and temperature susceptibility.
Oxidized bitumen is typically used for indus-
trial applications, e.g., roofing, flooring, mas-
tics, pipe coatings, paints, hydraulic
applications, etc. Low penetration grade road
bitumen (paving-grade bitumen) can be also
produced by this process.
Like penetration grade bitumen, oxidized .. Fig. 14.10 Needle penetration test. (Image courtesy
bitumen is commonly specified by reference to of Nynas)
both softening point and penetration value.
For instance, 85/40 is oxidized grade bitumen
with softening point of 85 ± 5 °C and penetra- 14.7.1 Needle Penetration
tion of 40 ± 5 dmm. Oxidized bitumen also
must comply with solubility and loss on heat- Testing of binders at intermediate tempera-
ing criteria. The softening point of oxidized tures is used to provide information on the
grade of bitumen is much higher than those of properties of the binder at average service
the corresponding penetration grade bitumen. conditions. For this purpose, needle penetra-
Therefore, the temperature susceptibility is tion (. Fig. 14.10) is the oldest test method

much higher. EN 13304 standard specifies the applied to bitumen and it is commonly also
main characteristics of this bitumen product. used to classify the binder. It has been used for
14 decades to determine the stiffness of bitumi-
nous binders at intermediate temperatures.
14.7 Bitumen Testing Penetration tests carried out at different tem-
peratures can also determine the temperature
Several test methods are used to measure spe- susceptibility of a bitumen.
cific properties of bitumen. The focus of this The test (EN 1426 and ASTM D5/D5M
heading will be specifications for binders for standards) is used to calculate the consistency
asphalt pavements provided that the vast major- of bitumen and bituminous binders at inter-
ity of manufactured bitumen goes to these mediate service temperatures under defined
applications. The heading includes many aspects conditions of testing. Needle penetration is
dealing with specifications that are relevant to defined as the distance in tenths of a millime-
asphalt mixture performance. Main test meth- ter that a standard needle will penetrate verti-
ods are the following: needle penetration, soft- cally into a sample of the material under
ening point—ring and ball, force ductility, Frass specified conditions of temperature, load, and
breaking point, bending beam rheometer duration of loading (. Fig. 14.11). In general

(BBR), dynamic shear rheometer (DSR), and terms, the greater the penetration, the softer
multiple stress creep and recovery test (MSCRT). the bitumen. The test is performed in a water
14.7 · Bitumen Testing
417 14
.. Fig. 14.11 Illustration of needle penetration. (Illustration courtesy of Eurobitume)
after needle penetration. The results of this

test are used to determine the consistency of
bitumen and bituminous binders at elevated
service temperatures under defined conditions
of heating. They also represent a conven-
tional, approximate upper limit of the visco-
elastic consistency.
The test (EN 1427 and ASTM D36/D36M
standards) is generally applied to bituminous
binders with softening points between 28 and
150 °C. It is the temperature at which a bitu-
men sample in a ring has had a deformation of
25 ± 0.4 mm by a ball while heated. The tem-
.. Fig. 14.12 Ring and ball apparatus for softening perature obtained in the test means the tem-
point test (Koenders 2015) perature at which bitumen and bituminous
binders attain a specific consistency under
bath, generally at 25 °C although other tem- standardized test conditions (. Fig. 14.13).

peratures (e.g., 15 or 5 °C) can be also used. There is a significant difference between the
The needle load is 100 g and the loading time European and US test methods in that the for-
equal to 5 seconds. mer method uses a stirrer in the water bath
while the latter does not.
14.7.2 oftening Point – Ring

S
and Ball 14.7.3 Penetration Index
Since bituminous binders become softer with Penetration index is not a test method as such.
increasing temperature, the tendency to per- It is a measure of the temperature susceptibil-
manent deformation also increases with incre- ity of bitumen, being a dimensionless quan-
ments of temperature. For this reason, the tity. Penetration test is calculated using an
measurement of properties related to perma- equation taking the known value of penetra-
nent deformation is usually carried out at ele- tion at 25 °C and the softening point ring and
vated temperatures. Softening point (ring and ball. The calculation of the index is based on
ball apparatus) test (. Fig. 14.12) is the most
the assumption that bitumen at the softening
common test for this objective, being the point ring and ball has penetration equal to
second oldest test method applied to bitumen, 800 (0.1 mm); this is correct for most conven-
.. Fig. 14.13 Illustration of softening point—ring and ball. (Illustration courtesy of Eurobitume)
tional binders but not for polymer-modified

and special binders. The lower the penetration
index, the faster the binder changes its consis-
tency as the temperature changes. The values
of the index for unmodified bitumens range
from about −3 for highly temperature-
susceptible bitumens to around +7 for highly
oxidized bitumens with low-temperature sus-
ceptibility. For paving-grade bitumens used in
roads, the values of the index commonly
range between −1.5 and + 1.0.
14
14.7.4 Force Ductility
If the level of bitumen cohesion is sufficiently

high, it can transmit ductility forces in the
pavement. It is assumed that this makes the .. Fig. 14.14 Ductility machine used in force ductility
pavement more resistant to cracks. Force duc- test. (Image courtesy of Scavini)
tility testing (at a small tension rate) is con-
ducted according to EN 13589 standard. The The test involves the determination of the
test is used to determine the tensile properties force required for sample tension (up to the
of specially shaped specimens of bituminous appropriate elongation) at a specified temper-
binders under defined conditions of tempera- ature. The test results are used to address the
ture and speed of elongation. ASTM D113 cohesion characteristics of modified bitumen
standard test also provides one measure of and bituminous binders. The data obtained
tensile properties of asphalt materials and are used mainly to calculate the deformation
may be used to measure ductility for specifica- energy, the maximum tensile force, or the
tion requirements. . Figure 14.14 shows a
stretch length of the sample until breakage.
ductility machine used in force ductility test. Force ductility test is carried out in a water
14.7 · Bitumen Testing
419 14
.. Fig. 14.15 Apparatus for the Fraass breaking point

test (Koenders 2015)
bath and usually carried out at 5 °C, but other

test temperatures are also used.
14.7.5 Fraass Breaking Point
The Fraass breaking point test (Fraass 1937)

(. Fig. 14.15) is one of very few tests that can

be used to describe the behavior of bitumen at

very low temperatures (as low as −30 °C),
being used as the low service-temperature
property in European specifications (EN
12593 standard). It is tested on fresh binders .. Fig. 14.16 Dynamic shear rheometer typically used
and describes the transition of the binder from in bitumen testing (Koenders 2015)
a flexible to a brittle condition. It is basically a
research tool to determine the temperature at service temperatures. It is the most broadly
which bitumen reaches a critical stiffness and used test to determine the stiffness of bitumen
cracks. The Fraass breaking point provides the at low temperatures. The test is used to deter-
temperature at which a thin bitumen layer on a mine the flexural creep stiffness of bitumen
steel sheet cracks during uniform cooling and bituminous binders at different tempera-
when it is bent under defined conditions; the tures. The test criterion is generally taken as
temperature at which the first crack appears is the temperature at which the stiffness of the
reported as the Fraass breaking point. In gen- binder is 300 Mpa. In the procedure, a beam-
eral, the Fraass temperature can be estimated shaped test specimen in a three-point bending
from the penetration and the softening point test is loaded with a constant point load and
for penetration grade bitumens since it is the deflection is measured as a function of
equivalent to the temperature at which the time. The creep stiffness of the sample is cal-
bitumen has a penetration value of 1.25 dmm. culated from the applied stress and resultant
strain over time.
14.7.6 ending Beam Rheometer

B
(BBR) 14.7.7 ynamic Shear Rheometer
D
(DSR)
The BBR method (using a bending beam rhe-
ometer device) is used in the United States The determination of complex rheological
(ASTM D6648 standard) as well as in Europe properties of bitumen is actually available
(EN 14771 standard) to determine the behav- with the utilization of the dynamic shear rhe-
ior of bitumen and bituminous binders at low ometer (DSR) (. Fig. 14.16). It is a device

used to test bitumen properties under a vari- is also used to carry out the multiple stress
ety of loading conditions and temperatures. creep and recovery test. The test uses different
Parameters most commonly tested include the stress levels, hence its name. Testing is con-
bitumen stiffness module and phase angle, ducted at constant temperature and two stress
tested in various temperature and frequency levels, with the stress applied for 1 second
ranges. The test (EN 14770 and ASTM D7175 (creep) followed by a stress-free phase of 9 sec-
standards) is used to determine the complex onds (recovery). As a consequence, the test
shear modulus (G*) and the phase angle (δ) serves to determine the percentage recovery
of bitumen and bituminous binders under and nonrecoverable creep compliance of bitu-
oscillating stress at different temperatures. men and bituminous binders under shear
The complex shear modulus and the phase stress, followed by a subsequent relaxation
angle define the resistance to shear deforma- phase. The nonrecoverable creep compliance at
tion of the bituminous binder in the linear multiple stress levels is intended as an indicator
viscoelastic region. It is usually used to assess for the sensitivity to permanent deformation
the behavior of bituminous binders at a tem- and stress dependence of bituminous binders.
perature range between 10 and 90 °C. Over
the last two decades, DSR testing of bitumen
has become much more widespread. 14.8 Durability of Bitumen
One definition of the durability of asphalts is

14.7.8 ultiple Stress Creep
M as follows: “the ability of the materials com-
and Recovery Test (MSCRT) prising the mixture to resist the effects of
water, ageing, and temperature variation, in
The MSCR (multiple stress creep recovery the context of a given amount of traffic load-
test) method involves the measurement of cer- ing, without significant deterioration for an
tain binder properties to define the impact of extended period” (Scholz 1995). While the
the binder on resistance to permanent defor- integrity of the aggregates is an important
mation and evaluate the rate and efficiency of feature in the long-term performance of
polymer modification. The test (EN 16659 and asphalts, it is primarily aspects associated
ASTM D7405 standards) is conducted on an with the aging characteristics of bitumen that
appropriately configured DSR; thus, the have the greatest influence on the durability of
dynamic shear rheometer (DSR) testing device bitumen products (7 Box 14.3).
14
Box 14.3
Aging of Bitumen of oxygen from the air combine with the aro-
The aging (or aging, or hardening) of bitumi- matics and resins to form asphaltenes, being
nous binders is one of the key factors determin- this chemical reaction irreversible. This process
ing the lifetime of an asphalt pavement. This generates an increase in the polar, high molecu-
process is produced by the exposure of bitumen lar weight fraction at the expense of the lower
to the atmosphere, existing two main processes molecular weight components, resulting in an
that take place: oxidation and loss of volatiles. increase in the viscosity of the bitumen. On the
In fact, there are a large number of factors other hand, the bitumen becomes unstable due
influencing bitumen aging (. Table 14.3).

to the discontinuity that develops between the
Like many organic substances, bitumen is saturates and the rest of the components. The
slowly oxidized when in contact with atmo- instability originates a lack of cohesion within
spheric oxygen. In the oxidation process (con- the bitumen, which can lead to cracking. Since
sidered to be the most important cause of the rate of oxidation is highly dependent on
hardening of bitumen in service), the molecules temperature, it is fast at the high temperatures
14.8 · Durability of Bitumen
421 14
.. Table 14.3 Mechanisms of bitumen aging (Traxler 1963)
Factors that influence Influenced by Occurring

bitumen aging Time Heat Oxygen Sunlight Beta and At the In the
gamma rays surface mixture
Oxidation (in dark) ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

Photo-oxidation (direct ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
light)
Volatilization ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Photo-oxidation (reflected ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
light)
Photochemical (direct ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
light)
Photochemical (reflected ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
light)
Polymerization ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Steric or physical ✓ ✓ ✓
Exudation of oils ✓ ✓ ✓
Changes by nuclear ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
energy
Action by water ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Absorption by solid ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Absorption of ✓ ✓ ✓
components at a solid
surface
Chemical reactions ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Microbiological ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
deterioration
used for mixing and laying bituminous ration (volatilization) as the bitumen ages. The
materials. For instance, the rate of thermal oxi- significance of volatilization is subject to the
dation of bitumen is approximately doubled method of manufacture of the bituminous
for every 10 °C rise in temperature above binder.
100 °C. Ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the The rate of aging is influenced by many fac-
sun plays an important role during the oxida- tors such as “the chemical composition of the
tion process. bitumen of the bituminous binder, the chemi-
The evaporation of volatile components cal composition of any additives or modifiers
depends principally on temperature and the present within the bituminous binder, the voids
exposure conditions. Loss of volatiles will take present within the asphalt layer, the film thick-
place when the bitumen includes a substantial ness of the bituminous binder, the construction
proportion of low molecular weight compo- method of the asphalt layer, the viscosity of the
nents and/or when it is subjected to high tem- bituminous binder, the presence of antioxi-
peratures. Thus, the components of lower dants such as lime within the mix, the latitude
molecular mass may dissipate through evapo- (it affects the intensity of the UV radiation),
and the aggregate composition” (O’Connell permeability of the mixture. Where a large vol-
and Steyn 2017). ume of interconnected voids is available, e.g., in
The aging of bitumen results in a decrease more open-textured asphalt mixtures, air can
in penetration, an increment in softening point, quickly permeate the material, allowing oxida-
and an increment in penetration index. As a tion to occur. In general, hardening is faster at
consequence, the excessive quantity of aging the surface than in the bulk of the material
will generate the material to become brittle at because there is a continual availability of oxy-
low temperatures and vulnerable to cracking. gen and the surface will reach higher tempera-
In practice, the aging of bitumen is most devel- tures.
oped in the mixing process of the components Aging tests can be separated into tests on
due to the high temperatures involved in a bitumen and tests on the asphalt mixture. EN
batch or drum asphalt production plant. The 12607-1, 12607-2, and 12607-3 standards as
aging of bitumen can be estimated using the well as ASTM D2872 standard are tests related
aging index, which is defined as the ratio of the to the aging of bitumen (short- term aging).
viscosity of the aged bitumen to that of the These standards specify a method for measur-
original bitumen. Bituminous binder aging is ing the combined effects of heat and air on a
generally split up into two categories: (a) short- thin moving film of bitumen or bituminous
term aging: when bitumen is mixed with hot binder simulating the hardening that most bitu-
aggregates, e.g., during production and con- minous binders undergo during mixing in an
struction, and (b) long-term aging: after pave- asphalt mixing plant. For its part, ASTM
ment construction and is generally due to D6521 and EN 14769 standards are designed
environmental exposure and loading, e.g., dur- to simulate the in-service oxidative aging that
ing the life of the pavement. occurs in bituminous binders during pavement
Aging of bitumen on the road is commonly service (long-term aging), covering the condi-
a much slower process because the tempera- tioning of bituminous binders to simulate
tures are much lower and the availability of accelerated aging (oxidation) by means of pres-
oxygen is restricted by the void content and surized air and elevated temperature.
14.9 Bitumen Applications it constitutes the black, adhesive component

14 that binds the aggregate together to form a
There are many applications of bituminous cohesive mixture. Besides these natural mate-
materials in buildings and civil engineering rials, some additives such as adhesion agents,
works. Some of them, in order of importance, modifiers, and fibers can be incorporated to
are as follows: (a) pavements, (b) roofing, and influence the performance of the product.
(c) paints. An average asphalt pavement consists of
the road structure above the formation level
that includes unbound and bituminous-
14.9.1 Pavements bound materials. This gives the pavement the
ability to distribute the loads of the traffic
In order to avoid confusion, the term asphalt before it reaches the formation level.
is used in this heading in accord with European Pavements are usually formed of different
convention and refers to a mixture of bitu- layers (. Fig. 14.17). Europe and North

men, mineral aggregate, and filler designed for America have by far the most extensive net-
specific paving applications. Asphalt is a mix- works of paved roads and highways in the
ture of approximately 90–95% of well-graded world (. Fig. 14.18). It is estimated that

aggregates together with filler and, in some “more than 90% of the 5.2 million km of
cases, additives. Bitumen makes up the paved roads and highways in Europe are sur-
remaining less than 5% of the mixture, where faced with asphalt. In the U.S., more than
14.9 · Bitumen Applications
423 14
92% of the more than 4 million km of roads provides a fast, efficient, and economic con-
and highways are surfaced with asphalt” struction process.
(EAPA and NAPA 2011). The reason for such Asphalt mixtures can be produced at dif-
an extensive use of asphalt pavement is that it ferent temperatures: hot, warm, and cold
mixes (. Fig. 14.19). Typical hot asphalt

mixes are usually produced at temperature

ranging from 120 to 190 °C, depending on the
type of bitumen. Several hot asphalt mixtures
are used based on the specific application, i.e.,
asphalt concrete, mastic asphalt, hot-rolled
asphalt, porous asphalt, soft asphalt. EN
.. Fig. 14.17 Layers of a pavement. (Illustration cour- 13108 multipart standard classifies the differ-
tesy of EAPA) ent mixtures according to grading of the
aggregate (mixture type), their upper sieve
size (maximum nominal aggregate size), the
intended use of the material, and the binder
used in the mixture. As an example,
. Table 14.4 describes asphalt concrete mix-

tures complying with EN 13108-1. In the

United States, there are no national specifica-
tions used for road construction throughout
the country.
The aim of warm mixes is to reduce the
temperature of hot mixes. Warm mixes allow
production of asphalt mixes at reduced tem-
perature compared with conventional hot
.. Fig. 14.18 Asphalt pavement in Sundsvall Bridge, mixes by reducing the viscosity of the bitu-
Sweden. (Image courtesy of Nynas)
.. Fig. 14.19 Classification of asphalt mixtures by temperature range. (Illustration courtesy of EAPA)
.. Table 14.4 Asphalt concrete mixtures complying with EN 13108-1
Material description EN 13108 designation Bitumen grade option
6 mm Medium graded surface course AC 6 med surf 160/220

6 mm Dense surface course AC 6 dense surf 100/150
10 mm Close graded surface course AC 10 close surf 100/150
14 mm Close graded surface course AC 14 close surf 100/150
20 mm Dense, heavy duty, and high modulus binder AC 20 dense bin 100/150
course
20 mm Dense, heavy duty, and high modulus binder AC 20 HDM bin 40/60
course
20 mm Dense, heavy duty, and high modulus binder AC 20 HMB bin 30/45
course
32 mm Dense, heavy duty, and high modulus base AC 32 dense base 100/150
32 mm Dense, heavy duty, and high modulus base AC 32 HDM base 40/60
32 mm Dense, heavy duty, and high modulus base AC 32 HMB base 30/45
bin, binder course; surf, surface course
men. The most usual technique for reducing reduced energy consumption and CO2 emis-
viscosity of the binder involves adding organic sions. The bitumen emulsion breaks either
additives, chemical additives, and foaming. during mixing or during compaction, to coat
Organic additives, usually waxes and/or fatty the aggregate, after which there is increase in
amides, can be added to either the mixture or strength over time. Cold mixes are specifically
the bitumen. Chemical additives do not recommended in slightly trafficked roads. The
change the bitumen viscosity but regulate and main disadvantage of this technique is that
reduce the frictional forces at the interface water used in producing the emulsion needs to
14 between aggregates and bitumen at tempera- be expelled from the mix after breaking of the
ture usually ranging from 85 to emulsion. Another cold technique is use of
140 °C. Foaming techniques reduce the vis- foamed bitumen, which is injected directly
cosity of bitumen because incorporated water into the mixer with the mineral aggregate.
turns to steam, thus incrementing the volume Cold mixes with foamed bitumen can be used
of bitumen and decreasing viscosity for a in thick layers (40–50 mm) as surface layer for
short period. Depending on the chosen tech- slightly and medium trafficked roads.
nology, a reduction of up to 40 °C in the mix-
ing temperature can be obtained. Thus, less zz Production Plants
energy is required and lower temperature in The “basic principles of manufacturing
the mix during paving applications results in asphalt did not change since the middle of the
improved working conditions and earlier nineteenth century” (Jones 1986). Aggregates
opening of the road. of different sizes are dried, heated, and fur-
Cold mixes are produced using either ther mixed with bitumen to produce a saleable
emulsion (a mixture of bitumen and water) or product. However, methods of manufacture,
foamed bitumen. The aggregate does not need and consequently design of production plants,
to be heated during mixing, so mixing and changed significantly. An asphalt mixing
application temperatures are much lower than plant can be defined as a “set of equipment
those needed for hot mix asphalt, with much for asphalt mix production” (ISO 15642 stan-
425 14
.. Fig. 14.20 Portable asphalt production plant .. Fig. 14.21 Different types of bitumen in a portable
asphalt batch plant
dard). Capacities have increased from a few
tones per hour up to 750 tons per hour of area for aggregates storage (cold feed bins).
asphalt. After transportation and weighing of aggre-
There are two types of asphalt plants: gates, the next step occurs in the dryer, where
drum- mix plants (continuous) and batch the aggregates are blended, heated, and dried.
plants. Terminology can be misleading since In sequence, the hot aggregates are screened,
both categories are continuous in operation. weighted, and stored in hot bins, in units
The categorization refers to the method of mounted at the top of the central mixing
mixing dried and heated aggregates with the plant. As a final step, mix of the aggregates
bitumen. In a batch plant, “the operations to with bitumen (. Fig. 14.21) is performed in

prepare the material and mixing are under- the mixing unit. The bituminous mixture is
taken by successive batches in a mixer which then discharged into trucks for transport to
interrupts the material flow” (ISO 15642 stan- the site” (Neves et al. 2015).
dard). In addition, production plants can be The predominant plant type in the United
portable (. Fig. 14.20) and stationary (per-
States is the drum-mix plant (continuous). In
manent in one location and with greater pro- this type of plants, “the operations to prepare
duction capacity). Selection of the type of the material and mixing are undertaken by
asphalt plant is conditioned by a number of continuous equipment and handling systems
factors: location, market requirements, plant and in a mixer which does not interrupt the
capacity, competition, budget, operational material flow” (ISO 15642 standard). Basically,
costs, site restrictions, and customer prefer- just the mixing process differs from the batch
ence (Moore 2015). The complete plant oper- process. All process of aggregate heating and
ation is monitored from the control house of mixture with bitumen is performed in the
the plant. drum mixer; bitumen is added to the dried
The asphalt batch plant is the most com- aggregates and continuously mixed in the
mon type in Europe. Although the process is same drum used for drying. It simplifies the
continuous in operation, each batch of mixed mixing process as vibrating screens, hot aggre-
material is made separately and the produc- gate storage bins, and the mixer are replaced
tion then repeated. The batch size relates to by proportional feed controls into the drum
quantity of material being mixed in the pad- mixer. “Drum mix plants are somewhat less
dle mixer. Capacities from 50 up to 450 tons/h flexible in changing between different mixes,
are achievable, depending on the size of the hence the predominance of batch plants in
equipment, moisture content of the feed Europe” (EAPA 2007). Nevertheless,
aggregates, and final mixture temperature. drum-mix plants are ideal for high capacity
Typically, “the batch production plant has an production reaching up to 800 tons/h.
.. Fig. 14.22 Typical asphalt transport truck .. Fig. 14.23 Asphalt paving machine
zz Transport, Laying, and Compaction

For transport of asphalt mix, it is transferred
directly to waiting delivery trucks and/or to
silos for either short-term storage or up to
48 hours long-term storage before loading
into trucks for transportation to the paving
site (. Fig. 14.22). Transport distances vary,

but are normally on the order of up to

30–80 km. The transport distance is limited
because asphalt must be delivered to the pav-
ing site while still warm enough to be placed
and compacted on the road. Heat loss during
transportation must be minimized.
.. Fig. 14.24 Roller machine
Asphalts should only be laid on surfaces
free from detritus and deleterious material.
Prior to installation, the underlying course reason, segregation, i.e., the separation of the
should be prepared to produce a stable sur- larger particles of coated aggregate in the
14 face of appropriate profile on which asphalt mixture, must be avoided. Segregation tends
will be placed. Trucks discharge the hot to prevail during loading and transportation
asphalt mix into a hopper on the paving in asphalts of larger nominal sizes, e.g.,
machine. The material is then conveyed 40 mm. Use of material transfer vehicles can
through the paving machine where it is spread reduce the presence of segregation caused by
across the width of the machine by an auger subjecting the material to long haul distances
at the rear of the machine. As the auger dis- and/or excessive waiting times.
tributes the material along the screed, the
paver continues to move forward, so that the
screed keeps the paving mat level and smooth. 14.9.2 Waterproofing
The asphalt mix cools throughout this process
and must be quickly compacted by a roller to The main objective of waterproofing methods
the required pavement density and smooth- is to seal a separating layer, commonly a cov-
ness by one or more rollers following the pav- ering. For this purpose, most of waterproof-
ing machine. Typical paving machine and ing treatments involve application of bitumen
roller are shown in . Figs. 14.23 and 14.24,
utilizing different methods such as roofing
respectively. shingles and membranes, e.g., oxidized bitu-
Compacted asphalt has to be homoge- men membranes and bitumen membranes
neous for performing as expected. For this made with modified bitumens. Bituminous
427 14
.. Fig. 14.25 Asphalt-based roofing system in the

Osram Sylvania’s Canadian headquarters center. (Image .. Fig. 14.26 Roofing shingles in a residential building.
courtesy of IKO) (Image courtesy of Malarkey Roofing Products)
materials are often used for roofing men used in fiberglass shingle manufacture is
(. Fig. 14.25). Bitumen roofing products and
typically oxidized to a softening point range
systems may be cold-applied, e.g., put down at of 90–110 °C. Colored mineral granules are
ambient temperatures without heating, soft- usually embedded in the surface of the filled
applied, e.g., heated with torches and/or hot bitumen. They are cut in rectangular shapes
air welders sufficiently to assure an adequate and in many cases laminated in multiple layers
adhesion to the substrate, and hot-applied, to achieve desired aesthetics. Granules are
e.g., utilizing hot liquid bitumen as a bonding applied cold, that is, without heating, employ-
agent. Hot-applied products were prominent ing mechanical elements, e.g., nails or staples.
during the twentieth century but the past
20 years have seen a sharp decline in the utili- zz Membranes
zation of hot-applied low-slope roofing sys- Bituminous waterproofing membranes are the
tems; nowadays, they account for only 6% of most used waterproofing product worldwide.
the bitumen roofing market. Therefore, cold- They are formed of reinforced felt paper
and soft-applied products and systems are the impregnated with bitumen blend. EN 13707
face of the bitumen roofing industry. Cold- standard and several ASTM standards, e.g.,
applied bitumen shingles dominate the steep- D226/D226M or D2626/D2626M, state that
slope (mainly residential) roofing market in “a reinforced bitumen membrane is a flexible
North America while soft-applied products layer of bitumen, incorporating one or two
such as polymer-modified bitumen mem- internal or external reinforcements.” ASTM
branes have a strong position in the low-slope D5898/D5898M standard discusses the term
or flat roofing (mainly commercial and indus- adhered sheet waterproofing, which is a “sys-
trial) segment of the market in Europe. tem consisting of one or more plies of organic
or glass fiber felts or fabrics applied in hot or
zz Roofing shingles cold bitumens or modified bitumens, or one
“Bitumen roofing shingles (. Fig. 14.26) are
or more plies of a manufactured sheet of
the principal roofing product (about 63% of modified bitumen that may be reinforced or
the market) used on steep-slope structures in laminated with scrim or polyethylene, or a
North America, but they are just a minor polymeric or vulcanized elastomeric mem-
product in the Europe (<5%)” (Neves et al. brane. The system is applied directly to con-
2015). Bitumen shingles are commonly manu- crete or masonry surfaces below grade.”
factured by coating a glass fiber mat with a In general, membranes are produced in the
mixture of oxidized coating bitumen and min- form of ready-to-use rolls (. Fig. 14.27),
eral filler (e.g., limestone). The coating bitu- which are typically 1 meter wide and vary in
manufacture the end-product. It is used for

painting of concrete, cement, wood, and steel
structure. The “paint can be applied through
several methods using a roller, brush, or
sprayer and is effective in waterproofing sur-
faces, principally on surfaces that are in direct
contact with seepage water, moisture, and non-
pressurized liquid or water” (Speight 2016).
Examples of applications of bitumen
paints in industrial and civil architectures are
as follows: (a) waterproofing walls and foun-
dations over bare ground, (b) painting con-
crete cisterns and cementitious surfaces in
contact with slightly aggressive solutions, (c)
rust-resistant coating of metal surfaces, gut-
ters, etc., (d) priming substrates before install-
ing bituminous membranes, and (e)
.. Fig. 14.27 Ready-to-use rolls of bituminous mem- waterproofing wooden surfaces exposed to
branes aggressive substances in the ground. For
instance, bitumen paints can be used both
length (between 8 and 12 m). Waterproofing externally and internally on carbon steel
systems made with these products consist of pipes; paint is commonly black and, when
one or more polymer-modified bitumen sheets applied properly, the coating offers outstand-
and an underlying base sheet, all of which are ing cathodic protection required for almost all
laminated together at the construction site. structural steel pipes located underground.
The polymer modifier may be either atactic Another product of this segment is roof
polypropylene (APP) or styrene-butadiene- coating (. Fig. 14.28). It is thicker than paint

styrene (SBS) block copolymer, and/or other and has higher solids content. Roof coating is
polymers of the same chemical families. designed to protect roofs from weather and/or
Bituminous membranes can be used in a great environmental damaging, i.e., UV light, exces-
number of applications related to building sive water, and wind. Asphalt coatings are
and civil engineering works. In construction either solvent-based cutbacks or emulsions.
14 works, rolls are generally applied by one of The blend of bituminous product and solvent
three different processes: “(1) cold-applied at is later combined in various mixing or
ambient temperature, using special adhesives,
(2) soft-applied, where the material surface is
softened (by torch, hot air) in order to ensure
good adhesion to the substrate, or (3) heat
bonding, by applying preheated bitumen to
the surface” (Neves et al. 2015).
14.9.3 Paints
A bituminous paint is a type of bituminous
product that provides waterproofing, weather-
proofing, and corrosion resistance. Bitumen is
the waterproof material of the product
whereas the mineral colloid is the emulsifier. .. Fig. 14.28 Roof coating. (Image courtesy of
Both are blended together and processed to RCMA)
14.10 · Sustainability
429 14
ispersing vessels with special clay fillers, sur-
d
factants, or fillers in order to generate gelled
coating. Most common types of roof coatings
are acrylic coatings, asphalt coatings, polyure-
thane coatings, and silicone coatings. Roof
coatings can be black and aluminized and
have the ability to be used in cold and inclem-
ent weather. Aluminized coatings are used
where reflective and UV stable asphalt coating
is required.
14.10 Sustainability .. Fig. 14.29 Asphalt pavement for recycling
The “reuse and recycling of bituminous mate-

rials is not a recent development since the first
asphalt pavement recycling project was carried
out in 1915” (Epps et al. 1980). Although old
asphalt mixtures were historically removed and
disposed in landfills, the utilization of reclaimed
asphalt pavement (RAP) (. Fig. 14.29) in new

asphalt mixtures increased substantially since

the 1930s (7 Box 14.4). Reclaimed asphalt

singles can be used in conjunction with RAP .. Fig. 14.30 Recycling asphalt singles for usage in
(. Fig. 14.30).
new asphalt mixtures (Murtagh and Vallete 2017)
Box 14.4
Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement

Reclaimed or recycled asphalt pavement is the
term given to removed and/or reprocessed
pavement materials containing asphalt and
aggregates. In particular, ASTM D8 standard
defines reclaimed asphalt pavement as “asphalt
pavement or paving mixture removed from its
original location for use in recycled asphalt
paving mixture.” These materials are generated
where asphalt pavements are removed for
reconstruction or resurfacing. (. Fig. 14.31).

If adequately crushed and screened, RAP con-

sists of high-quality, well-graded aggregates
coated by asphalt cement. The majority of the
RAP produced is recycled and used. Thus,
RAP is almost always returned back into the
roadway structure in some form, commonly .. Fig. 14.31 Recycling asphalt pavement (Zau-
incorporated into asphalt paving by means of manis and Frank 2014)
hot or cold recycling. However, RAP can be The percentage of RAP incorporated in an
also used as an aggregate in base or sub-base asphalt mix depends on several factors. The
construction. As an example of the importance asphalt mixture specification in each country
of asphalt recycling, as early as 1993, the US indicates the quantity of recycled asphalt pave-
Environmental Protection Agency and Federal ment enabled and the methods to calculate the
Highway Administration identified asphalt contribution of the old (hardened) bitumen to
pavement as America’s No.1 recycled product. the new mixture in the particular pavement
Beginning in the 1970s, the recycling of application. Recycling percentages commonly
asphalt pavements into new asphalt mixtures range from 0 to around 30% for highway pave-
was a common practice. This is because the uti- ments, but they can each 60% in certain appli-
lization of recycled materials in pavement cations. Quantities recycled directly back into
gained a wider acceptance for a more sustain- road surfaces vary from country to country, but
able construction and rehabilitation of the can be as high as 85%. The “benefits of recy-
transport infrastructures. It is important to cling asphalt pavements can be attributed to a
bear in mind that the asphalt industry is one of reduction in the costs of new construction and
the pioneers of recycling and reuse, and com- rehabilitation projects, environmental conser-
mercial products manufactured with bitumen vation of energy, mineral aggregates and bitu-
are one of the most recycled materials in the minous binder, and the preservation of road
world. In many countries, no bituminous pave- geometry” (Kandhal and Mallick 1997). There
ments that are removed are nowadays land- are many alternatives for recycling and the
filled. The process of recycling contributes to selection to be carried out depends on techni-
sustainability since it decreases waste disposal cal, environmental, and economic requirements
and conserves new resources (aggregate and established for each case. Approaches for recy-
bitumen). cling are different in various countries based on
Asphalt is 100% recyclable; it means that all national requirements, technologies, resources,
of RAP is either reused or recycled. Recycled knowledge, etc.
or reclaimed asphalt pavement materials are Several classifications of the main types of
constituted by aggregate and bitumen that has bituminous mixtures recycling are made
been removed and/or reprocessed from an according to: “(a) place where mixing is car-
asphalt pavement. Thus, recycling of road ried out, (b) temperature of the process, (c)
materials can be defined as the reuse of existing characteristics of the material to be recycled,
14 materials in the construction and maintenance, and (d) type of binder” (Neves et al. 2015). In
with or without changing the characteristics of general, recycling of pavement material can be
the material. The asphalt pavement is removed undertaken as an in-place or a central plant
and crushed at specific dimension so that some process (according to the place where mixing is
percentage of the asphalt pavement will be then carried out). In addition, recycling can be
incorporated to new paving material. Pavements grouped into hot and cold processes (in terms
are recycled in conventional asphalt pavement of temperature) according to the virgin binder
plant with minimal modifications. Increasing used in the recycling process. Each recycling
economic and environmental requirements will method has advantages and disadvantages
bring many new technical refinements to recy- that should be carefully analyzed in the pro-
cling old asphalt pavements. cess of selection.
14.10 · Sustainability
431 14
14.10.1 In-Plant Asphalt Recycling recycling percentages ranging from 10% to
30%, depending on moisture content of the
If the recycling process to produce a new recycled materials, quality of the reclaimed
material is developed in plant, the milled or asphalt in relation to the required specifica-
pulverized bituminous mixture from the old tion of the new hot mix, and technical process
pavement is stockpiled and then processed to limitations regarding maximum permitted
obtain appropriate grading, before the finally temperature. Cold mixtures show two signifi-
mix. Reclaimed pavements are transported to cant advantages over hot asphalt mixtures: (a)
the asphalt production plant, ripped, milled, the energy consumption of the plant is about
and crushed into required sizes before being 10–20% that for hot asphalt mixture produc-
blended with virgin bitumen and aggregate. tion, and (b) cold asphalt mixtures can be
Obviously, one of the disadvantages of recy- stored for long periods before application.
cling material in an asphalt plant is the
requirement to transport the RAP material to
the plant and the subsequent transport of the 14.10.2 In-Situ Asphalt Recycling
recycled asphalt mixture to site. This “need
for transport results in added expense as well In situ recycling, also termed in-place recy-
as pavement damage associated with delivery cling, involves processing of RAP on site. The
vehicles, which can only be alleviated by an in- main advantage of this technique is reduction
situ process” (Airey 2010). of RAP transportation and quick reopening
Where the hot recycling process is used, of the road to traffic; the finished pavement
RAP material is blended with superheated vir- sometimes contains up to 90% recycled mate-
gin aggregate before mixing with virgin bitu- rial. This method is most efficient on large
men. The role of the superheated aggregate is continuous paving works because large
to transfer heat to the RAP to soften the RAP amounts of reused asphalt are usually quickly
binder and to break the RAP material into and efficiently located. As a consequence,
smaller lumps. If necessary, new aggregates considerable saving is achieved in which con-
are added in the process for gradation correc- cerns logistics.
tion. To aid the mixing of the RAP binder This method of recycling is further divided
with virgin bitumen, rejuvenating agents are into hot in situ recycling, which includes
added during the production stage. The result- remixing and repaving processes, and cold in
ing mix is placed in road construction as a situ recycling, which includes full-depth recla-
new asphalt concrete. Recycling percentages mation. Hot in situ recycling is performed as
in the hot process are generally 30–70%, the either single or multiple pass operation utiliz-
upper limit being determined by the quality ing specialized heating, scarifying, rejuvenat-
needs of the mix specification in relation to ing, laydown, and compaction equipment.
the properties of RAP. Both batch plants and The method is used to transform an aged and
drum-mix plants can incorporate RAP into partially failed asphalt surface layer into a
hot mix asphalt. new product. The process needs that the sur-
Cold recycling consists of milling and/or face of the pavement be heated to temperature
crushing the asphalt materials of the pave- at which it can be reworked, healing all cracks,
ment. At the same time or in a second opera- and reshaping any deformed profile. The pro-
tion, bituminous binder, mainly in the form of cess is usually applicable to depth from 20 to
emulsion, is incorporated into the fragmented 60 mm. In cold in situ processes, “the existing
pavement material. The objective is to stabi- pavement (generally all the surface and part
lize the recycled product and to provide cohe- of the base) is ripped and milled to a certain
sion. For this reason, cold recycled asphalt depth, which can reach up to 250 mm; broken
mixtures are manufactured utilizing bitumen fragments are then mixed with a new binder
emulsion rather than conventional bitumen. (e.g. bitumen emulsion) to produce a stabi-
The mixture is the compacted to reconstitute lized base, and compacted in a single pass to
the new pavement course. Cold methods use the specified density” (Airey 2010).
14.11 Questions in relation to occupational exposures. Institute of

Petroleum, London, Report IP 84-006
D’Melo D, Taylor R (2015) Constitution and structure
??Short Questions of bitumens. In: Gerlis R (ed) The Shell Bitumen
55 What is a bituminous materials? handbook, 6th edn. Shell International Petroleum
55 Define asphalt mix according to ISO 15642 Company, ICE Publishing, London, pp 47–63
standard EAPA (2007) Environmental Guidelines on Best
Available Techniques (BAT) for the Production of
55 Summarize the two main constituents of
Asphalt Paving Mixes. European Asphalt Pavement
bitumen Association, Brussels, Belgium. 54 p
55 List the five main types of bitumen EAPA and NAPA (2011) The Asphalt Paving Industry -
55 Comment the advantages of the use of A global perspective - production, use, properties,
bitumen emulsions and occupational exposure reduction technologies
and trends, third edition. European Asphalt
55 Explain in summarize form the needle
Pavement Association (EAPA) and the National
penetration test used in bitumen Asphalt Pavement Association (NAPA), Global
55 What is the Fraass breaking point? Series No. 101, 37 p
55 Explain the significance of aging of Epps JA, Little DN, Holmgreen RJ and Terrel RL
bitumen (1980) Guidelines for Recycling Pavement Materials.
NCHRP Report 224, Transportation Research
55 Comment the ratio of aggregate versus
Board, Washington, D.C. 147 p
bitumen in an asphalt mix Fraass A (1937) Test methods for bitumen and bitumi-
55 List the three main temperatures at which nous mixture with specific reference to low tempera-
the asphalt is manufactured ture. Bitumen 7:152–155
55 Explain in summarize form the features of Haggam RA, Ibrahim IM, El-Shafie AM, El Latief A,
Elrhman MA, El-Kholy SA (2014) Improvement of
the two main types of asphalt production
asphalt properties using polymethyl methacrylate.
plants Open J Org Polym Mater 2014(4):43–54
55 What is an asphalt paving machine? Jair M (2015) Bitumen emulsions. In: Gerlis R (ed) The
55 Explain what asphalt roofing shingles are Shell Bitumen handbook, 6th edn. Shell
55 What is the main objective of bituminous International Petroleum Company, ICE Publishing,
London, pp 184–216
membranes? Define a reinforced bitumen
Jones L (1986) Recent developments in coating plant
membrane technology. Quarry Management, 13(10): 25–30
55 List examples of applications of bitumen Kandhal PM, Mallick RB (1997) Pavement recycling
paints guidelines for state and local governments-
participant’s reference book, Report Number
FHWA-SA-98-042. National Center for Asphalt
14 ??Long Questions
Technology, Auburn, 301 p
Koenders B (2015) Routine testing and mechanical
55 Explain the two main processes of bitumen properties of bitumens. In: Gerlis R (ed) The Shell
manufacture Bitumen handbook, 6th edn. Shell International
55 Explain in detail the reclaimed asphalt Petroleum Company, ICE Publishing, London,
pp 87–118
pavement
Moore J (2015) Asphalt production plants. In: Gerlis R
(ed) The Shell Bitumen handbook, 6th edn. Shell
International Petroleum Company, ICE Publishing,
References London, pp 378–412
Murtagh C, Vallete J (2017) Optimizing recycling -
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Asphalt Institute and Eurobitume (2015) The Bitumen Environment, 34 p
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try, use, specification and occupational exposure, binders and mixtures. In: Goncalves MC, Margarido
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Series No. 230, 60 p Cham, pp 237–272
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References
433 14
Petrauskas D, Ullah S (2015) Manufacture and storage ASTM D6648 - 08(2016). Standard Test Method for
of bitumens. In: Gerlis R (ed) The Shell Bitumen Determining the Flexural Creep Stiffness of Asphalt
handbook, 6th edn. Shell International Petroleum Binder Using the Bending Beam Rheometer (BBR)
Company, ICE Publishing, London, pp 15–27 ASTM D7175 – 15. Standard Test Method for
Scholz, TV (1995) Durability of bituminous paving mix- Determining the Rheological Properties of Asphalt
tures. PhD thesis, University of Nottingham, Binder Using a Dynamic Shear Rheometer
Nottingham. 208 p ASTM D7405 – 20. Standard Test Method for Multiple
Self A (2015) Introduction. In: Gerlis R (ed) The Shell Stress Creep and Recovery (MSCR) of Asphalt
Bitumen handbook, 6th edn. Shell International Binder Using a Dynamic Shear Rheometer
Petroleum Company, ICE Publishing, London, pp 1–14 EN 1426: 2015. Bitumen and bituminous binders.
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recycling. Asphalt Professional, Technical Paper, influence of heat and air. RTFOT method
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Determination of the resistance to hardening under
Standards influence of heat and air. TFOT method
EN 12607-3: 2014. Bitumen and bituminous binders.
ASTM D5/D5M - 19a. Standard Test Method for
Determination of the resistance to hardening under
Penetration of Bituminous Materials
influence of heat and air. RFT method
ASTM D8 – 20. Standard Terminology Relating to
EN 13108-1:2016. Bituminous mixtures. Material speci-
Materials for Roads and Pavements
fications. Asphalt Concrete
ASTM D36/D36M - 14e1. Standard Test Method for
EN 13304:2009. Bitumen and bituminous binders.
Softening Point of Bitumen (Ring-and-Ball
Framework for specification of oxidised bitumen
Apparatus)
ASTM D113 – 17. Standard Test Method for Ductility
Determination of the tensile properties of modified
of Asphalt Materials
bitumen by the force ductility method
ASTM D226/D226M – 17. Standard Specification for
EN 13707:2013. Flexible sheets for waterproofing.
Asphalt-Saturated Organic Felt Used in Roofing
Reinforced bitumen sheets for roof waterproofing.
and Waterproofing
Definitions and characteristics
Penetration-Graded Asphalt Binder for Use in
Framework for specifying cationic bituminous
Pavement Construction
emulsions
ASTM D977 - 19ae1. Standard Specification for
Emulsified Asphalt
Specification framework for polymer modified bitu-
mens
Cutback Asphalt (Slow-Curing Type)
Accelerated long-term ageing conditioning by a
Cutback Asphalt (Medium-Curing Type)
Pressure Ageing Vessel (PAV)
Cutback Asphalt (Rapid-Curing Type)
Determination of complex shear modulus and
ASTM D2397/D2397M - 19a. Standard Specification
phase angle. Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR)
for Cationic Emulsified Asphalt
ASTM D2626/D2626M - 04(2012)e1. Standard
Determination of the flexural creep stiffness.
Specification for Asphalt-Saturated and Coated
Bending Beam Rheometer (BBR)
Organic Felt Base Sheet Used in Roofing
ASTM D2872 – 19. Standard Test Method for Effect of
Framework for specifying cut-back and fluxed bitu-
Heat and Air on a Moving Film of Asphalt (Rolling
minous binders
Thin-Film Oven Test)
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ASTM D5898/D5898M - 96(2013. Standard Guide for
Multiple Stress Creep and Recovery Test (MSCRT)
Standard Details for Adhered Sheet Waterproofing
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ASTM D6521 - 19a. Standard Practice for Accelerated
nance equipment — Asphalt mixing plants —
Aging of Asphalt Binder Using a Pressurized Aging
Terminology and commercial specifications
Vessel (PAV)
Further Reading Sivakugan N, Gnanendran CT, Tuladhar R, Kannan

MB (2018) Civil engineering materials. Cengage
Ahmed A, Sturges J (2014) Materials science. In:
Learning, 512 p
Construction: an introduction. Routledge, London
Soutsos M, Domone P (2017) Construction materials:
394 p
their nature and behaviour, 5th edn. CRC Press,
Taylor & Francis Group 820 p
Taylor (2013) Materials and construction: an introduc-
New York 1024 p
tion. Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group 348 p
Claisse PA (2016) Civil engineering materials.
Butterworth-Heinemann, Elsevier, Oxford 528 p
Doran D (2010) Construction materials reference book. Useful Links
Butterworth Heinemann, 768 p Asphalt Institute. www.asphaltinstitute.org
Dugall SK (2017) Building materials. Routledge, Asphalt Recycling and Reclaiming Association. www.
London 405 p arra.org
Everett A (2014) Materials, 5th edn. Routledge, Taylor Asphalt Roofing Manufacturers Association. www.
& Francis Group 272 p asphaltroofing.org
Huan SC, Benedetto H (eds) (2015) Advances in asphalt Bitumina Hi-Tech Pavement Binders. www.bitumina.
materials: road and pavement construction. co.uk
Woodhead Publishing, Series in Civil and Structural Eurobitume. www.eurobitume.eu
Engineering: Number 56, Elsevier, 492 p European Asphalt Pavement Association. www.eapa.org
Khatib J (2016) Sustainability of construction materials. European Waterproofing Association. www.ewa-europe.
Woodhead Publishing 742 p com
Molenaar AAA (2018) Design of flexible pavements, IKO Group Plc. www.ikogroup.co.uk
lecture notes. Faculty of Civil Engineering, Delft International Society for Asphalt Pavements. www.
University of Technology, 510 p asphalt.org
Nikolaides A (2015) Highway engineering – pavements, National Asphalt Pavement Association. www.
materials and control of quality. CRC Press, Taylor asphaltpavement.org
& Francis Group 924 p Shell Bitumen. www.shell.com
14
435 15
Metals and Alloys
Contents
15.2 Ferrous Metals and Alloys – 438

15.2.1 roduction Processes – 438
P
15.2.2 Cast Irons – 449
15.2.3 Steel – 457
15.3 Nonferrous Metals and Alloys – 469

15.3.1 etal Forming – 469
M
15.3.2 Aluminum – 470
15.3.3 Copper – 472
References – 474

436 Chapter 15 · Metals and Alloys
Metals and alloys, specifically steel, are

Summary essential materials for construction in modern
This chapter draws attention metals and engineering. They are first choice material for
alloys used in construction. After explaining many applications such as structures, clad-
the differences between ferrous and dings, reinforcements, window frames, roof-
nonferrous metals and alloys, the chapter ing, plumbing, and etcetera; metals and alloys
follows up with the production processes are found in historic buildings and in new
of ferrous metals and alloys, describing architecture (. Fig. 15.1). This is because

ironmaking (blast furnace) and steelmaking metals and alloys are capable of providing any
(basic oxygen or electric arc furnace) in a desired properties such as strength, machin-
summary way. Main characteristics of cast ability, wear resistance, corrosion resistance,
irons (white, gray, malleable, and spheroidal and others. Metal building products, with
cast iron) and steel are further summarized, adequate surface treatments if necessary, are
including steel recycling (steel is the most weatherproof, seismic proof, and corrosion-
recycled material in the world). Corrosion resistant as well as tough to the harmful
of metals is described, and stainless steel, effects of UV rays, assuring long service life
which is a consequence of corrosion without degradation. Moreover, metals and
issues generated in steel, is also discussed. alloys used in construction can be recycled
Main metal forming processes (rolling, without loss of quality, recovering their origi-
drawing, forging, and extrusion) are then nal performance properties even after multi-
commented. At the end of the chapter, a ple recycling loops (. Fig. 15.2). Nowadays,

brief description of nonferrous metals and more than 95% of the metallic products used
alloys, especially the aluminum and copper in buildings are finally recycled (. Fig. 15.3).

ones, is included. Mostly used metals and alloys embrace

iron, steel, and aluminum although copper,
lead, zinc, and tin have been gaining wide
15.1 Introduction recognition in the construction sector. Every
metal and/or alloy show particular qualities
According to ASTM D8182, an alloy is a and ideal uses. The structural utilization of
“unique composition of two or more metals cast iron and wrought on increasing scales was
that has one or more of the metals treated or a classical feature of the Industrial Revolution
processed in a special way to confer enhanced in the early nineteenth century. Provided that
performance characteristics on the resulting pure metals lack many properties essential in
material.” For many reasons, i.e., production, construction applications, two or more met-
15 manufacturing, applications, the industry of als are commonly melted together to produce
metals and alloys is clearly subdivided into
two categories: ferrous and nonferrous. The
names are derived from ferrum, the Latin word
for iron. Obviously, ferrous metals include
iron in their composition while nonferrous
metals are a group of metals and alloys with
no iron content. Nonferrous metals were used
since the beginning of human civilizations.
The discovery of copper in 5000 BC marked
the end of the Stone Age and the onset of the
Copper Age. Further discovery of bronze, an
alloy of copper and tin, was the beginning
of the Bronze Age. Likewise, the utilization
of iron started in around 1200 BC when iron
production became commonplace, ushering .. Fig. 15.1 Sports Palace of Santander (Spain), built
of the Iron Age. with about 400 sheets of stainless steel
437 15
.. Fig. 15.2 Recycling of metals. (Source: Metals for Buildings)
.. Fig. 15.4 Stacks of steel beams. (Image courtesy of

World Steel Association)
alloys that are used on a large scale. The alloys

can even incorporate nonmetallic elements
such as carbon, steel being the most famous
and classic alloy used in construction.
Steel is prized in the construction indus-
try because of hardness and strength. It is
commonly used for manufacturing beams for
structural framework (. Fig. 15.4), plates

for highway construction, rectangular tub-

.. Fig. 15.3 Metallic product collected at end-of-life ing, rebar in concrete, etc. Stainless steel, an
construction. Ferrous metals and alloys used

in building and construction include two main
groups: cast irons and steels, the latter being
the most important construction material
along with concrete. In fact, steel is indispens-
able to our modern way of life and critical to
economic growth.
15.2.1 Production Processes
Ferrous metallurgy includes the metallurgy

.. Fig. 15.5 St Mary Axe building in London includes
a combination of glass and aluminum in their glass
of iron and steel, and it is by far the domi-
walls or translucent panes. (Image courtesy of Michael nant branch of metallurgical engineering in
Garnett) terms of scale of production, size of indus-
try, manpower used, etc. Integrated produc-
tion processes fall into three main phases: (a)
alloy made of several metals (quantity of each ironmaking (reduction): the first metallurgi-
metal can be set to make different products cal step deals with reduction of iron ore to
with alternative), is among one of the oldest metallic iron, which is mainly performed in a
known building materials. It was applied in blast furnace utilizing coke as both a fuel and
construction many centuries ago to construct reducing agent; the material obtained in the
structures that still stand today, thanks to the furnace contains a relatively high proportion
corrosion and stain resistant properties of of carbon (4%) and must be passed to the next
the metal. Aluminum is typically used in the step to reduce carbon content, (b) steelmak-
construction industry because it is resistant ing (refining or oxidation): refining of iron to
to corrosion, highly conductive, and ductile. produce steel means that amount of carbon
Aluminum is found in windows, doors, roofs, in metal iron is lowered, generally to less than
etc. It is increasingly used in modern buildings 2% by an oxidation process; all at once, the
due to the large range of beneficial properties alloying components are added in the process
(25% of the aluminum produced worldwide is in order to attain the needed chemical compo-
used in construction). As an example, St Mary sition of the final product; basic oxygen steel-
Axe building in London (. Fig. 15.5) includes

making (BOS) and electric arc furnace (EAF)
a combination of glass and aluminum in glass processes are the two routes used in this step,
15 walls and translucent panes. Copper tubing and (c) casting (shaping): the liquid steel may
is generally used to construct pipes in build- be cast and formed into many different solid
ings. It is resistant to corrosion from water shapes by using the continuous casting pro-
and soil, and can be easily soldered, forming cess; further the product may be forged and/or
lasting bonds. All of these properties make rolled in successive steps to produce anyone of
copper a very good metal for piping and tub- the many required shapes (rolling is the most
ing in construction applications. Lead is used common method of shaping). Once the steel is
in water pipes and other applications due to shaped, then it can be coated with other met-
low melting point; lead was early used in sheet als, e.g., zinc and tin, and with organic coat-
products for architectural purposes. ings such as paints or PVC. All these processes
have undergone quite a lot of transformation
and evolution in processing over the years.
15.2 Ferrous Metals and Alloys
zz Ironmaking
Ferrous (iron-based) metals have widespread The first metallurgical step in the ironmaking
utilization throughout all branches of engi- process leads to reduce the iron ore to metal-
neering but they are particularly important in lic iron; this process is mostly carried out in
15.2 · Ferrous Metals and Alloys
439 15
a blast furnace, using coke as both a fuel and and 5000 m3” (Cavaliere 2019). Blast furnace
reducing agent. The metallic iron produced economics implies that larger units have lower
contains a relatively high proportion of car- unit production costs. Modern blast furnaces
bon (4%) and is passed to the steelmaking show diameters up to 16 meters and produce
process as a liquid (metal iron) at approxi- up to 10,000 tons per day or even more.
mately 1450 °C. The blast furnace is the domi- Raw materials in blast furnace route are iron
nant reactor for ironmaking, covering more ore (7 Box 15.1), coal, and limestone. Iron is

than 90% of the total global iron production. rarely present as a metal in the earth’s surface
Alternative methods can be broadly classified but it is broadly present in combination with
into two categories: (a) processes in which iron oxygen to form iron oxides. Iron is one of the
is produced as a solid, by solid-state reduc- most abundant metallic elements; iron oxides
tion, and (b) processes producing liquid iron represent approximately 5% of the earth’s
by a combination of solid and liquid-state crust. As with all metals, iron is extracted from
reduction. The former category is termed naturally occurring ores (. Fig. 15.7), which

sponge iron or direct reduced iron (DRI).
kBlast Furnace
The first true coke-based blast furnace was
introduced in 1735, and the blast furnace
process remains by far the most important
method for the production of molten iron.
Blast furnace route to obtain iron is illustrated
in . Fig. 15.6. Iron oxides are reduced and

the resulting material is melted. The process is

continuous with raw materials being regularly
charged to the top of the furnace and molten
iron (also named pig iron or hot iron) and slag
recovered from the bottom of the furnace. .. Fig. 15.7 Stoilensky iron open-pit mine. (Image
“Blast furnaces capacity ranges between 100 m3 courtesy of World Steel Association)
.. Fig. 15.6 Blast
furnace route to obtain
iron (World Steel
Association)
consist of a wide range of mixtures of com- concentration of those compounds occurs.

plex chemical compounds though they occur Thus, average iron content for high-grade
mainly in the form of magnetite (Fe3O4) and/ ores used in ironmaking processes is 60–65%.
or hematite (Fe2O3). Most typical iron ore cur- “Ninety eight percent of mined iron ore is
rently processed incorporates a large content used to make steel” (WSA 2019). Variations in
of hematite and often small amount of magne- chemical composition and physical state of the
tite. Mining of iron in the form of iron oxides iron ores can then influence its usefulness, eco-
is only economical viable where substantial nomic value, and the needed smelting method.
Box 15.1
Iron Deposits deposits. They constitute the dominant litho-

There are two major types of iron deposits. The unit of Archaean greenstone belts all over the
first type, by far the most important from an world. Banded iron formations occur in the
economic viewpoint, is the banded iron forma- Precambrian geologic record over a wide time
tions (BIFs). “Banded iron formations (BIFs) span. “Beginning at 3.8 Ga (Isua, West
are iron ores defined as layered, bedded, or Greenland), they are part of Archean cratons
laminated stratigraphic units composed of and range in age from about 3.5 until 2.5 Ga;
≥15% weight iron that often contain quartz, the banded iron formations of the Hamersley
chert, or carbonate interlayers” (James 1954) Province, in the Pilbara region of Western
(. Fig. 15.8). The main minerals forming lay-

Australia, are the thickest and most extensive
ers in banded iron formations include quartz rocks of this type in the world; in this location,
(mainly chert, a type of microcrystalline the overall volume of banded iron deposits
quartz), hematite (an iron oxide), siderite (an reached a maximum at about 2.5 Ga” (Klein
iron carbonate), and psilomelane (a potassium, 2005).
iron, and magnesium aluminosilicate). Each BIFs can be subdivided into two main
layer is relatively thin, varying from 1 mm or so types. The first type, which is quantitatively the
up to several centimeters in thickness. The most important, corresponds to the so-called
mesoscale banding is defined by planar varia- Lake Superior-type deposits, which were accu-
tions in the proportion of the two main mineral mulated in shallow waters of large continental
components (quartz and iron oxides), each one where individual thin layers can be sometimes
forming about half of the mass of the rock. traced out for more than 100 km. Lake
Precambrian was the most important geo- Superior-type BIFs are mined worldwide, e.g.,
15 logical period for the formation of banded iron the previously cited deposits of the Hamersley
Basin in Australia. The second type of banded
iron formation, so-called Algoma type, was
formed over a much wider time range than the
Lake Superior type. These deposits are consti-
tuted by finely layered intercalations of silica
and iron minerals, usually hematite and magne-
tite, although individual layers lack the lateral
continuity of Lake Superior- type BIFs.
Important iron deposits of the Algoma type
are exploited in Western Australia and Liberia.
Despite their great economic importance,
the origin of BIFs remains rather enigmatic.
.. Fig. 15.8 Banded iron formation at the Fortes- These deposits appear to have been formed in
cue Falls, Australia. (Source: Wikipedia) ocean regions where seawater with high content
441 15
of dissolved iron and silica came into contact of ooliths (small, rounded, accretionary masses
with water containing higher amounts of oxy- showing a concentric pattern of thin layers of
gen, this resulting in the precipitation of hema- iron minerals). The oolitic iron deposits have
tite and chert. Very likely, the process could been largely supplanted in importance by the
take place under anoxic conditions. Quartz and BIFs, but they once constituted the backbone
iron oxides are not primary depositional com- of the iron and steel industries in Western
ponents, but typically form a fine-grained sec- Europe and North America. European oolitic
ondary mosaic, that gives BIF exceptional iron deposits, generally termed as Minette-type
hardness and resistance to erosion. deposits, include ooliths of siderite and goe-
Besides the large occurrence of iron ores in thite. In North America, the oolitic iron depos-
the BIFs, a great deal of iron was obtained his- its contain ooliths of hematite, siderite, and
torically from a second major type marine iron chamosite and they are called Clinton-type
deposits. This type of deposits is mainly formed deposits.
Crushing and sizing to a range between fines are more suited for sintering while very
6 and 35 mm, and blending for controlling fine material is better for pelletizing.
possible variations in chemical composition, For different reasons, sinter is commonly
are the only pretreatments required for a rich produced at the steelworks site because it
ore previous to the feeding into a blast fur- enables solid wastes to be recycled; in addi-
nace. Thus, iron-rich ores are charged directly tion, sinter may suffer degradation during
into the blast furnace without any further transport and handling. In the sintering pro-
processing. . Figure 15.9 shows iron ore in
cess, the particles fuse together but in addition
storage at a steel production facility. On the some quantities of harmful components (e.g.,
contrary, lower iron content ore must be fur- sulfur and arsenic) are removed. At the sinter
ther processed and/or beneficiated in form of plant, preblended fine ore is mixed with: (a)
pellets and/or sinter (. Fig. 15.10) in order
coke breeze (small particles of coke from the
to increase iron content. Modern, high-per- screening plant), (b) fine fluxes, e.g., fine lime-
formance blast furnaces meet enhanced per- stone and/or dolomite, (c) mill scale (small
formance by prior physical and metallurgical flakes of iron oxide from the rolling mills),
preparation of the burden. The process often and (d) flue dust and precipitator dust (fine
involves agglomerating the furnace charge ore-bearing particles) collected from the blast
by either sintering or pelletization. Granular furnace.
.. Fig. 15.9 Iron ore in storage at a steel production .. Fig. 15.10 Sinter strand (EIPPCB 2012)
facility. (Image courtesy of World Steel Association)
gases, (d) to provide the carbon for carburiza-

tion of the hot metal, and (e) to act as a filter
for soot and dust” (Geerdes et al. 2009).
Last but not least main raw material in
the ironmaking process is limestone, which is
crushed and screened to a size ranging from
1 to 4 mm to become a blast furnace fluxing
agent. Fluxes are components used in metal-
lurgical processing to react with impurities in
order to form a liquid slag. Thus, fluxes like
limestone produce the low melting slag that
removes impurities from the iron ore reduction
.. Fig. 15.11 Unloading iron ore pellets. (Image cour-
tesy of World Steel Association) process (mainly silica and alumina) to make
the liquid pig iron. The commercial ironmak-
Pelletization processes were first devel- ing process involves the removal of impurities,
oped in Sweden. Since the late 1950s, they commonly by forming a slag with quicklime.
were widely used in the big deposits of iron- Quicklime forms during ironmaking pro-
bearing rock called taconite. Pellets (9–16 mm cess after the added limestone. Heat decom-
spheres containing from 65% to 70% iron) poses the limestone to quicklime that later
(. Fig. 15.11), and additives subjected to high

reacts with impurities producing the slag. This
temperature (about 1300 °C), are mainly car- is removed before the hot metal is conveyed to
ried out at either the mining site or the shipping the steelmaking vessel. Limestone for adding
port. Low grade iron mineralization is previ- can be pure high-calcium limestone, dolomitic
ously crushed and ground for obtaining a very limestone, and/or a blend of the two rocks.
fine powder in order to iron can be removed The slag quantity generated during the pro-
from unintended components, e.g., silica. cess will depend on the gangue content of the
Before coal is ready for utilization in the blast furnace, the ferrous burden, the coke ash
blast furnace, it must be crushed, washed, and and ash from the injection material and the
baked to get metallurgical coke. Coking coal amount of flux needed to obtain the required
is a key raw material in the blast furnace pro- molten iron quality. Fluxes are basic (CaO
cess since iron can be exclusively extracted as and MgO) because the gangue in the ore is
natural iron oxides, which must be reduced by mainly acidic (SiO2 and Al2O3).
using carbon. The primary source for carbon In the blast furnace (BF) operation, the
is coking coal. Coke, made by carburizing iron ore, whether prepared as rich ore, pel-
15 coking coal (e.g., heating in absence of oxygen lets or sinter, the coke, and the limestone are
at high temperature), is the primary reducing charged into the top of the BF (. Fig. 15.12),

agent of iron ore. Coke reduces iron ore to commonly in alternating coke and iron ore
molten iron saturated with carbon. “Around layers. The furnace charge or burden descends
1 billion tons of metallurgical coal are used through the shaft, where it is preheated and
in the global steel production, which accounts reacts with the ascending reducing gases. A
for around 15% of total coal consumption hot air blast (preheated to temperature from
worldwide; Australia dominates metallurgi- 900 to 1250 °C), generally enriched with oxy-
cal coal exports, accounting for about 200 gen, and often an auxiliary reductant such as
million tons of a total of 310 million tons of coal are blown through the tuyeres near the
metallurgical coal exports globally” (WSA bottom of the furnace. The hot air blast reacts
2019). Most important functions of coke vigorously with the coke (and any auxiliary
are as follows: “(a) to provide the structure reductant) in the burden, resulting in reduc-
through which gas can ascend and be distrib- ing gases (carbon monoxide) that flow at very
uted through the burden, (b) to generate heat high temperature up to 1650 °C, countercur-
to melt the burden, (c) to generate reducing rent in the descending burden.
443 15
.. Table 15.1 Common molten iron chemistry

of the product transferred to the steelmaking
process
Iron (Fe) = 93.5–95.0%

Silicon (Si) = 0.30–0.90%
Sulfur (S) = 0.025–0.050%
Manganese (Mn) = 0.55–0.75%
Phosphorus(P) = 0.03–0.09%
Titanium (Ti) = 0.02–0.06%
Carbon (C) = 4.1–4.4%
.. Fig. 15.12 Illustration of a blast furnace
The raw materials take approximately

between 6 and 8 hours for descending to the .. Fig. 15.13 General view of a blast furnace. (Image
bottom of the furnace where they are con- courtesy of ArcelorMittal)
verted into liquid slag and iron (molten iron).
In the lower sections of the furnace, the coke The melting point of pure iron is 1537 °C
is gasified in order to produce CO, which is but iron passing through the blast furnace
the reductant agent of iron oxides flowing absorbs carbon and other elements so low-
toward the top of the furnace. The molten ering the melting point to approximately
iron is collected from the bottom of the fur- 1150 °C. Despite the low melting point, tem-
nace while the slag, floating over the molten perature of the liquid iron must be maintained
iron, is also collected from the bottom. The at about 1500 °C (slag reaching 1550 °C) to
common molten iron chemistry of the prod- obtain sufficient fluidity of the iron and slag.
uct transferred to the steelmaking process is Because the slag melting point changes with
shown in . Table 15.1.
composition, accurate raw materials control
In summary, the main reactions taking and weighing are relevant in the process.
place in the ironmaking process are the fol- The blast furnace gas leaving the top of the
lowing: furnace is a mixture of carbon dioxide, car-
bon monoxide, hydrogen, and nitrogen that is
2C + O2 ® 2CO used for a variety of purposes. Blast furnaces
C + H2O ® CO + H2 (. Fig. 15.13) will survive into the 2000 mil-

lennium since the larger, efficient furnaces can

CO2 + C ® 2CO produce molten iron with competitive costs
compared to other iron making technologies.
3Fe2O3 + CO ® CO2 + 2Fe3 O4 The molten iron produced by the blast furnace
Fe3 O4 + CO ® CO2 + 3FeO is very brittle and of limited immediate com-
mercial use (it is only used to manufacture
FeO + CO ® Fe + CO2 several types of cast irons). Thus, the majority
of molten iron undergoes further processing required, which significantly reducing emis-
for reducing carbon content and producing sions” (EIPPCB 2012).
different grades of steel used for construction
materials. zz Steelmaking
Since iron is brittle and not easily form-
kDirect Reduced able, it must be turned into steel in a second
Direct reduction is defined as any process step. Steelmaking is the process of removing
in which metallic iron is produced (direct impurities from the product generated in the
reduced iron and/or sponge iron) by reduc- ironmaking process to produce a material with
tion of iron ore at temperature below the carefully controlled levels of carbon, man-
melting temperature of any of the involved ganese, nickel, chromium, etc. Steelmaking
materials. DRI is often compacted to reduce material is some of the biggest commodity
porosity; the resulting product is named hot worldwide in terms of production and con-
briquette iron (. Fig. 15.14). Direct reduc-
sumption. As an example, “iron ore, with a
tion process was commercialized since the world production of about 2 billion tons, is
1970s, involving the manufacture of solid globally the third largest commodity in terms
primary iron from iron ores and a reduc- of production volume, just after crude oil and
ing agent. The direct reduced iron is mainly coal, and the second most traded commodity
applied as feedstock in electric arc furnaces (after crude oil)” (WSA 2019). Moreover, fer-
(EAF). Provided that there is no separation rous scrap is the largest commodity recycling
of iron from gangue in the reduction facility, activity in the world (. Fig. 15.15).

it is clear that high-grade ores and/or concen- In general, all steelmaking processes
trates must be used in this process to produce should complete three main steps: (a) removal
metallic iron in the solid state. The percentage of impurities (oxidation), (b) control of tem-
of DRI production related to the world hot perature (charging), and (c) addition of alloy
metal production is currently about 6%. DRI elements. Some steps can take place simulta-
processes are of four main types based on the neously, e.g., heat generated from oxidation
type of reactor used: (a) shaft furnaces, (b) of impurities in the first step is further used
rotary kilns, (c) rotary hearth furnaces, and to melt the scrap and bring the metal to the
(d) fluidized bed reactors. Shaft furnaces required temperature (second step). Another
account for the majority of DRI production. example is the addition of some alloying ele-
The “main benefit of a direct reduction unit ments, primarily added to give steel specific
compared to a blast furnace is that the direct properties (third step), which also helps in
reduction unit utilizes natural gas or coal as a removing impurities (first step). Steelmaking
15 fuel; therefore, a coke oven plant is no longer
.. Fig. 15.14 Hot briquette iron. (Image courtesy of .. Fig. 15.15 Unloading steel scrap. (Image courtesy
Midrex) of World Steel Association)
445 15
is a batch process, partly because a range of Basic Oxygen Steelmaking (BOS) and electric
products is required. arc furnace EAF) methods (. Fig. 15.17). The

Most steel was originally produced by former utilizes pure oxygen, injected by a lance,
the Bessemer and open-hearth processes. In for refining the molten iron, and scrap is used
fact, large-scale steel production became pos- for temperature control. For its part, EAF uti-
sible just after the Henry Bessemer converter lizes primarily electrical energy to supply heat to
(. Fig. 15.16) process of steelmaking in 1856.
melt scrap steel and/or sponge iron. Compared
This process was replaced by the more modern to the BOS process, the EAF requires less chem-
ical reaction for refining. The two routes differ
not only in the raw materials used but also the
type of products to be made. BOS steelmaking
route mainly produces long products whereas
EAF steelmaking route is more focused in
flat products. BOS route remains the primary
source for worldwide steel production (70.8%
of total output in 2018 according to World Steel
Association −28.8% for EAF route-).
kBasic Oxygen Steelmaking

Steel is mainly produced through the conver-
sion of molten iron from the blast furnace
.. Fig. 15.16 Bessemer converter. (Image courtesy of into steel using BOS (sometimes termed BOF,
Kelham Island Museum) i.e., Basic Oxygen Furnace) (7 Box 15.2).

.. Fig. 15.17 Steelmaking two routes. (Source: World Steel Association)

Box 15.2
Basic Oxygen Steelmaking the oxidation process is: (a) to reduce the car-
The conversion process from molten iron to bon content to a specified level, (b) to adjust
steel, termed basic oxygen furnace, the contents of desirable foreign elements, and
(. Fig. 15.18) was developed in the second

(c) to remove undesirable components, to the
half of the 1990s in Austria, and it was based greatest possible extent, with the off-gas or the
on the bottom air blowing (Bessemer Thomas liquid slag” (EIPPCB 2012). The energy needed
converter). In this route, steel production is to raise temperature and melt the feedstock is
sited in an integrated steel plant with one or supplied by the exothermic character of the
more blast furnaces. required reaction; thus, no additional heat
In BOS method, pure oxygen is blown onto input is required.
the alloy and then the liquid steel is produced in In BOS, a vessel, lined with magnesia-based
an exothermic process. On average, “this route refractories, is charged with molten iron, often
uses 1,370 kg of iron ore, 780 kg of metallurgi- with the addition of scrap, iron ore, or waste
cal coal, 270 kg of limestone, and 125 kg of iron oxide briquettes as supplementary iron
recycled steel to produce one ton of crude and steel sources. Carbon is removed from the
steel” (WSA 2019). The converter “volume on melt by injecting oxygen at high speed, which
charge ratio (m3/ton) is in the range 0.65–0.75. oxidizes some of the iron and many of the
Depth of the metal bath ranges from 1 to impurities, e.g., silica and phosphorous. The
2 meters and the furnace capacities are in the oxygen used in the process must be of high
range 60–400 tons” (Cavaliere 2019). An purity, generally 99.5% minimum, otherwise
important feature of this technology is high the steel can absorb harmful nitrogen. Liquid
productivity, which necessitates continuous steel later goes through a metallurgical treat-
supply of molten iron from blast furnaces ment before being cast in different shapes and
because the process cycle cannot be inter- dimensions. Secondary metallurgy is the name
rupted. This imposes some restrictions on the used for a group of processes leading to modify
global flexibility of the process. steel properties prior to casting. The processes
The objective in BOS technology is to burn, include further purification, gas removal, and
i.e., to oxidize, the undesirable impurities temperature adjustment.
included in the molten iron feedstock. As a Quicklime is added to react with oxidized
consequence, principal elements converted into impurities and iron oxide to form slag. In this
oxides are carbon, silicon, manganese, and sense, is common to use quicklime additions of
phosphorus. Therefore, “the basic objective of 35–50 kg per ton of liquid steel. In some cases,
15 the addition of dolomitic lime reduces the ten-
dency of the slag to dissolve the magnesia
refractory lining of the vessel. Main reactions
acting in basic oxygen steelmaking are summa-
rized in . Fig. 15.19.

Molten steel from the furnaces passes

through the continuous casting machine for
producing slabs, blooms, and billets
(. Fig. 15.20). The primary and/or semifin-

ished steel products are then transformed into a

wide range of finished steel products through
hot and cold rolling processes. Slabs are rolled
into flat products; blooms are shaped into gird-
.. Fig. 15.18 Charging ladle moving hot metal ers, beams, and other structural shapes; and bil-
into a basic oxygen furnace to be made into steel. lets are formed into bars and rods (. Fig. 15.21).

(Image courtesy of World Steel Association) . Figure 15.22 shows wire rod production.

447 15
.. Fig. 15.19 Main
reactions acting in basic
oxygen steelmaking
(Cavaliere 2019)
.. Fig. 15.20 Billet production. (Image courtesy .. Fig. 15.22 Wire rod production. (Image cour-
of World Steel Association) tesy of World Steel Association)
.. Fig. 15.21 Primary (semifinished) and finished steel products (World Steel Association)
kElectric Arc Furnace Steelmaking scrap fusion so that it is the most important
The electric arc furnace (EAF) applied to scrap recycling process. Scraps, direct reduced
steelmaking was invented in 1889 by Paul iron, pig iron, and additives (. Fig. 15.23)

Héroult, and now it represents the main alter- are melted through high-power electric arcs
native to the BOS route. Use of EAF technol- formed between a cathode and the anodes.
ogy means that steel is produced only through Heat necessary for melting the metal is
.. Fig. 15.23 Electric arc furnace steelmaking (source: World Steel Association)
obtained in an electric arc that arises where making products that are less sensitive to the
the electrodes make contact with the metal presence of impurities (e.g., reinforcing bars
(arc temperature can reach 3500 °C while for concrete). “Carbon is often charged along
temperature of the molten metal is about with the scrap, concomitant to be lanced into
1800 °C) (. Fig. 15.24).
the furnace during the refining phase of the
Direct reduced iron is increasingly used as heat; along with lanced oxygen, carbon is used
raw material because of low gangue content, to develop foaming slag during the refining
variable scrap prices, and lower content of phase of the heat” (Cavaliere 2019).
undesirable metals, e.g., copper. However, the The EAF process uses electricity as main
direct reduced iron incorporation leads to an source of energy. Other sources are often used
increment in energy consumption. Ferroalloys in combination to varying degrees (e.g., natu-
can be used as additional feedstock in greater ral gas, coal, coke). An EAF is usually charged
or lesser amounts for adjusting, in the desired with scrap by buckets or baskets (charg-
15 concentrations of nonferrous metals, the fining boxes) hanging over the open kiln vessel
ished steel. On average, “the recycled steel- (. Fig. 15.25). The quantity of scrap charged

EAF route uses 710 kg of recycled steel, into the EAF is proportional to the furnace
586 kg of iron ore, 150 kg of coal and 88 kg size; as an example, “an EAF of 6.7 meters
of limestone, and 2.3 GJ of electricity, to pro- in diameter charges around 60 tons of scrap”
duce one ton of crude steel” (WSA 2019). (EIPPCB 2012). Quicklime and dolomitic
The main feedstock to the EAF route is lime are added to the EAF to form a slag that
ferrous scrap, which can be home scrap (scrap favors collecting undesirable components in
arising within the steel mill), preconsumer the steel and to protect the refractories in a
scrap (scrap arising in steel using industries), similar way as they do in BOS.
and/or obsolete scrap (scrap coming from steel The modern EAFs consist of refractory
products at the end of their life). Cast iron lined steel shells or hearths that hold the scrap
and DRI can be fed into the EAF. Extensive charge while being melted and retain the liq-
utilization of scrap tends to introduce impuri- uid steel until it is ready to tap. EAFs can be
ties into steel, many of which cannot be elimi- either AC (3 electrodes, each with its own
nated. For this reason, EAF steel is used for phase) or DC (single or twin electrode). The
449 15
.. Fig. 15.24 Electric arc furnace (Cavaliere 2019)
electrodes are made of graphite manufactured in order to adjust the chemical composition
to show special properties of conductivity and of the finished steel. In respect of casting
strength at high temperature. The electrodes (. Fig. 15.26), for the purpose of controlled

are consumed in the process so they need to solidification of EAF steel basically the same
be continually replaced. techniques apply as for BOF steel.
Liquid steel poured from the EAF goes
through a metallurgical treatment process
previous to casted in different shapes and 15.2.2 Cast Irons
dimensions. It is generally carried out at ladle
treatment stations while the molten steel stays Cast iron is “a generic term for a large fam-
in the ladle. Treatment includes addition of ily of cast ferrous alloys in which the car-
deoxidizing agents and alloying elements bon content exceeds the solubility of carbon
.. Fig. 15.27 Iron bridge Iron arch bridge at Coal-

brookdale (England)
During the Industrial Revolution, before the

.. Fig. 15.25 Electric arc furnace being charged with widespread development of the steel industry,
steel scraps. (Image courtesy of Aperam) cast iron was typically used in a broad range
of architectural applications (e.g., bridges or
columns). The reason is that cast iron became
relatively cheap and was common as struc-
tural material and for decorative applications
in the second half of the nineteenth century.
The best way of utilizing cast irons for
bridge construction deal with arches where
the material is under compression (cast irons
are strong under these conditions). The iron
bridge over the river Severn at Coalbrookdale
(England) (. Fig. 15.27), finished at 1779,

15 was the first arch bridge in the world made of

cast iron. Further several disasters discour-
.. Fig. 15.26 Casting steel bars. (Image courtesy of aged utilization of cast iron as a building mate-
World Steel Association) rial for bridges. In urban centers, for instance
in New York City, several buildings were
in austenite at the eutectic temperature, or constructed with cast iron columns to allow
about 2 mass percent. Most cast irons also daylight to enter. The SoHo in New York is
contain silicon, and may contain other alloy- famous for its cast iron facades. French quar-
ing elements and impurities” (ASTM G193 ter at New Orleans is famous for the cast iron
standard). Because casting is the only and decorative galleries (. Fig. 15.28).

exclusive suitable process to shape this iron Cast irons are commonly brittle, so cannot
product, it is named cast iron. Cast iron is be forged, rolled, drawn, etc. They can only
made by remelting pig iron, scrap, and other be cast into desired shapes and size by pour-
additions. It was produced under various ing the molten alloy of desired composition
compositions for thousands of years. Cast into a mold of defined shape where the alloy
irons were commonly used in the as-cast form solidifies. The advantages of using cast irons
to satisfy structural and shape requirements. are derived from relatively low melting tem-
451 15
.. Table 15.2 International standards for cast

iron materials
Scope Standard
number
Gray cast irons ISO 185

Spheroidal graphite cast irons ISO 1083
Compacted (vermicular) ISO 16112
graphite cast irons
Malleable cast irons ISO 5922
Austenitic spheroidal graphite ISO 17804
cast irons
.. Fig. 15.28 Cast iron decorative galleries at New Abrasion-resistant cast irons ISO 21988
Orleans
Austenitic cast irons ISO 2892
perature and good castability, good machin-

ability, and good compression strength (3–5 iron-carbon diagram. According to chemical
times of tensile strength). Nevertheless, they specifications, cast irons may be nonalloyed
are generally weak in tension and bending and and alloyed. Depending on the applications
lose strength and stiffness when subjected to of cast irons, the alloying elements added
intense heat. to the furnace should differ. The range of
Cast irons contain carbon as graphite (pure alloyed irons is huge, containing either high
carbon), as carbide (Fe3C), and in solid solu- amount of common components, e.g., silicon
tion as austenite. Carbon and silicon largely and manganese, or special additions such as
define the microstructure of cast products just nickel, chromium, aluminum, molybdenum,
after solidification. Cast iron shows carbon tungsten, copper, vanadium, titanium, and
content (˃2%) that assures solidification of the others.
final phase with a eutectic transformation. At Depending upon the application and the
0% carbon content, the material is soft pure preferred mechanical properties, cast irons are
iron or ferrite. As the carbon content raises, classified into the following main types: white
increasing quantity of pearlite is formed, cast iron, gray cast iron, malleable cast iron,
which is harder and stronger, in a way that at and spheroidal cast iron. . Table 15.2 shows

around 0.9% carbon content the structure is the International Standards for cast iron
fully pearlitic. Increasing the carbon content materials. General properties of cast irons, as
results in the formation of higher amount of included in ISO 10809-1 standard, are listed
iron carbide (sometimes termed cementite), in . Table 15.3.

which is hard and brittle. The material is called

white cast iron when carbon content exceeds zz White Cast Iron
1.7% carbon content, which comprises a mix- White cast iron is a “cast iron that displays a
ture of pearlite and iron carbide. white fracture surface” (ASTM G193 stan-
Free graphite is a characteristic constitu- dard). With right carbon content and high
ent of nonalloyed and low-alloyed cast irons. cooling rate, carbon atoms combine with iron
Precipitation of graphite directly from the to form iron carbide, which means that there
liquid takes place where the solidification are not graphite molecules in the solidified
occurs in the range from temperature of stable material. When the white cast iron is frac-
transformation to temperature of metastable tured, white-colored cracks develop because
transformation, this is, from 1153 to 1147 °C, of the existence of carbide (Fe3C) impurities.
respectively, which is in agreement with the White cast iron is hard and brittle and has low
15
452
.. Table 15.3 General properties for the range of International Standards for cast iron (ISO 10809-1 standard)
Property ISO 185 Gray ISO 1083 ISO 16112 ISO 5922 ISO 17804 ISO 21988 ISO 2892
Spheroidal Compacted Malleable Ausferritic Abrasion- Austenitic
(vermicular) spheroidal resistant
Tensile strength √√ √√√√ √√√ √√√√ √√√√√ 0 √√√

Proof strength √ √√√√ √√ √√√ √√√√√ 0 √√√
Chapter 15 · Metals and Alloys
Elongation √ √√√√√ √ √√√ √√√ 0 √√√

Impact resistance √ √√√ √ √√√ √√ √√√ √√√
Low-temperature properties √√ √√√ √√ √√√ √√ √ √√√
Thermal conductivity √√√√√ √√√ √√√√ √√√ √√√ √ √√√
Thermal expansion √√ √√ √√ √√ √√ √ √√√√
Abrasion resistance √√ √√ √√ √ √√√ √√√√√ √√
Corrosion resistance √√ √√ √√ √√ √√ √√√√√ √√√√√
Heat resistance √√√ √√ √√ √√ √√ √ √√√√
Machinability √√√√√ √√√ √√√ √√√ √√ √ √√√
Weldability √√ √√√ √√ √√√ √ 0 √√
0 Not applicable
√ Low
√√ Average
√√√ High
√√√√ Very high
√√√√√ Highest
453 15
silicon content and low melting point. Carbon form as cementite (Fe3C)” (ISO 5922 and EN
present in the white cast iron precipitates and 1562 standards) or a “white cast iron that is
forms large particles that increase hardness of thermally treated to convert most or all of
the cast iron, making difficult it to machine. the cementite to graphite (temper carbon)”
As a consequence, this type of cast irons is (ASTM G193 standard). ISO 5922 and EN
abrasion resistant. 1562 standards further subdivide malleable
cast iron into whiteheart and blackheart types.
zz Gray Cast Iron Whiteheart malleable cast iron is a “white cast
Gray cast iron is a “cast material, mainly iron given a heat treatment in a decarburizing
iron and carbon based, carbon being present atmosphere to produce a material which is par-
mainly in the form of flake (lamellar) graphite tially or entirely decarburized” and blackheart
particles; it is also known as flake graphite cast malleable cast iron is a “white cast iron given a
iron and less commonly as lamellar graphite non-decarburizing heat treatment” (ISO 5922
cast iron” (ISO 185 and EN 1561 standards) and EN1562 standards). The matrix of black-
and a “cast iron that displays a gray fracture heart malleable cast iron separates blackheart
surface as a result of the presence of flake ferritic malleable cast iron (the microstructure
graphite” (ASTM G193 standard). Carbon of which has a matrix essentially of ferrite)
content in gray cast iron generally ranges from blackheart pearlitic malleable cast iron
between 2% and 4% with the addition of (the microstructure of which has a matrix of
around 1% silicon. various types of pearlite or other transforma-
Gray cast iron is the most versatile and tion products of austenite).
broadly used cast iron. The fractured cast Thus, malleable cast iron is principally
iron is grayish in color, which gives name to white iron undergoing heat treatment for
the iron cast type. Its graphite microstructure converting carbide into graphite. As a con-
shows a matrix formed by ferrite, pearlite, or sequence, resulting cast iron has properties
combination of both. Gray cast iron provides changing from both gray and white cast iron.
the largest worldwide tonnage of cast iron, Malleable cast iron has lower carbon equiva-
mainly because the broad range of uses within lent content (CE = % carbon +1/3% silicon)
general engineering, ease of machining, and than gray cast iron, and solidifies with white
cost advantage. It shows the highest thermal color. The final microstructure is generally
conductivity values among all cast irons, so it similar to ductile cast iron. Pearlitic malleable
is used in applications where this property is irons would be stronger but less ductile than
essential. Gray cast iron should be taken into ferritic ones. Although these products were
account for applications unless there are duc- produced for long time, they are being substi-
tility issues or the design requires strengths tuted little by little by ductile cast irons.
greater than 300 N/mm2. It shows high com- Blackheart malleable cast iron shows simi-
pressive strength, low tensile strength, and lar properties to those of spheroidal graphite
almost nonexistent ductilities (and impact cast iron. Thus, both types of cast irons have
strengths) because the nearly continuous been traditionally considered interchange-
nature of the graphite flakes. Alloying ele- able in most applications. The main advan-
ments increase the strength of this product. tage, compared with spheroidal cast iron, is
Typical alloying elements are manganese, that blackheart malleable cast iron is easier
copper, nickel, chromium, and molybdenum. to machine due to its different metal compo-
sition. On the other hand, whiteheart type is
zz Malleable Cast Iron used to produce thin section castings where
Malleable cast iron is a “heat-treated iron- the heat treatment process is adjusted to com-
carbon alloy, which solidifies in the as-cast pletely decarburize the material. It allows mal-
condition with a graphite-free structure, leable whiteheart castings to be welded to steels
referred to as white cast iron, the total car- because the whiteheart material displays simi-
bon content being present in the combined lar properties to the steel to which is welded.
zz Spheroidal Graphite Cast Iron

According to ISO 1083 and EN 1563 stan-
dards, spheroidal graphite cast iron is a “cast
material, iron, carbon and silicon-based,
the carbon being present mainly in the form
of spheroidal graphite particles (spheroidal
graphite cast iron is also known as ductile iron,
and less commonly as nodular iron)” or “cast
iron that has been treated while molten with
an element (usually magnesium or cerium)
that spheroidizes the graphite” (definition of
ductile cast iron in ASTM G193 standard).
ISO 1083 and EN 1563 standards further
define ferritic to pearlitic spheroidal graph-
ite cast iron as “spheroidal graphite cast iron
with a matrix containing ferrite or pearlite or
a combination of both” and solid solution
strengthened ferritic spheroidal graphite cast
iron as “spheroidal graphite cast iron with a
matrix mainly consisting of ferrite, solution
strengthened by increasing the amount of sili-
con compared to ferritic to pearlitic spheroi-
dal graphite cast iron.” Moreover, European .. Fig. 15.29 Manhole cover manufactures with duc-
standardization defines ausferritic spheroi- tile cast iron. (Image courtesy of Carolina Bustillo)
dal graphite cast iron as an “iron based cast
material with the carbon being present mainly
in the form of spheroidal graphite particles why ductile cast iron is commonly considered
with an ausferritic matrix structure, usually better material than gray cast iron, although
obtained by an austempering heat treatment” thermal conductivity is more suitable in the
(EN 1564 standard). latter material. There is large number of
Ductile cast iron was discovered in late grades of spheroidal graphite cast iron based
1940s, and the annual tonnage of produc- on the fact that as tensile strength increases,
tion worldwide increased continuously. This ductility decreases, thus offering different
is because graphite in ductile iron is sphe- combinations of tensile/ductility properties
15 roidal, not flake, thereby making the iron- depending upon the application.
rich matrix constituent continuous. For this Ductile cast iron is a typical raw material
reason, the cracks have not convenient weak for the manufacturing of manholes covers
path through which to propagate. Ductile and tops and gully tops (. Fig. 15.29). EN

iron is manufactured by treatment with mag- 124-1 standard considers six types of these
nesium prior to pouring castings, magne- products according to compressive strength:
sium being added to the melt in the form of A 15, B 125, C 250, D 400, E 600, or F 900.
a master alloy. Magnesium reacts with oxy- The appropriate class of a manhole top and/
gen and sulfur in the molten iron leading to or a gully top will depend upon the place of
nodule shaped graphite that has earned them installation. This European standard takes
the name nodular cast iron. The mechanical into consideration several places of instal-
properties of this type of cast irons depend lation, which are divided into groups num-
almost completely upon the microstructure bered 1 to 6: “(a) Group 1 (at least class A
of the continuous matrix, which can be con- 15): areas that can only be used by pedestrians
trolled by heat treatment. and pedal cyclists, (b) group 2 (at least class B
This type of cast iron has the benefit of 125): pedestrian areas and comparable areas,
ductility as well as strength. This is the reason car parks or car parking decks, (c) group 3
455 15
(at least class C 250): for gully tops installed some austenite or other transformation prod-
in the area of kerbside channels of roads, (d) ucts of austenite”).
group 4 (at least class D 400): carriageways The austenitic cast irons (sometimes also
of roads (including pedestrian streets), hard termed Ni-resists) are a group of materi-
shoulders, and parking areas for all types of als (12 different grades) providing corrosion
road vehicles, (e) group 5 (at least class E 600): resistance, heat resistance, or combination of
areas imposing high wheel loads (e.g., docks both. They are generally compared with stain-
or aircraft pavements), and (f) group 6 (class less steels in the design process. The austenitic
F 900): areas imposing particularly high wheel matrix, produced by heat treatment and stable
loads (e.g., aircraft pavements)” (EN 124-1 at room temperature, is responsible for the
standard). attainment of unique mechanical properties.
One application of austenitic cast iron is when
zz Other Cast Irons the component to be manufactured requires
The International Organization for to be nonmagnetizable.
Standardization defines the following types of Compacted graphite cast irons are rec-
cast irons: (a) austenitic cast iron (ISO 2892 ognized since the 1960s as having unique
standard): “cast material with an austenitic mechanical and physical properties, which
matrix which is iron and carbon based and are mainly established by the shape of the
alloyed with nickel and manganese, copper graphite. The quantity of magnesium in com-
and/or chromium in order to stabilize the pacted graphite iron is enough to ensure that
austenitic structure at room temperature (the no graphite flakes are developed, yet not high
graphite can be present in flake (lamellar) or enough for enabling complete nodularity.
spheroidal form),” (b) compacted (vermicu- Compacted graphite cast irons are applied for
lar) graphite cast iron (ISO 16112 standard): manufacturing components that need addi-
“cast material, iron and carbon based, the tional strength, stiffness, and ductility behav-
carbon being present mainly in the form of ior, over and above that offered by gray cast
compacted (vermicular) graphite particles iron. The benefits of compacted graphite cast
that appear vermicular on a two-dimensional iron include higher tensile strengths in con-
plane of polish, the graphite particles being junction with thermal conductivity properties
embedded in a matrix consisting of ferrite, compared to those found in gray cast iron.
ferrite/pearlite, or pearlite,” and (c) abrasion- Abrasion-resistant cast irons compete with
resistant white cast irons (ISO 21988 stan- other alloys, e.g., manganese steel, in terms of
dard), which can be subdivided into unalloyed hard and tough. They are generally cheaper
or low alloy abrasion-resistant cast iron (“cast and easier to manufacture than abrasion-
iron having a structure that consists of eutec- resistant steels with which they are commonly
tic iron carbides in a predominantly pearlitic compared.
matrix”), nickel-chromium abrasion-resistant
cast iron (“cast iron having a structure con- zz Wrought Iron
sisting of either: - simple eutectic carbides The so-called wrought iron was the first type of
M3C type (M = Fe, Cr) in a matrix which is iron produced and worked by blacksmiths. It
predominantly martensitic referred to as 4% is “a tough malleable form of iron suitable for
Ni 2% Cr irons; or - complex eutectic carbides forging or rolling rather than casting, obtained
(M7C3 and M3C) in a matrix which is pre- by pudding pig iron while molten; it is nearly
dominantly martensitic, referred to as 9% Cr pure but contains some slag in the form of fil-
5% Ni irons”), and high chromium abrasion- aments” (ASTM G193 standard). Therefore,
resistant cast iron (“cast iron containing wrought iron is very pure iron where the iron
between 11% and 40% Cr having a structure content is approximately 99.5%. This type of
consisting of complex carbides in a matrix product can be manufactured by remelting
which, in the hardened condition, is predomi- pig iron and some small amount of silicon. It
nantly martensitic, but which can also contain is tough, malleable, corrosion-resistant, and
ductile and can easily be forged and welded. wrought iron made it ideal to use for beams
The existence of slag is beneficial for black- in large construction projects, e.g., high-rise
smithing operations, giving the material its buildings, but this application was abandoned
unique fibrous structure. Wrought iron was in the early twentieth century when steel prod-
predominantly produced prior to the Patent ucts were developed. One of the most famous
for the Bessemer process in 1856. During the buildings in the world, Eiffel Tower, was built
Industrial Revolution, high tensile strength of with wrought iron (7 Box 15.3).

Box 15.3
Eiffel Tower Construction tions for the World’s Fair of 1889 (it was the
The Eiffel Tower (. Fig. 15.30) is a famous

arch entrance of the Fair, located on the left
landmark of Paris and the symbol of this bank of the Seine River). This date was also the
European city. The Eiffel Tower is the most vis- 100th anniversary of the French Revolution.
ited paid monument in the world; it has been The challenge was to “study the possibility of
termed a technological masterpiece in the erecting an iron (wrought iron) tower on the
building-construction history. The monument Champ-de-Mars with a square base, 125 meters
was named after Alexandre Gustave Eiffel (his across and 300 meters tall.” More than 100
company designed and built the Tower), who plans were submitted, and the Centennial
planned to build a tower 300 meters high in Committee accepted that of the noted bridge
Champ de Mars in Paris as a part of prepara- engineer Gustave Eiffel. The first digging work
started on the January 28, 1887. On the March
31, 1889, the Tower was finished in record time
(2 years, 2 months, and 5 days). During its con-
struction, the Eiffel Tower surpassed the
Washington Monument to become the tallest
man-made structure in the world. In fact, it was
the first structure to reach a height of 300 meters
(the tower weighs 7300 metric tons). Key data
of Eiffel Tower construction are shown in
. Table 15.4 (official Eiffel Tower website).

It had been determined that the licensing

rights linked to the Exposition for the construc-
15 tion of the tower would should last just
20 years, followed by its demolition.
Nevertheless, two million people visited the
Tower during the Universal Exposition and the
building thus became a symbol of the French
industrial power. The fact that certainly saved
the destruction of the Tower was its utilization
as a radio antenna tower, first for military com-
munications and then for permanent, radiote-
legraphy communications. Today, the Eiffel
Tower continues to play an important role in
television and radio broadcasts.
Official Eiffel tower website states that “all
.. Fig. 15.30 Eiffel Tower built with wrought iron. the elements were prepared in Eiffel’s factory
(Image courtesy of Carolina Bustillo) located at Levallois-Perret on the outskirts of
457 15
.. Table 15.4 Key data of Eiffel Tower con-

struction (official Eiffel Tower website)
Design 18,038 metallic parts

5,300 workshop designs
50 engineers and designers
Construction 150 workers in the
Levallois-Perret factory
Between 150 and 300
workers on the construction
site .. Fig. 15.31 Construction of the legs with wooden
scaffolding (7 December 1887). (Source: Official
2.500.000 rivets Eiffel Tower website)
7,300 tonnes of iron
up, another to hold it in place, a third to shape
60 tonnes of paint
the head, and a fourth to beat it with a sledge-
5 Iift3 hammer. The uprights rest on concrete founda-
Duration 2 years, 2 months and 5 days tions installed a few meters below ground-level
of construction on top of a layer of compacted gravel. Each
corner edge rests on its own supporting block,
applying to it a pressure of 3–4 kilograms per
Paris. Each of the 18,000 pieces used to con- square centimeter, and each block is joined to
struct the Tower were specifically designed and the others by walls. On the Seine side of the
calculated, traced out to an accuracy of a tenth construction, the builders used watertight
of a millimeter and then put together forming metal caissons and injected compressed air, so
new pieces around five meters each. A team of that they were able to work below the level of
constructors, who had worked on the great the water. The tower was assembled using
metal viaduct projects, were responsible for the wooden scaffolding (. Fig. 15.31) and small

150–300 workers on-site assembling this gigan- steam cranes mounted onto the tower itself. It
tic erector set. All the metal pieces of the tower only took 5 months to build the foundations
are held together by rivets, a well- refined and 21 to finish assembling the metal pieces of
method of construction at the time the Tower the Tower. Considering the rudimentary means
was constructed. A team of four men was available at that period, this could be consid-
needed for each rivet assembled: one to heat it ered record speed.”
15.2.3 Steel of the nineteenth century. Today, combin-

ing iron, small percentages of carbon, and
The rise of steel started with the nineteenth- other trace elements, it is possible to produce
century Industrial Revolution in Europe hundreds of steel types. The different types
and North America. The Bessemer process of steel are rolled, annealed, and coated to
formed the heart of steelmaking for more deliver specific properties for innumerable
than 100 years. This method of manufacture applications. In fact, the term steel does not
steel, introduced in 1856, revolutionized the refer to one material in particular because it
market with a fast, cheap way for producing refers to a range of materials (several hundred
steel in large amounts. Steel began to be used of distinct metallic alloys are known as steel)
extensively in construction in the first quarter that are extraordinarily diverse in terms of
to 1808 million tons in 2018.” About 70% of

the crude steel production in 2018 was car-
ried out by using BOF while the remainder
production was obtained using electric arc
furnace. China is the world’s leading producer
(. Fig. 15.36), followed by India and Japan.

The most common applications in build-

ings and infrastructures are listed below. For
buildings: (a) structural sections: these pro-
vide a strong, stiff frame for the building and
make up 25% of the steel use in buildings, (b)
reinforcing bars: these add tensile strength
.. Fig. 15.32 Brooklyn Bridge in New York
and stiffness to concrete and make up 44% of
steel use in buildings, (c) sheet products: 31%
is in sheet products such as roofing, purlins,
internal walls, ceilings, cladding, and insulat-
ing panels for exterior walls, (d) nonstructural
steel: examples are heating and cooling equip-
ment and interior ducting, and (e) internal fix-
tures and fittings such as rails, shelving, and
stairs are also made of steel. In infrastructure
applications: (a) transport networks: steel is
required for bridges, tunnels, rail track, and
in constructing buildings such as fueling
stations, train stations, ports, and airports.
About 60% of steel use in this application is
.. Fig. 15.33 Wembley Stadium in London
as rebar and the rest is sections, plates, and
rail track, and (b) utilities (fuel, water, power):
their chemical composition, microstructure, over 50% of the steel used for this application
properties, and possible applications. is in underground pipelines to distribute water
Steel is critical simply because no other to and from housing, and to distribute gas.
material shows a unique combination of prop- The rest is mainly rebar for power stations
erties such as strength, formability, and ver- and pumping houses.
satility. . Figure 15.32 shows the Brooklyn
According to ASTM G193 standard, steel
15 Bridge in New York (1883), the first steel- is “a material that has more iron, by mass
wire suspension bridge built in the world. percent, than any other element and contains
The construction of the Wembley Stadium carbon generally less than 2.1 mass percent”
(. Fig. 15.33) used 23,000 tons of steel; its
and carbon steel is an “alloy of carbon and
134 meter high steel arch is the longest single iron containing up to 2 mass percent carbon
span steel structure in the world. It is impor- and up to 1.65 mass percent manganese and
tant to note that “more than 50% of the steel residual quantities of other elements, except
produced in the world is used in applications those intentionally added in specific quanti-
related to building and infrastructure such ties for deoxidation (usually silicon and/or
as those shown in . Figs. 15.32 and 15.33
aluminum).” ASTM A635/A635M standard
(. Fig. 15.34) and that more than 75% of
specifies that carbon steel is “the designation
modern steels developed in the last 20 years” for steel when no minimum content is speci-
(WSA 2019). fied or required for aluminum, chromium,
According to World Steel Association, cobalt, columbium, molybdenum, nickel, tita-
“world crude steel production increased nium, tungsten, vanadium, zirconium, or any
around tenfold from 1950 to 2018 element added to obtain a desired alloying
(. Fig. 15.35), from 189 million tons in 1950
effect; when the specified minimum for copper
459 15
.. Fig. 15.34 Steel markets. (Source: World Steel Association)
.. Fig. 15.35 Crude steel production (World Steel Association)
does not exceed 0.40%; or when the maximum A510/A510M standard establishes four steel
content specified for any of the following ele- grades: “(a) low-carbon steel: a grade of steel
ments does not exceed the percentages noted: wherein the maximum of the carbon range
manganese 1.65, silicon 0.60, or copper 0.60.” is up to and including 0.15%, (b) medium
ASTM standards classify steel based on its low-carbon steel: a grade of steel wherein the
carbon content (steel grade); thus, ASTM maximum of the carbon range exceeds 0.15%
.. Fig. 15.36 Top-20 steel-producing countries for 2018 (million tons). (Source: World Steel Production)
up to and including 0.23%, (c) medium high- based alloy containing carbon (usually less
carbon steel: a grade of steel wherein the max- than 2.5 mass percent), manganese (usually
imum of the carbon range exceeds 0.23% up greater than 0.25 mass percent), and specified
to and including 0.44%, and (d) high-carbon minimum quantities of one or more alloying
steel: a grade of steel wherein the maximum elements other than manganese, silicon, and
of the carbon range exceeds 0.44%.” copper, but does not contain 10.5 mass per-
EN 10020 standard defines steel as “a cent or greater chromium.”
material which contains by mass more iron At normal temperature, most steels consist
than any other single element, having a car- of two phases, ferrite and Fe3C, which com-
bon content generally less than 2% and con- bine in alternating layers with approximately
taining other elements. A limited number 0.5 mm thick to give the uniform appearance
of chromium steels may contain more than of pearlite. The overall composition of pearlite
2% of carbon, but 2% is the usual dividing is about 0.8% carbon; steels containing less
line between steel and cast iron”; definition than this amount are mixtures of ferrite and
15 of steel in ISO standards is almost the same regions of pearlite. Ferrite contains very little
(e.g., ISO 4948-1 standard). The standard carbon and thus the relative proportion of
subsequently classifies steel according to ferrite and pearlite in steel depends linearly
chemical composition in three types: non- on the carbon content between 100% ferrite at
alloy steels, stainless steels, and other alloy 0% carbon content to 100% pearlite at 0.8%
steels. Nonalloy steels are “steels in which carbon content. Consequently, “at carbon
none of the limit values in . Table 15.5 is
contents approaching 0.8% the properties of
reached,” stainless steels are “steels with at steel are controlled by those of pearlite (high
least 10.5% of chromium and max. 1.2% of hardness, high strength, and poor ductil-
carbon,” and other alloy steels are “steels not ity and toughness) whereas the properties of
complying with the definition of stainless steel with low carbon content (e.g., 0.15%) are
steels in which at least one of the limit val- dominated by the converse properties of the
ues of the . Table 15.5 is reached.” These
ferrite” (Soutsos and Domone 2017).
types are subdivided further according to dif- Most interesting properties of steel
ferent criteria (e.g., some element content or in structural applications deal with yield
properties). In this sense, ASTM G193 stan- strength, ductility, toughness, modulus of
dard points out that alloy steel is “an iron- elasticity, thermal expansion coefficient, weld-
461 15
position limits for the four highest grades are
.. Table 15.5 Boundary between nonalloy and
alloy steels (EN 10020 standard)
shown in . Table 15.6.

Steel production process results in semifin-

Specified element Limit value ished products that must be transformed into
% by mass a broad variety of shapes and sizes needed for
buildings and infrastructure. According to
Al Aluminum 0.30
ISO 6929 standard, a steel semifinished prod-
B Boron 0.0008 uct is a “product obtained by: (a) continuous
Bi Bamuth 0.10 casting that may or may not be followed by
rolling, forging, or cutting, (b) pressure cast-
Co Cobalt 0.30
ing, and (c) rolling, forging, or cutting of
Cr Chromium 0.30 ingots or large sections of continuous cast
Cu Copper 0.40 products and generally intended for conver-
sion into flat or long products by hot rolling
La Lanthanides (each) 0.10
or forging, or for the manufacture of forg-
Mn Manganese 1.65 ings.” The transformed products are generally
Mo Molybdenum 0.08 subdivided into flat products (products hav-
ing approximately rectangular cross sections,
Nb Niobium 0.08
width being much greater than thickness) and
Ni Nickel 0.30 long products (products that do not conform
Pb Lead 0.40 to the previous definition) (ISO 6929 stan-
dard). In general, literature dealing with the
Se Selenium 0.10
ferrous metals sector utilizes different meth-
Si Silicon 0.60 ods to organize the data. Some reports distin-
Te Tellurium 0.10 guish with regard to the forming process (hot
and cold) whereas other reports distinguish
Ti Titanium 0.05
with regard to the shape of the final product
V Vanadium 0.10 (flat and long).
W Tungsten 0.30 In which concerns processing methods,
the hot and cold forming part of the ferrous
Zr Zirconium 0.05
metal processing sector comprises different
Others (except carbon, 0.10 manufacturing methods, like hot rolling or
phosphorus, sulfur, nitrogen) cold rolling, of steel. A great variety of semi-
(each)
finished and finished products with different
lines of production are thus manufactured.
In hot rolling, size, shape, and metallurgical
properties of the steel slabs, blooms, billets,
ability, and corrosion resistance. The vast or ingots are changed by repeatedly com-
majority of structural steels used in Europe pressing the hot metal (temperature ranging
comply with EN 10025-1 and EN 10025-2 from 1050 to 1300 °C) between electrically
standards, which specify five grades for hot- powered rollers. The steel input for hot roll-
rolled nonalloy structural steel: S185, S235, ing differs in form and shape, depending on
S275, S355, and S450, where “S” means struc- the process route and on the product to be
tural and the numbers are minimum yield manufactured. Products obtained from hot
strengths (in MPa) for sections lower than rolling are usually classified in two basic types
16 mm in thickness. The most commonly used according to their shape: flat and long prod-
grades in structural applications are S275 and ucts. . Figure 15.37 shows hot steel being

S355. The required properties and the com- sprayed with water. This allows the rate at
.. Table 15.6 Composition limits and properties of grades of hot-rolled structural steel (EN 10025-2
standard)
Grade Min yield Tensile Min Composition limits (max %)

strength strength elongation C Si Mn P S N Cu CEV
(MPa) (MPa) at fracture
(%)
S235 235 360–510 26 0.19 1.5 0.04 0.04 0.014 0.6 0.35
S275 275 410–560 23 0.21 1.6 0.04 0.04 0.014 0.6 0.40
S355 355 470–630 22 0.23 0.6 1.7 0.04 0.04 0.014 0.6 0.47
S450 450 550–720 17 0.23 0.6 1.8 0.04 0.04 0.027 0.6 0.49
CEV carbon equivalent content
.. Fig. 15.37 Hot steel being sprayed with water. .. Fig. 15.38 Cold rolling. (Image courtesy of World
(Image courtesy of World Steel Association) Steel Association)
which it cools to be controlled. In cold roll-

ing, properties of hot-rolled strip products,
e.g., thickness, mechanical, and technologi-
15 cal characteristics, are changed by compres-
sion between rollers (. Fig. 15.38) without

previous heating of the input. The input is

obtained in the form of coils from hot rolling
mills. Cold-rolled products are mainly strips
and sheets (thickness typically 0.16–3 mm)
with a high-quality surface finish and precise
metallurgical properties for use in high-speci-
fication products.
Steel is the most recycled material in the .. Fig. 15.39 Recycling of steel compared to other
world, more than all other materials com- materials commonly recycled
bined (. Fig. 15.39) (7 Box 15.4). With the

exception of the earliest steelmaking methods, processes. This is because steel scrap is a cru-
recycling was always essential in steelmaking cial component in producing.
463 15
Box 15.4
Steel Recycling shows steel scrap utilization and crude steel pro-
The basic oxygen furnace utilizes an average of duction in key countries and European Union.
25% steel scrap to manufacture new steel while Unlike many other construction materials,
the other method of steelmaking, the electric steel is commonly collected in aggregate
arc furnace, melts more than 90% steel scrap to amounts from construction and demolition
produce new steel. Moreover, iron foundries sites, being further treated for obtaining new
also melt steel scrap to manufacture new iron steel products. Therefore, recycling steel scrap
products, which contain about 75% scrap. saves both landfill space and natural resources.
. Table 15.7 (BIR 2019) shows steel scrap utili-

If one ton of steel is recycled, about 1250 kg of
zation for steelmaking in key countries and iron ore, 700 kg of coal, and 60 kg of limestone
European Union while . Table 15.8 (BIR 2019)

are conserved.
.. Table 15.7 Steel scrap utilization for steelmaking in key countries and European Union
(million tonnes) (BIR 2019)
2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 % 2018/2017
China 87.5 83.3 90.1 147.9 187.8 +27.0

EU-28 91.6 90.61 88.4 93.6 93.8 +0.3
USA 62.0 56.5 56.7 58.8 60.1 +2.2
Japan 36.9 33.53 33.57 35.77 36.51 +2.1

Russia 30.7 27.2 27.8 29.34 30.96 +5.5
Turkey 28.2 24.1 25.9 30.27 30.14 −0.4
Korea Republic 32.6 29.85 27.4 30.67 29.96 −2.3
.. Table 15.8 Steel scrap utilization and crude steel production in key countries and European
Union (BIR 2019)
Steel scrap consumption (million tonnes) Crude steel production (million tonnes)
2018 2017 % Change 2018 2017 % Change
China 187.8 147.9 +27.0 928.264 870.855 +6.6

EU-28 93.812 93.574 +0.3 167.660 168.518 −0.5
USA 60.1 58.8 +2.2 86.607 81.612 +6.1
Japan 36.514 35.778 +2.1 104.324 104.661 −0.3
Russia 30.957 29.338 +5.5 72.789 71.585 +1.7
Turkey 30.14 30.27 −0.4 37.312 37.524 −0.6
Korea 29.956 30.665 −2.3 72.464 71.030 +2.0
Republic
Total 469.3 426.3 +10.1 1469.420 1405.785 +4.5
Steel is easy to separate from waste streams long life,” “100% recyclable without loss of
due to its magnetic properties, which enables quality,” “infinitely recyclable,” etc. However,
high recovery rates and prevents landfills. Some Reck and Graedel (2012) explain that: “metals
steel features dealing with recycling are as fol- are infinitely recyclable in principle, but in prac-
lows (WSA 2019): “(a) some steel products tice, recycling is often inefficient or essentially
contain up to 100 percent recycled content, (b) non-existent because of limits imposed by
steel is the most recycled material in the world, social behavior, product design, recycling tech-
with about 690 Mt recycled in 2018, including nologies, and the thermodynamics of separa-
pre- and post-consumer scrap, (c) by sector, tion.” A major issue with regard to steel is
global steel recovery rates are estimated at least contamination that takes place in every step of
85% for construction, 90% for automotive recycling. Moreover, Yellishetty et al. (2011)
(reaching close to 100% in the United States), state that: “beyond the difficulty in recovering
90% for machinery, and 50% for electrical and all steel for recycling, there are also problems
domestic appliances, (d) recycled steel (scrap) related to separation of various metals used in
can be collected from excess material in steel steel alloys and coatings.”
facilities and foundries (home scrap) or down- Main source of contamination of steel
stream production processes (industrial scrap) scrap is the steelmaking process itself because
and from discarded products (obsolete scrap), there are many different grades of steel with
and (e) the availability of home and industrial many different physical and chemical proper-
scrap is closely related to current domestic steel ties, which are manufactured incorporating
production levels while the availability of obso- metals to steel as alloying elements, i.e., alumi-
lete scrap is closely related to levels of past steel num, chromium, cobalt, copper, magnesium,
production, average product lives and efficient nickel, silicon, tungsten, and vanadium. In
recycling programmes.” some cases, the metals are added as coatings for
In recent industry literature, steel is increasing corrosion resistance, with zinc and
described as “100% recyclable at the end of its tin as the most important metals.
zz Corrosion erally more important than the simple metal

All metals show propensity to corrode due loss. Steel corrodes naturally when exposed to
to their nature and manufacturing process. the atmosphere since it begins to revert to the
In a broad sense, corrosion is the deteriora- original status (iron oxide). Unprotected steel
tion of materials by chemical interaction with is subjected to corrosion that could lead to
15 the environment. According to EN ISO 8044 damage. As a consequence, for avoiding cor-
standard, corrosion is the “physicochemical rosion damage, steel structures are commonly
interaction between a metal and its environ- protected to withstand the corrosion stresses
ment that results in changes in the properties to which they will be subjected during the ser-
of the metal, and which may lead to significant vice life required of the structure. Corrosion
impairment of the function of the metal, the products of steel are oxide particles showing
environment, or the technical system, of which distinctive brown/red (rust) color. Metal cor-
these form a part (this interaction is often of rosion occurs on the anode, so that corrosion
an electrochemical nature)” and ASTM D6594 product (rust) forms on the cathode. Rust
standard points out that corrosion is “the includes visible corrosion products consisting
chemical or electrochemical reaction between mainly of hydrated iron oxides.
a material, usually a metal surface, and its EN ISO 8044 standard defines more than
environment that can produce a deterioration 30 different types of corrosion affecting met-
of the material and its properties.” als and alloys: “electrochemical corrosion
The consequences of corrosion are very (involving at least one anodic reaction and one
varied but their effects on safe, reliable, and cathodic reaction), chemical corrosion (not
efficient operations of steel structures are gen- involving electrochemical reaction), gaseous
465 15
corrosion (with dry gas as the only corrosive
environment and without any liquid phase on
the surface of the metal), atmospheric corro-
sion (with the earth’s atmosphere at ambient
temperature as the corrosive environment)
marine corrosion (with sea water as the main
agent of the corrosive environment -this defi-
nition includes both immersed and splash
zone conditions-) (. Fig. 15.40), micro-

bial corrosion (associated with the action of

micro-organisms present in the corrosion sys-
tem),” etc. Some forms of corrosion are easily
visible or readily identifiable while others are
neither always easily detectable nor apparent. .. Fig. 15.40 Corrosion of metal produced in the
splash zone of a marine environment
. Table 15.9 lists the atmospheric corrosivity

.. Table 15.9 Atmospheric corrosivity categories and examples of typical environments (EN ISO 12944-2
standard)
Corrosivity Low-carbon Examples of typical environments in a temperate climate (informative only)

category and steel Thickness Exterior Interior
risk loss (μm)a
C1 very low ≤1.3 – Heated buildings with clean

atmospheres, e.g., offices, shops,
schools, hotels
C2 low >1.3 to 25 Atmospheres with low level of Unheated buildings where
pollution Mostly rural areas condensation may occur, e.g.,
depots, sports halls
C3 medium >25 to 50 Urban and industrial atmospheres, Production rooms with high
moderate sulfur dioxide pollution humidity and some air pollution,
Coastal area with low salinity e.g., food-processing plants,
laundries, breweries, dames
C4 high >50 to 80 Industrial areas and coastal areas Chemical plants, swimming pools,
with moderate salinity coastal, ship, and boatyards
C5-I very high >80 to 200 Industrial areas with high Buildings or areas with almost
(industrial) humidity and aggressive permanent condensation and high
atmosphere pollution
C5-M very >80 to 200 Coastal and offshore areas with Buildings or areas with almost
high (marine) high salinity permanent condensation and high
pollution
Notes:
1 μm (1 micron) = 0 001 mm
The loss values used for the corrosivity categories are identical to those given in BS EN ISO 9223[2]
In coastal areas in hot, humid zones, the mass or thickness losses can exceed the limits of category C5-M
Special precautions must therefore be taken when selecting protective paint systems for structures in such
areas
aThe thickness loss values are after the first year of exposure. Losses may reduce over subsequent years
categories and examples of typical environ-

ments included in EN ISO 12944-2 standard.
Carbon steel can be protected from corro-
sion by coating with a more reactive sacrifi-
cial metal. If the coating is zinc, the product
is referred to as galvanized steel; for instance,
it can be made by dipping the steel into a bath
of molten zinc. Regarding corrosion preven-
tion, rate of corrosion can be reduced by
retarding either the anodic or cathodic reac-
tions. This can be achieved in several ways,
mainly conditioning the metal and/or alloy- .. Fig. 15.41 The Walt Disney Concert Hall in Los
ing the metal. The main process to condition- Angeles. (Image courtesy of Carol Highsmith)
ing metals is coating the metal with another
metal, e.g., zinc, and/or with resins, plastics, perature behavior, high toughness, formabil-
paints, enamels, oils, greases, etc. The other ity, and weldability. Stainless steels are ideally
basic option is to alloy the metal for produc- suited to building applications. An example of
ing a more corrosion-resistant alloy, typically these applications is The Walt Disney Concert
stainless steel, an alloy product of ordinary Hall, home of the Los Angeles Philharmonic
steel with chromium and nickel. Orchestra (. Fig. 15.41). The skin of the

building is made of stainless steel, finished in

zz Stainless Steel matte, which produces a reflective, mirror like
The history of stainless steels (usually referred exterior.
to as Inox or Rostfrei) started in the twenti- Stainless steel can be defined as “steel con-
eth century with the pioneering work by taining 10.5 mass percent or more chromium,
Monnartz (Germany) in 1908. This scientist possibly with other elements added to secure
discovered the passivity in Fe-Cr alloys when special properties” (ASTM G193 standard)
chromium content reaches a minimum value and “steel with at least 10.5% of chromium
of 11% and introduced the property of stain- and maximum 1.2% of carbon” (ISO 15510
lessness for metallic alloys. The amount of and EN 10020 standards). Stainless steels are
Cr added to ordinary steel provides a bright further subdivided (ISO 15510 and EN 10020
shiny gloss and makes it highly resistant to standards) “according to the following crite-
tarnishing and rusting. This rust-resisting ria: (a) by nickel content into: (1) nickel less
property is termed corrosion resistance and is than 2.5%, and (2) nickel 2.5% or more, and
15 what sets stainless steel apart from most other (b) by main property into: (1) corrosion resist-
forms of steel. Obviously, stainless steel is ing, (2) heat resisting, and (3) creep resist-
mostly used for its corrosion resistance. It is ing.” The proportions of iron to chromium
protected by a chromium oxide film at the sur- can change and other elements such as (Ni),
face; the film is created by reaction between molybdenum (Mo), titanium (Ti), niobium
chromium in the steel and oxygen in the atmo- (Nb), zirconium (Zr), copper (Cu), tungsten
sphere. If the chromium oxide film becomes (W), vanadium (V), selenium (Se), manganese
damaged, immediately self-repairs in presence (Mn), silicon (Si), carbon (C), nitrogen (Ni),
of oxygen. The protective layer can be chemi- sulfur (S), phosphorus (P), and may contain:
cally modified to generate permanent metallic nickel (Ni), molybdenum (Mo), titanium (Ti),
colors. niobium (Nb), zirconium (Zr), copper (Cu),
It is important to note that stainless steel tungsten (W), vanadium (V), selenium (Se),
is a solid material and not a special coating and some other minor elements can be added
applied to ordinary steel in order to provide to widen the range of capabilities.
stainless properties. The unique characteristic The different alloying elements in stainless
of stainless steel arises from properties such steel can be combined in different proportions
as versatility, excellent low- and high tem- to create a range of grades suitable for almost
467 15
any application. Each particular grade of
stainless steel shows unique mechanical and
physical properties. In the case of “chromium
added to iron (Fe-Cr alloys), there is another
advantage, which consists of a tremendous
increase in the corrosion resistance of the new
metallic alloy compared to pure iron, existing
more than a hundred chromium-containing
metallic alloys; each one was developed for a
particular need, and each has its own set of
properties and characteristics” (Cunat 2004).
As for the main alloying elements, chro-
mium is the essential element that makes steel .. Fig. 15.42 AOD (Argon Oxygen Decarbonization)
stainless. All stainless steels include at least vessel. (Image courtesy of Goodwin Steel Castings)
10.5% chromium. Many grades contain even
more chromium to improve their resistance to is passed through the electrode and temper-
corrosion and oxidation at high temperature. ature increases to a point where the scrap
Nickel is added to stainless steel to improve and alloys melt. The molten material is then
toughness and ductility. Presence of nickel transferred into an AOD (Argon Oxygen
enables stainless steel to be fabricated eas- Decarbonization) vessel (. Fig. 15.42) where

ily and used at both extremely high and low the carbon levels are lowered and the final
temperature. It enhances corrosion resistance, alloy additions are supplied in order to get the
thus being advantageous in acid environments. exact chemistry. Most stainless steels receive
Molybdenum is added to many stainless steels final annealing (a heat treatment that softens
to improve their corrosion resistance under the structure) and pickling (an acid wash that
harsh conditions, particularly in salt and removes furnace scale from annealing and
acid-rich environments. It increases strength helps in promoting the passive surface film
of stainless steel at high temperature. Copper that naturally occurs). The dominant product
improves the corrosion resistance to certain form for stainless steels is cold-rolled sheet.
acids and promotes an austenitic structure. As an average, stainless steel is made up of (a)
Manganese is commonly used to enhance 25% old scrap, for example end-of-life prod-
hot ductility. Silicon increments resistance ucts like tanks or industrial equipment, (b)
to oxidation, both at high temperature and 35% new scrap, for instance material return-
in strongly oxidizing solutions at lower tem- ing from production and manufacturing, and
perature. Carbon substantially increments (c) 40% raw materials (like ferrochromium,
mechanical strength and reduces resistance ferronickel) added to the recycling loop
to intergranular corrosion. Nitrogen substan- (International Stainless Steel Forum).
tially increases mechanical strength. This ele- Since the material structure has determi-
ment increments the resistance to localized nant influence on properties, stainless steels
corrosion, especially in combination with have been traditionally subdivided into cat-
molybdenum. Titanium is added mainly to egories based on their structure at room tem-
increase resistance to intergranular and to perature, which produces a rough division in
increase the mechanical properties at high terms of both composition and properties.
temperature. Aluminum improves oxidation The four basic types of stainless steels are
resistance if added in substantial amounts. used in approximately the following propor-
Stainless steel is produced in an electric tions (BSSA 2013): “(a) austenitic: 65–70%,
arc furnace where carbon electrodes contact (b) ferritic: 20–25%, (c) martensitic: about
recycled stainless scrap and various alloys 7%, and (d) duplex (austenitic/ferritic): about
of chromium, nickel, molybdenum, etc. 1–3%” (a fifth type termed precipitation hard-
(depending on the stainless type). A current ening—2%—is sometimes also considered).
The names refer to the dominant compo-

nents of the microstructure in the different
steels. Austenitic and duplex grades are the
most common types of stainless steels used in
building and construction.
The ferritic structure is magnetic whereas
the austenitic structure is nonmagnetic.
However, some austenitic stainless steels can
show some degree of magnetic behavior. This
is because all austenitic stainless steels contain
small amount of ferrite. Generally, this is not
enough to attract a normal magnet but, when
the balance of elements in the steel favors the
ferritic end of the spectrum, it is possible that
ferrite causes a significant magnetic response.
Welding can also induce a greater magnetic
response in the melted zone where ferrite is
produced in greater quantities than in the par-
ent material. Moreover, some types of product
are deliberately balanced to contain signifi-
cant amount of ferrite. Today, “the austenitic
stainless steel of typical composition 18% Cr,
8% Ni (grade 304 L) is still the most widely
used by far in the world” (Brytan et al. 2017).
zz Austenitic Stainless Steels

In this type of stainless steel, carbon is gen-
erally maintained to values lower than 0.08%
and chromium amount ranges between 16%
and 28% while nickel content ranges between
3.5% and 32%. These alloys are the most
important grades of stainless steels because
of their excellent ductility, corrosion resis-
tance, and weldability. However, they can-
15 not be hardened through heat treatment.
Austenitic grades are used in many applica-
tions, the most important stainless steels
being commonly used in building and con-
struction (. Fig. 15.43). They are used for

supporting most diverse corrosive conditions,

from mild environments, such as normal
building interiors, to most corrosive, as it is
the case of indoor swimming pool or tunnel .. Fig. 15.43 Torre Cepsa (Madrid, Spain) was built
atmospheres. using stainless steel
zz Austenitic-Ferritic (Duplex) Stainless

Steels can contain molybdenum up to 4.5%. These
In duplex stainless steels, carbon is kept to very grades show a mixed structure of ferrite (50%)
low level (˂0.03%). Chromium content ranges and austenite (50%), offering properties that
between 21% and 26% while nickel content reflect this structure although tend to be closer
ranges between 3.5% and 8%. These alloys to those of the ferritics and to carbon steel.
15.3 · Nonferrous Metals and Alloys
469 15
metals can be found in historic buildings as
well as in new, modern architecture. The most
used nonferrous metals in construction are
aluminum and copper while others such as
tin, lead, and zinc are occasionally found in
specific building applications.
15.3.1 Metal Forming
Metal forming is the final stage of metallur-

.. Fig. 15.44 The Arganzuela Bridge, Madrid (Spain)
gical manufacturing. It represents the main
made of duplex stainless steel system of making metal products and semi-
finished products. More than 90% of smelted
metal is further processed by different methods
of metal forming. The working of metals and
alloys depends upon plasticity, which is gener-
ally greater at high temperature (temperature
above metal recrystallization temperature).
Thus, all metals can be heavily deformed,
especially in compression, without breaking.
In addition to rolling, already described in
the steel heading, other common methods of
metal forming after casting (remember that
most common metals are often produced by
melting and casting into molds) are drawing,
.. Fig. 15.45 Hamad International Airport in Doha forging, and extrusion.
(Qatar) has a duplex stainless steel roof. (Image courtesy
of Bechtel) zz Drawing
Large amount of wires, rods, tubes, and other
Duplex stainless steels combine good corro- types of sections are manufactured by draw-
sion resistance with high strength and ease of ing process, which is basically a cold work-
fabrication. They provide substantially greater ing process. The metal is pulled through a
strength than the austenitic grades while exhib- die to find out the desired shape and size
iting good ductility and toughness. Duplex (. Fig. 15.46). Due to the application of a

stainless steel continues to play an important drawing force, the area reduction is limited to
role in bridges construction (. Fig. 15.44),

about 20%. For instance, wire drawing process
wherever corrosion and saline conditions is used to produce small diameter wires from
combine with the need for high load-bearing
strength. The roof of the Hamad International
Airport in Doha (Qatar) (. Fig. 15.45) is a

good example of the use of duplex stainless

steel in construction; currently, it is the world’s
largest stainless steel roof.
15.3 Nonferrous Metals and Alloys
Nonferrous metals and their alloys are com-

monly used in the building and construction
sector due to intrinsic properties. Nonferrous .. Fig. 15.46 Drawing process
.. Fig. 15.48 Extrusion process
manufactured, e.g., aluminum glazing bars.

The extrusion process (. Fig. 15.48) pro-

duces continuous profiles with various cross

.. Fig. 15.47 Forging process: a upsetting; b impres- sections. These are commonly semifinished
sion forging products and can be worked in further pro-
cesses.
rods by decreasing their diameter and stretch-
ing their length through the application of
tensile force. 15.3.2 Aluminum
zz Forging Aluminum (Al) is the 13 element in the peri-
Forging is probably the oldest metal working odic table; Al is the most widespread metal on
process. It was known even during prehistoric Earth (making up more than 8% of the Earth’s
days when metallic tools were made by heat- core mass). It is the third chemical element on
ing and hammering. Forging is a basic process our planet after oxygen and silicon. Al den-
in which the work piece is shaped by compres- sity is just 2.7 g/cm3, approximately one-third
sive forces applied through various dies and of the average steel density (7.8 g/cm3). Low
tooling to obtain the desired configuration. density of Al together with high strength of
Forging may be carried out at room tempera- some aluminum alloys (exceeding that of
ture (cold forging) or at elevated temperature structural steel) allows design and construc-
(warm or hot forging). . Figure 15.47 shows
tion of strong, lightweight structures. Pure
typical forging processes. The initial (generally aluminum does not occur in nature because
heated) workpiece is formed between two dies. Al easily binds with other elements. In the
If the dies are flat, the process is called upset- first stage of aluminum production, bauxite
ting or open-die forging (. Fig. 15.47a). If the is processed into alumina, or aluminum oxide
15

part is formed between shaped dies and exces- Al2O3, which is then processed into aluminum
sive material flow occurs in form of a flash at aluminum smelters by electrolytic reduction
during forging, the process is called impression (using the Bayer process and the Hall Heroult
die forging (. Fig. 15.47b). The latter often
electrolysis, respectively). It can be further
occurs in a sequence of steps. rolled, pulled, and stamped.
Aluminum shows a combination of valu-
zz Extrusion able properties: (a) it is one of the light-
In extrusion (a bulk deformation process est metals (almost three times lighter than
involving pressure), metal is compressed in a iron), (b) it is very strong, extremely flexible,
chamber and the deformed material is forced and corrosion-resistant because its surface
to flow through the die. The die opening cor- is always covered by a thin and strong layer
responds to the cross section of the needed of oxide film, and (c) it does not magnetize,
product. It can be either round in order to and it is great electricity conductor, form-
produce a cylindrical product or show a vari- ing alloys with practically all other metals.
ety of shapes. Extrusion has the advantage Accordingly, huge variety of aluminum alloys
that long pieces with complex sections can be has developed; even small quantity of met-
15.3 · Nonferrous Metals and Alloys
471 15
als may sharply change the properties of the
metal. Regarding corrosion resistance, when
appropriately alloyed and treated, aluminum
can resist corrosion by water, salt, and other
environmental factors and a wide range of
chemical and physical agents.
Aluminum was expensive and often
unavailable for building utilization until the
early twentieth century. Aluminum was first
used in quantity for building and construc-
tion in the 1920’s, when the electrolysis pro-
cess reduced the cost of aluminum by 80%.
In construction applications, aluminum first
appeared in roofing, flashing, wall panels,
and spandrels (the space between arches and
structure enclosures). The first extensive utili-
zation of the metal in construction took place
in the Empire State Building in New York
(1930–1932). The tower structure and spire
(. Fig. 15.49) were built in part from alu-

minum as well as entrances, elevator doors,

ornamental trim, and more than 6000 window
spandrels. An outstanding example of use of
aluminum in construction is the roof of the
Aquatics Centre built for the 2012 Olympic
Games in London (. Fig. 15.50). The prem-

ise is covered with aluminum in the shape of an

enormous ocean wave. The roof is 160 meters
long and weighs 3000 tons. Nowadays, 25% of
all aluminum produced worldwide is used in
construction.
According to the International Alloy
Designation System, each alloy is given a four-
digit number, where the first digit indicates
major alloying elements, the second (if dif-
.. Fig. 15.49 Empire State Building in New York
ferent from 0) indicates variation of the alloy,
and the third and fourth digits identify the
specific alloy in the series. International Alloy
Designations and Chemical Composition
Limits for Wrought Aluminum and Wrought
Aluminum Alloys, published by the Aluminum
Association, describes the four-digit numeri-
cal system for designating wrought aluminum
and wrought aluminum alloys. Thus, the first
of the four digits in the designation indicates
the alloy group (. Table 15.10) while the stan-

dard limits for alloying elements and impu-

rities are expressed in the following places
(. Table 15.11). Of different groups, the 6000
.. Fig. 15.50 Aquatics Centre of the 2012 Olympic
grades are also known as the magnesium and Games. (Source: Wikipedia)
nesium silicide. These aluminum alloys are

.. Table 15.10 Alloy groups in wrought alumi-
num and wrought aluminum alloys
formable, weldable, and heat treatable, and in
addition, they show good corrosion resistance
Aluminum, 99.00% and 1xxx and moderate strength. Extrusion products
greater from the 6xxx series are the first choice for
Aluminum alloys grouped by major alloying architectural and structural applications.
elements Aluminum production requires huge
amount of electricity, about 15 MWH per
Copper 2xxx
tonne of output. For this reason, aluminum
Manganese 3xxx recycling is essential and it requires only
Silicon 4xxx 5% of the energy needed to make the same
quantity of primary aluminum. The esti-
Magnesium 5xxx
mated recycled content of aluminum build-
Magnesium and Silicon 6xxx ing materials used today is between 50% and
Zinc 7xxx 85%. . Figure 15.51 shows the difference

between primary and secondary production

Other elements 8xxx
of aluminum.
Unused series 9xxx
15.3.3 Copper
.. Table 15.11 Standard limits for alloying ele- Copper and related alloys are broadly used
ments and impurities in wrought aluminum and
wrought aluminum alloys
in the construction industry for a large vari-
ety of purposes, particularly applications
Less than 0.001 percent 0.000x needing corrosion resistance, high electrical
conductivity, strength, ductility, impact resis-
0.001 but less than 0.01% 0.00x
tance, fatigue resistance, and/or other specific
0.01 but less than 0.10% characteristics possessed by copper and/or its
nalloyed aluminum made by a
U 0.0XX alloys. Some of the specific, relevant features
refining process to building are ability of those materials to
lloys and unalloyed aluminum not
A 0.0x be formed into complex shapes, appearance
made by a refining process (. Fig. 15.52), and high thermal conductiv-

ity. The excellent corrosion resistance of cop-

0.10 through 0.55% 0.XX
per makes it suitable for applications such
15 (It is customary to express limits of
0.30% through 0.55% as 0.X0 or 0.
as roofing, flashing, cornices, gutters, and
similar applications. For roofing and flash-
X5).
ing, soft-annealed copper is used because it
Over 0.55% 0.X, X.X, is ductile and can easily be bent into vari-
etc.
ous shapes. Copper and copper-based alloys,
(except that combined Si +Fe limits for 1xxx particularly the brasses, are used for water
designations must be expressed as 0.XX or 1.XX). pipe in buildings because of their corrosion
resistance. Copper is used for decorative pur-
poses, including architectural ornaments. The
silicon grades (magnesium and silicon are Statue of Liberty (. Fig. 15.53) is probably

the two principal alloying components in all the most famous example; about 100 tons
6000 grades and specifications of aluminum), of copper were used in the outer layer of the
in which the elements combine to form mag- statue.
15.4 · Questions
473 15
Primary production Secondary production
Bauxite mining Scrap
Old and new scrap
New Scrap
Alumina production/Bayer process dros
Refiners Remelters
Hall heroult-electrolysis
Casting Casting Casting
.. Fig. 15.51 Difference between primary and secondary production of aluminum (Grimes et al. 2008)
.. Fig. 15.52 Copper façade at the entrance of The

Festival Palace in Santander (Spain). (Image courtesy of
María Ángeles Morán)
.. Fig. 15.53 Statue of Liberty. (Image courtesy of

15.4 Questions Carolina Bustillo)
??Short Questions
55 Define alloy according to ASTM D8181 55 Define steelmaking process. Explain the
standard existence of this process
55 What is the difference between ferrous and 55 Establish the differences between basic
nonferrous metals? oxygen process and electric arc furnace
55 Summarize the main iron deposits used to process
provide steel raw material 55 What is the raw material to produce cast
55 Define direct reduction in ironmaking iron? Enumerate the main types of cast
process; explain the term sponge iron irons
55 How is carbon present in cast iron? Cunat JP (2004) Alloying elements in stainless steel and
55 Define steel and list the main steel grades other chromium-containing alloys. Euro Inox 2004,
International Chromium Development Association,
according to ASTM standards
24 p
55 Classify the steel types according to their EIPPCB (2012) Best available techniques (BAT) - refer-
chemical composition using EN 10020 ence document for Iron and steel production.
standard European Commission, Institute for Prospective
55 What is a steel semifinished product? Technological Studies, Sustainable Production and
Consumption Unit, European IPPC Bureau, 623 p
55 Discuss the differences between hot rolling
Geerdes M, Toxopeus H, van der Vliet C (2009) Modern
and cold rolling processes blast furnace ironmaking – an introduction. IOS
55 What stainless steel means? Press BV, Netherlands, 164 p
55 List the main elements added to stainless Grimes S, Donaldson J, Cebrian Gomez G (2008)
steel Report on the environmental benefits of recycling.
Bureau of International Recycling, Brussels, 51 p
55 Enumerate the four basic types of stainless
James HL (1954) Sedimentary facies iron formations.
steels. What is the most commonly used Econ Geol 49:253–293
type in building and construction Klein C (2005) Some Precambrian banded iron-
applications? formations (BIFs) from around the world: their age,
55 List the most common methods of metal geologic setting, mineralogy, metamorphism, geo-
chemistry, and origins. Am Mineral 90(10):1473–
forming after casting
1479
55 Define extrusion metal forming process Reck BK, Graedel TE (2012) Challenges in metal recy-
55 List the main valuable properties of cling. Science 337:690–695
aluminum Soutsos M, Domone P (2017) Construction materials:
55 Comment the most important reason to their nature and behaviour, 5th edn. CRC Press,
Taylor & Francis Group, 820 p
recycle aluminum
WSA (2019) World steel in figures 2019. World Steel
55 Enumerate the properties of copper in Association, Brussels, 17 p
building and construction applications Yellishetty M, Mudd G, Ranjith P, Tharumarajah A
(2011) Environmental life-cycle comparisons of
steel production and recycling: sustainability
??Long Questions issues, problems, and prospects. Environ Sci Policy
14:650–663
55 Explain in summary form the blast furnace
process Standards
55 Explain in summary form the basic oxygen
ASTM G193 – 20. Standard Terminology and Acronyms
steelmaking process Relating to Corrosion
55 Describe the corrosion process in metals ASTM A635/A635M – 15. Standard Specification for
Steel, Sheet and Strip, Heavy-Thickness Coils, Hot-
15 Rolled, Alloy, Carbon, Structural, High-Strength
Low-Alloy, and High-Strength Low-Alloy with
References Improved Formability, General Requirements for
ASTM D6594 - 19a. Standard Test Method for
BIR (2019) World steel recycling in figures 2014–2018 – Evaluation of Corrosiveness of Diesel Engine Oil at
steel scrap - a raw material for steelmaking, 10th 135 °C
edn. Bureau of International Recyling, Ferrous ASTM D8182 – 18. Standard Test Method for Alloy
Division, Brussels, 44 p Classification of Wear Debris using Laser-Induced
BSSA (2013) Understanding stainless steel. British Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS)
Stainless Steel Association, Sheffield, 14 p ASTM A510/A510M – 18. Standard Specification for
Brytan Z, Borek W, Tański T (2017) Introductory chap- General Requirements for Wire Rods and Coarse
ter: why austenitic stainless steels are continuously Round Wire, Carbon Steel, and Alloy Steel
interesting for science? Austenitic stainless steels - EN 124-1:2015. Gully tops and manhole tops for vehic-
new aspects, IntechOpen, 6 p ular and pedestrian areas. Definitions, classification,
Cavaliere P (2019) Clean ironmaking and steelmaking general principles of design, performance require-
processes - efficient technologies for greenhouse ments and test methods
emissions abatement. Springer Nature Switzerland EN 1561:2011. Founding. Grey cast irons
AG, Cham, 596 p EN 1562:2019. Founding. Malleable cast irons
References
475 15
EN 1563:2018. Founding. Spheroidal graphite cast irons Cusano G, Rodrigo M, Farrell F, Remus R, Roudier S
EN 1564:2011. Founding. Ausferritic spheroidal graph- and Delgado L (2017) Best available techniques
ite cast irons (BAT) - reference document for the non-ferrous
EN 10020:2000. Definition and classification of grades metals industries. JRC Science for Policy Report.
of steel European Commission, 1233 p
EN 10025-1:2004. Hot rolled products of structural Dugall SK (2017) Building materials. Routledge,
steels. General technical delivery conditions London 405 p
EN 10025-2:2019. Hot rolled products of structural Everett A (2014) Materials, 5th edn. Routledge, Taylor
steels. Technical delivery conditions for non-alloy & Francis Group 272 p
structural steels Ghosh A, Chatterjee A (2008) Ironmaking and steel-
EN ISO 12944-2:2017. Paints and varnishes. Corrosion making – theory and practice. PHI Learning Pvt.
protection of steel structures by protective paint Ltd. 492 p
systems. Classification of environments IMOA (2014) Practical guidelines for the fabrication of
ISO 185: 2019. Grey cast irons. Classification duplex stainless steel, 3rd edn. International
ISO 1083: 2018. Spheroidal graphite cast irons. Molybdenum Association, London 68 p
Classification Reuter M (ed) (2013) Metal recycling – opportunities,
ISO 2892: 2007. Austenitic cast irons. Classification limits, infrastructure. United Nations Environment
ISO 4948-1: 1982. Steels. Classification. Classification Programme, 320 p
of steels into unalloyed and alloy steels based on Rundman KB, Iacoviello F (2016) Cast irons. Elsevier
chemical composition Reference Collection in Materials Science and
ISO 5922: 2005. Malleable cast iron Materials Engineering, Elsevier, 11 p
ISO 6929: 2013. Steel products. Vocabulary Taylor (2013) Materials and construction: an introduc-
ISO 8044: 2020. Corrosion of metals and alloys. tion. Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group 348 p
Vocabulary Tschaetsch H (2006) Metal forming practise –processes,
ISO 10809-1: 2009. Cast irons. Materials and properties machines, tools. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg 405 p
for design WSA (2012) The white book of steel. World Steel
ISO 15510: 2014. Stainless steels. Chemical composition Association, Brussels 53 p
ISO 16112: 2017. Compacted (vermicular) graphite cast
irons. Classification Useful Links
ISO 21988: 2006. Abrasion-resistant cast irons.
Acerinox. www.acerinox.com
Classification
American Iron and Steel Institute. www.steel.org
Aperam. www.aperam.com
Further Reading ArcelorMittal. corporate.arcelormittal.com
Ahmed A, Sturges J (2014) Materials science in construc- British Stainless Steel Association. www.bssa.org.uk
tion - an introduction. Routledge, London 394 p Copper Alliance. ww.copperalliance.org
Allen E, Iano J (2013) Fundamentals of building con- European Steel Association. www.eurofer.org
struction: materials and methods, 6th edn. Wiley, International Aluminium Institute. www.world-
New York 1024 p aluminium.org
Claisse PA (2016) Civil engineering materials. International Stainless Steel Forum. www.worldstainless.
Butterworth-Heinemann, Elsevier, Oxford 528 p org
Colaco R (2015) Steel for civil construction. In: Nipon Steel and Sumitomo Metal Corporation. www.
Goncalves MC, Margarido F (eds) . Springer nipponsteel.com
International Publishing, Materials for construction The Aluminum Association. www.aluminum.org
and civil engineering, pp 273–302 The World Steel Association. www.worldsteel.org
477 16
Plastics
Contents
16.2 Plastics Raw Material: Petroleum – 481
16.3 Types of Polymers – 486

16.3.1 Polyvinyl Chloride – 488
16.3.2 Polyethylene (PE) – 489
16.3.3 Polypropylene (PP) – 490
16.3.4 Polystyrene (PS) – 490
16.3.5 Polyurethane (PUR) – 491
16.3.6 Polycarbonate (PC) – 492
16.4 Applications of Plastics in Buildings – 493

16.4.1 Roofing Systems and House Wraps – 494
16.4.2 Piping – 497
16.4.3 Insulation – 498
16.4.4 Glazing, Windows, and Doors – 499
16.4.5 Other Applications – 500
References – 501

478 Chapter 16 · Plastics
plasticity is the ability of a material to undergo

Summary substantial deformation without fracturing.”
This chapter provides description of differ- Moreover, polymer is a “substance consisting
ent types of plastics used in building and of molecules characterized by the repetition
construction. In a broad sense, the utiliza- (neglecting ends, branch junctions, other
tion of plastics in building and construc- minor irregularities) of one or more types of
tion can be focused on two main markets: monomeric units” (ASTM D6888 standard).
buildings and civil engineering. The first Man has used natural polymers since pre-
market is discussed here while plastics history; these polymers were modified and
applied to civil engineering; that is, geosyn- processed for centuries for different applica-
thetics will be described in the next chapter tions such as textiles for clothing and papyrus.
of the book. The most important types of Most of the early modifications still in use
polymers used in building and construction today stem from developments in the XIX
(polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, century or beginning the XX century and
polyvinyl chloride, polycarbonate, and relate to cellulose and natural rubber.
polyurethane) are summarized at the begin- Baekeland developed the first synthetic poly-
ning of the chapter. Main features of raw mer material (Bakelite) from 1905 to 1909.
material for plastics (petroleum) are devel- Throughout the twentieth century, chemical
oped below, including geology and distilla- processes permitted the production of a broad
tion of petroleum. Although the use of range and high volume of synthetic polymers.
plastic is everywhere in buildings, four It is important to remember that polymer
major applications (roofing systems and materials began to be produced as substitutes
house wraps, piping, insulation, and glaz- for more expensive materials and they went
ing, windows, and doors) are outlined at the rapidly into the market. Polymer materials got
end of the chapter. soon their own place as first components in a
large number of applications. According to
PlasticsEurope, “the world plastic production
16.1 Introduction reached up to 359 million tons in 2018 (includ-
ing thermoplastics, polyurethanes, thermo-
Plastic is a term derived from the Latin plasti- sets, elastomers, adhesives, coatings, and
cus, which in turn is derived from the Greek sealants and PP-fibers and not including
plastikos, used to describe something able to PET-, PA-, and polyacryl-fibers)”; . Fig. 16.1

be molded or fit for molding. This terminol- shows the distribution of global plastics pro-
ogy was used already in the seventeenth cen- duction in 2018.
tury, long before the first plastic material, For the modern society and industry, plas-
Parkesine, was invented (Parkesine plastic was tics are essential to life for comfort, hygiene,
16 manufactured in 1856 by dissolving nitrocel-
lulose in solvents). Nowadays, plastic is a term
and well-being. They offer a great technologi-
cal application potential in several areas such
used to depict a very large group of different as pharmaceutics, building and construction,
materials with variable properties and appli- packaging, automobiles, and many others.
cations. In fact, plastics are not just one mate- Plastics are very used due to their properties,
rial but a wide family of products. According excellent chemical resistance, good process-
to EN ISO 472 standard, plastic is a “material ability, potential for part consolidation, and
which contains as an essential ingredient a assembly simplification (Subramanian 2017).
high polymer and which, at some stage in its However, significant contribution of plastics
processing into finished products, can be to the present quality of life is not wholly rec-
shaped by flow” whereas ASTM C242 stan- ognized.
dard points out that plastic is “a descriptive The plastics industry is heavily integrated
term applied to a material that exhibits the with the oil industry. In fact, it would not be
property of plasticity or stickiness, where able to produce plastics if oil was not available,
479 16
.. Fig. 16.1 Distribution of global plastics production in 2018. (PlasticsEurope 2019)
although before World War II plastics were tics worldwide (after packaging) (. Fig. 16.2).

produced from vegetable sources (cellulose is . Figure 16.3 shows the European plastic

an important constituent of vegetable mat- converter demand by segments and polymer

ter). Development of the petrochemical types in 2018.
industry was probably “the greatest single In general, plastic materials are arbitrarily
contributing factor in the growth of the plas- classified into three categories: “commodity
tics industry, both industries having today a thermoplastic, engineering thermoplastics
remarkable degree of interdependence” (ETP), and advanced engineering thermo-
(Gilbert 2017). The production of plastics plastics (AETP), which are also referred to as
started with the distillation of crude oil in an specialty, advanced, or ultrapolymers; com-
oil refinery. Therein, heavy crude oil is split modity thermoplastics constitute the highest
into groups of lighter materials, termed frac- volume of usage whilst ETP comprise a spe-
tions. Some of these fractions, e.g., naphtha, cial, high-performance segment of synthetic
are crucial compounds for producing plastics. plastic materials that offer premium proper-
Plastics are very effective for various struc- ties” (Peters 2017). AETP are distinguished by
tural and nonstructural applications in con- their unmatched thermal, mechanical, and
struction because they offer long lasting and chemical properties and are at the top posi-
the least problematic solutions. The construction in the plastics performance pyramid. The
tion sector is the second highest user of plas- utilization of plastics in building and con-
.. Fig. 16.2 Distribution of European plastic converters demand by segment in 2018. (PlasticsEurope 2019)
struction can be broadly focused on two main according to specific needs or requirements,
markets: buildings and civil engineering. The (d) economy: the use of polymer materials
first market is discussed in this chapter while commonly has a positive effect in cost reduc-
plastics applied to civil engineering; that is, tion: raw materials costs, manufacturing (pro-
geosynthetics will be described in the next cessing) costs, maintenance and operational
16 chapter of the book. costs; (e) competitiveness: for the same appli-
Major benefits of using plastics are the fol- cation and for similar performance, plastic
lowing: “(a) lightweighting: they make possi- products are generally cheaper, (f) environ-
ble the design and build-up of lighter mental advantages: polymer materials present
structures and objects, with improved perfor- very often the best cost/benefit ratio when
mance, and at lower costs (per unit of weight); evaluating the environmental costs associated
(b) processability: in general, they are easily with the full life cycle of products; it is esti-
molded and shaped by heating at relatively mated that polymers also help in reducing
low temperatures (50–250°C), as compared to environmental costs in transport (45%), elec-
metals or ceramics, (c) durability: polymers tricity consumption (42%), feedstock con-
have good resistance to adverse environments, sumption (4%) and others (9%), and (g)
do not suffer electrochemical corrosion, and recyclability: in general, polymers can be recy-
can keep their properties unchanged for a cled; in the last 30 years, polymer recycling
long time, (d) versatility: it is relatively easy to was successively incorporated in current poly-
select, modify and adapt polymer properties mer industry activity; a number of new raw
16.2 · Plastics Raw Material: Petroleum
481 16
.. Fig. 16.3 European plastic converter demand by segments and polymer types in 2018. (PlasticsEurope 2019)
materials and innovative products are also 16.2 lastics Raw Material:
P
being currently developed from polymer recy- Petroleum
clates” (Correia Diogo 2015). Thus, at the end
of their life, plastics can be transformed into Although most petroleum is used for the gen-
new feedstock or into energy (. Fig. 16.4).

eration of energy, primarily for transporta-
Currently, recyclates are used mostly in build- tion, it is also an important feedstock for the
ing and construction, packaging, and agricul- production of petrochemicals used in the
ture. In particular, “about 46% of recyclates in manufacture of synthetic rubber, synthetic
EU are used in the building and construction fibers, drugs, detergents, and plastics. Most
markets, which needs high-performance and modern plastics are derived from natural
durable products” (PlasticsEurope 2019). materials such as oil, coal, and natural gas,
that “The term includes petroleum-based sub-

stances comprised of a complex blend of
hydrocarbons derived from crude oil through
processes of separation, conversion, upgrad-
ing, and finishing (for example, motor fuels,
jet oils, lubricants, petroleum solvents, and
used oils).”
Although petroleum and crude oil are
terms used similarly, it must be noted that
crude oil is the organic liquid substance found
below the Earth’s surface, made up of thou-
sands of molecules composed of different
hydrogen and carbon atoms (hydrocarbons).
In contrast, the term petroleum commonly
refers to crude oil but it may also refer to other
related hydrocarbons (some hydrocarbons are
.. Fig. 16.4 Plastics can be transformed at the end of
their life into new feedstock or into energy. (Illustration
gaseous, rather than liquid, and methane is
courtesy of Association of Plastic Manufacturers) the most common example of these hydrocar-
bon gases). In ASTM standards, crude oil is
synonym of crude petroleum.
petroleum being the most important raw Petroleum is formed of a large variety of
material for plastics production. Petroleum molecules and wide range of molecular
deposits are commonly found in natural weight, from methane (16 g/mol) to
underground reservoirs called oil fields. The asphaltenes (tens of thousands of g/mol). The
oil in these fields can then be extracted by principal classes of hydrocarbons found in
drilling and pumping. petroleum are paraffins or alkanes, isoparaf-
The word petroleum comes from the Latin fins, cycloparaffins or naphthenes, aromatics,
petra, meaning rock, and oleum, meaning oil. and olefins. From an elemental composition
Jones and Treese (2014) define petroleum as viewpoint, petroleum is clearly controlled by
“a generic name for hydrocarbons, including carbon and hydrogen (90% or more). Almost
crude oil, natural gas liquids, natural gas, and all the rest are the termed heteroelements (sul-
their products.” Curiale (2018) points out that fur, nitrogen, and oxygen). Furthermore, most
“petroleum is a naturally occurring mixture of the remaining elements of the periodic
of hydrocarbon and non-hydrocarbon chemi- table are identified in petroleum.
cal compounds originating in sedimentary The compositional complexity of petro-
rocks predominantly from the thermal altera- leum (oil and gas) reflects the combined effects
16 tion of once-living organic matter over time
and at elevated pressure.” This definition of
of all processes involved in the origin of petro-
leum accumulations and their fate during long
petroleum is highly specific and includes state- periods of geological time. In general, petro-
ments about both composition and origin. leum is barely formed in the reservoir accu-
ASTM D5854 standard defines petroleum mulation from which it is pumped. Contrarily,
as “a substance, generally liquid, occurring petroleum deposits typically undergo several
naturally in the earth and composed mainly processes prior to their accumulation in reser-
of mixtures of chemical compounds of car- voirs. The accumulation of petroleum depos-
bon and hydrogen with or without other non- its takes place in sedimentary basins where
metallic elements such as sulfur, oxygen, and some specific geological conditions are met
nitrogen; the compounds that compose petro- (. Fig. 16.5): “(a) occurrence of source rocks

leum may be in the gaseous, liquids, or solid that generate petroleum under proper subsur-
state, depending on their nature and on the face temperature conditions, (b) sediment
existent conditions of temperature and pres- compaction leading to expulsion of petro-
sure” and ASTM E2531 standard specifies leum from the source and into the reservoir
483 16
objective of initiating the petroleum genera-
tion process by the thermal degradation of
kerogen (“dispersed or concentrated organic
matter, or both, occurring in sediments and
sedimentary rocks that is insoluble in organic
solvents”—ASTM D7708 standard). Most of
the petroleum deposits of economic interest
were accumulated during the Phanerozoic,
which reflects a lower rate of organic carbon
production in earlier eons.
.. Fig. 16.5 Illustration of the principal geological Migration of petroleum from the source
conditions and geochemical processes needed for the
formation of petroleum accumulations in sedimentary
rock site toward its accumulation in a reser-
basins. (Leythaeuser 2005) voir trap is controlled by physical and physico-
chemical processes, which are mainly
controlled by variations of temperature and
rocks (primary migration), (c) occurrence of pressure under depth conditions. The migra-
reservoir rocks of sufficient porosity and per- tion of petroleum can be primary and/or sec-
meability allowing flow of petroleum through ondary. The petroleum compounds initially
the pore system (secondary migration), (d) move through capillaries and narrow pores
structural configurations of sedimentary within the fine-grained minerals forming the
strata whereby the reservoir rocks form traps, source rock toward the nearest strata of
(e) traps are sealed above by impermeable sed- higher porosity. This process is commonly
iment layers (cap rocks) in order to keep referred to as primary migration (expulsion)
petroleum accumulations in place, (f) correct and can be differentiated from secondary
timing with respect to the sequence by which migration through the greater pores in more
the processes of petroleum generation/migra- permeable carrier beds and reservoir rocks.
tion and trap formation have occurred during The movement of petroleum from the source
the history of a sedimentary Basin, and (g) rock into the reservoir bed is called secondary
favorable conditions for the preservation of migration.
petroleum accumulation during extended The migration of petroleum along inclined
periods of geologic time (e.g. absence of carrier beds continues as long as it does not
destructive processes such as fracturing of cap encounter structural configurations where the
rocks or severe heating resulting in the crack- reservoir strata form traps (. Fig. 16.5).
ing of oil into gas)” (Leythaeuser 2005). Traps are structures in the subsurface where
Petroleum source beds are usually fine- petroleum accumulates, either structural or
grained, clay-rich siliciclastic and/or carbon- stratigraphic. The most common traps are
ate rocks, which generated and effectively anticlines (structural). Petroleum displaces
expelled hydrocarbons. Good quality petro- the pore water there, beginning from the top
leum source rocks are usually formed in either of the culmination and expanding into the
marine or lake environments where bottom flanks of the anticline. The contact between
waters are oxygen-deficient and organic- the oil-saturated and the water-saturated pore
matter-rich mud is rapidly buried. The term spaces is always sharp and generally horizon-
sapropel is used to describe the organic-rich tal. This boundary is commonly termed the
material formed under these conditions. A oil/water-contact (. Fig. 16.6).
petroleum source is outlined by three basic If the cap rock is not effective, the petro-
conditions: (a) sufficient amount of finely leum migrates until the surface and degrades.
dispersed organic matter of biological origin, Leakage of oil and gas from subsurface strata
(b) the organic matter must display an appro- to the surface of the Earth takes place and has
priate composition, and (c) the source rock occurred constantly at many places both on
must be buried at certain depth and subjected land and on the ocean floor. Oil seeps include
to specific subsurface temperatures with the springs with oil-bearing waters, tar pits, and
.. Fig. 16.6 Diagram showing folded sandstone beds representing a reservoir trap. (Selley 1998)
.. Fig. 16.8 Pipelines to transport petroleum. (Image

courtesy of Control Equipment Pty Ltd.)
.. Fig. 16.7 Suncor tar sands mining operations in
Alberta, Canada. (Image courtesy of The Atlantic) eries where it is transformed into the products
used every day. None of products such as
asphalt lakes. One of the most classic tar pit in power for vehicles, medicines, plastics, cos-
the United States is the La Brea Tar Pits on metics, and many more would exist without
the outskirts of Los Angeles, which became the refining process of petroleum. Physical
famous as a treasure chest of vertebrate pale- characteristics of petroleum define how
ontology. In preindustrial times, seeps were refineries process it. As a rule, the crude oils
exploited as a source of oil and asphalt for are basically classified by density and sulfur
several applications. Extensive biodegrada- content.
tion and water washing lead to the formation Petroleum encompasses a compositional
16 of heavy and extra-heavy oils and tar sands in continuum from methane and other low
near-surface intervals. These extra-heavy oils molecular components to very high molecular
are yet mobile under reservoir conditions mass asphaltenes present as a colloid in liquid
although cannot be pumped at reasonably petroleum. Thus, “at standard temperature
high production rates and costs. Very large and pressure petroleum includes the following
deposits of tar sands are present in northern three phases: (a) gases: natural gas, including
Canada (Athabasca tar sands—. Fig. 16.7) hydrocarbon gases and higher-mass compo-

and eastern Venezuela. It is important to note nents dissolved therein as well as non-
that the total in-place reserves of heavy oils hydrocarbon gases, (b) liquids: condensates
and tar sands of worldwide occurrence are in and conventional crude oils dominated by C6
the same order of magnitude as the total in- to C60+ components but also containing both
place reserves of conventional crude oils. gases and higher-mass hydrocarbons in solu-
Pipelines (. Fig. 16.8), railroads, tank- tion, and (c) solids: solid bitumen generally

ers, and trucks transport petroleum to refin- resulting from early generation/expulsion
485 16
from rich source rocks or from degradation of (distillation) (7 Box 16.1: Distillation of

a once-liquid oil” (Curiale 2018). Petroleum Petroleum) of crude oil, natural gas, and other
products are obtained from the processing hydrocarbon compounds.
Box 16.1
Distillation of Petroleum volume of products manufactured in a refinery

Petroleum products include “unfinished oils, liq- is greater than the volume of petroleum that
uefied petroleum gases, pentanes plus, aviation refineries process. The reason is that most of
gasoline, motor gasoline, naphtha-type jet fuel, the products obtained in refineries have lower
kerosene-type jet fuel, kerosene, distillate fuel oil, density than the processed petroleum. The
residual fuel oil, petrochemical feedstock, special increment in volume is termed processing gain
naphthas, lubricants, waxes, petroleum coke, and the gain value is about 7%.
asphalt, road oil, still gas, and miscellaneous The details of refinery operations differ
products” (Jones and Treese 2014). . Figure 16.9

from location to location, but generally all
shows the petroleum products obtained in the refineries share two basic steps or processes for
United States refineries during 2018. separating crude oil into the various products:
Some refineries produce high-value prod- separation and conversion. A third step, termed
ucts such as gasoline, diesel fuel, and jet fuel treatment, can be also taken into account; in
from light crude oil with simple distillation. In this third process, fractions previously obtained
contrast, refineries using simple distillation of are treated in order to enhance their quality;
denser (heavier) crude oils produce low-value they are further mixed with other components
products. This is because heavy crude oils need with the aim to manufacture the final products.
additional, more expensive processing tech- Once petroleum is extracted from the oil
niques to produce high-value products. field and enters the refinery, whether a simple or
Moreover, some crude oils have also high sul- a complex refinery, fractional distillation takes
fur content, which is an undesirable feature in place (. Fig. 16.10). This represents the first

both processing and product quality. The total refining process and separates the components
.. Fig. 16.9 Petroleum products

obtained in the United finished motor gasoline 49%
States refineries during 2018.
(US Energy Information distillate fuel oil 25%
Administration)
kerosene-type jet fuel 9%
petroleum coke 4%
still gas 3%
hydrocarbon gas liquids 3%
residual fuel oil 2%
asphalt and road oil 2%
petrochemical feedstocks 1%
lubricants 1%
other products 1%
paraffin, and naphtha. The chemical industry

manufactures plastics principally from naphtha.
It is subjected to a cracking process in which
complex organic chemical compounds are sepa-
rated into smaller molecules, dependent on their
molecular weight. The smaller molecules include
ethylene, propylene, butylenes, benzene, toluene,
and xylenes, which are the fundamental building
blocks of plastics. Compounds produced
through the cracking process are further refined
to produce the base plastic materials.
After distillation, heavy, lower-value distil-
lation fractions can be processed further into
lighter, higher-value products (e.g., gasoline).
.. Fig. 16.10 Schematic representation of frac-
This is the processing step where fractions from
tional distillation
the distillation units are transformed into inter-
of petroleum so that they can be further refined. mediate components that eventually will
Broadly considered, distillation is simply a pro- become finished products. The most broadly
cess that separates materials by boiling range. used conversion method is called cracking
The process is based on the principle that differ- because it uses heat, pressure, catalysts, and
ent substances boil at different temperatures. sometimes hydrogen to crack heavy hydrocar-
Thus, the heavy fractions produce lubrication bon molecules into lighter ones (the term crack-
oils while the heavy oils are used for heating ing refers to the breaking of the long-chain
fuels. The lighter fractions originate gas, petrol, hydrocarbon molecule into shorter fractions).
16.3 Types of Polymers contrast, a decrease in flow behavior and pro-

cessability.
The word polymer comes from the Greek poly, Monomers, e.g., acetylene, ethylene, and
meaning many, and meros, meaning parts. As propylene, are molecules that are the primary
a consequence, the polymeric material is materials to react selectively under polymer-
formed of many parts joined together to make ization. Monomers join with a covalent bond
the whole. Each unit is termed monomer, the to form a polymer; constitution and configu-
molecular component used to produce the ration of monomers are reflected in the
16 polymer. Monomer is defined in EN ISO 472 mechanical properties of polymers. Polymer
standard as a “chemical compound, usually reactions take place with a monomer and with
of low molecular mass, that can be converted an initiator and/or catalyst. Therefore, poly-
into a polymer by combining it with itself or mers are formed by long-chain molecules
with other chemical compounds.” Polymers originated by the chemical composition of
are materials of very high molecular weight, monomers, sometimes formed of thousands
this feature being quite important in the of monomers. The process of joining the mol-
behavior of the polymer. An increase in the ecules is termed polymerization (process of
molecular weight generates an increase in tex- converting a monomer or a mixture of mono-
tile strength, elongation, impact strength, mers into a polymer—EN ISO 472 standard-).
crack resistance, and heat resistance, and, in The number of the units in the long molecule
16.3 · Types of Polymers
487 16
is termed the degree of polymerization. As a Thermoplastics are “plastics that have
rule, polymer name is formed by the name of thermoplastic properties,” that is, “capable of
the monomer with the prefix poly. Polymers being softened repeatedly by heating and
are macromolecules with controlled structure. hardened by cooling through a temperature
This well-defined structure is an important range characteristic of the plastic and, in the
aspect of polymer chemistry. Accordingly, softened state, of being shaped by flow repeat-
terms polymer and macromolecule do not edly into articles by molding, extrusion or
mean the same thing. forming” (EN ISO 472 standard). ASTM
Polymers and plastics are terms usually C904 standard defines thermoplastic as “any
taken as synonymous although there is one of a group of materials capable of being
remarkable difference between them. Polymer repeatedly softened or melted by increases in
is the pure material that results from the pro- temperature followed by subsequent solidifi-
cess of polymerization but pure polymers are cation on cooling.” Thermoplastics are the
seldom used on their own. Where additives most important group of polymers reaching
are used, the term plastic is applied. Polymers up about 80% or more of the total plastic con-
incorporate additives for a number of reasons. sumption. Some examples of thermoplastics
Most commonly used additives in plastics are are polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride, polysty-
the following: (a) antistatic agents: attract rene, polycarbonate, polymethyl methacry-
moisture from the air, improving its surface late, cellulose acetate, and polypropylene.
conductivity, (b) fillers: improve the mechani- Thermoplastics show the simplest molecu-
cal properties, (c) coupling agents: improve lar structure with chemically independent mac-
the bonding of the plastic to inorganic filler romolecules held together by relatively weak
materials, (d) flame retardants: reduce the Van der Waals forces. If the material is heated,
likelihood that combustion will occur, (e) it becomes softened or melted, then shaped,
lubricants: reduce the viscosity of the molten formed, welded, and solidify when cooled. This
plastic, (f) pigments: produce colors, (g) plas- cycle of softening by heat and solidifying on
ticizers: alter the properties of the plastic, (h) cooling can be repeated more or less indefi-
reinforcement: improve the strength and stiff- nitely and is a major advantage provided that it
ness, and (h) stabilizers: prevent deterioration is the basis of most processing methods for
due to environmental factors. these materials, enabling reprocessing and recy-
Polymers can be classified into different cling processes. Different types of additives can
ways based on origin, chemical composition, be commonly added to thermoplastics for
organic character, biodegradable perfor- improving certain properties, e.g., thermal or
mance, polymerization techniques, polymer chemical stability or UV resistance. An impor-
architecture, structural and functional char- tant subdivision in the thermoplastic group
acter, etc. The most common classification relates to whether the materials have a crystal-
system subdivides the polymers in accordance line (ordered) or an amorphous (random)
to their physico-chemical properties and structure. Polyethylene can achieve high degree
applications. Three main groups are defined: of crystallinity while polystyrene is amorphous.
thermoplastics, thermosets, and elastomers. Thermoset is a “plastic which, when cured
This classification is relatively vague because by heat or other means, changes into a sub-
some polymers can be included into two stantially infusible and insoluble product”
groups, e.g., polypropylene is thermoplastic (EN ISO 472 and ASTM D883 standards).
and elastomer. Polymers can be combined Thermosets are manufactured in two stages.
with reinforcements leading to composites The first stage originates molecules similar to
and with varied materials, which leads to those present in thermoplastics whereas the
hybrids. Hybrids materials are not really a second stage occurs during molding, com-
well-established category but they result from monly under the application of heat and pres-
a design method in order to provide some sure. The resultant component must be rigid
functions that are difficult to obtain with just so that the material cannot be softened again
one polymer. by heating. Plastics will degrade if heat is
applied in excess. Examples of thermosets are . Figure 16.3 includes the two main

phenol formaldehyde, melamine formalde- plastic types used in building and construc-
hyde, epoxies, and some polyesters. tion sector: polyvinyl chloride (used in pipes
Regarding elastomers, traditional rubbers and in building products such as window
are members of the polymer family as they are frames, floor and wall coverings, swimming
formed by long chain-like molecules. After pools, cable sheathing, and roofing) and
coiling and twisting, the chains have sufficient polyethylene (used to build pipes and other
flexibility to allow the material to undergo hardwearing products as well as to insulate
large deformation. In general, the molecules cables). Other plastics commonly used in
are cross-linked in a way similar to that in ther- building and construction market are poly-
mosets. Some vulcanized rubbers (vulcaniza- styrene, polypropylene, polyurethane, and
tion is a curing process) need careful processing polycarbonate.
and consume considerable quantities of energy.
These disadvantages promoted the develop-
ment of thermoplastic rubbers (elastomers), 16.3.1 Polyvinyl Chloride
which exhibit the desirable physical character-
istics of rubber but with the ease of processing Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) was one of the first
of thermoplastics. Some examples of elasto- polymers discovered and is one of the most
mers are polyurethane and polyamide. extensively used (7 Box 16.2: PVC).

Box 16.2
PVC mer units comprise a PVC chain. The monomer

Used for nearly three quarters of a century, the is a gas at normal pressure and temperature
polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is one of the most conditions, being liquefied under pressure and
analyzed, tested, and versatile materials. then polymerized. Polymerization process takes
Polyvinyl chloride is the third largest produc- place at temperatures generally between 40 °C
tion polymer in the world, after polyethylene and 70 °C. The structure of the PVC polymer
and polypropylene. It comes in two basic forms: molecule is similar to poly(ethane), with one
rigid (sometimes abbreviated as RPVC) and hydrogen on alternate carbon atoms substituted
flexible. PVC is flexible because it has been com- by one chlorine atom.
pounded with a plasticizer (PVC was developed The properties of PVC depend on the
as a flexible material in the late 1920s). By com- polymerization techniques applied: suspension
parison, rigid PVC does not contain plasticizer (most PVC is manufactured using suspension
but can include other rigid-specific additives, polymerization), emulsion, solution, and/or
16 e.g., impact modifiers. The most important mass polymerization. Previous to processing,
PVC formulation is defined, including additives
applications of rigid PVC include piping, sid-
ing, and windows. “In the 1940s, vinyl was used such as thermal stabilizers and co-stabilizers,
in large amounts in wiring on ships to replace plasticizers, impact modifiers, lubricants, pig-
rubber cable jacketing based on superior fire ments (titanium dioxide—TiO2—to impart the
resistance of vinyl. In the 1950s and 1960s, flex- white color), foaming agents, antioxidants,
ible commercial compounds and products were ultraviolet stabilizers, and etcetera. PVC com-
developed. Rigid applications, specifically bot- pounds may include as few as 2 or as many as
tles and pipe followed” (Carroll et al. 2017). 10–15 additives (a PVC product can consist of
Whether rigid or flexible, most PVC is used in up to 60% additive).
durable, long-life applications. The utility of PVC polymer in a wide range
PVC is obtained by polymerizing vinyl chlo- of applications is based in its versatility, which
ride monomer. In general, about 1000 mono- is possible with the utilization of numerous
489 16
.. Table 16.1 Starting formulation for PVC

windows/siding/profiles applications (Carroll
et al. 2017)
Component Windows/Siding/
Profiles
Resin 100
Resin IV 0.88–0.92
K-value 65–67
Stabilizer High tin
.. Fig. 16.11 PVC coated tension wire
Filler 0–5
TiO2 9–13 et al. 2017). Lubricants and thermal stabilizers
are always included in PVC formulations
Impact modifier 3–6
because PVC is less thermally stable than many
Processing aid 0.5–1.5 other polymers. . Table 16.1 shows the start-

Lubricants ing formulation for PVC windows/siding/pro-

files applications.
Calcium stearate 0.7–1.5
The most important properties of PVC are
Paraffin wax 0.4–1 “superior flame retardancy (due to the high
Oxidized PE 0–0.3 chlorine content), high ignition temperature
(455°C), and relatively low heat release in burn-
Other (esters) 0–1
ing; moreover, it presents strong resistance to
Pigments As needed oxidation and good chemical resistance to acid
and alkali chemicals” (Correia Diogo 2015).
However, it releases high levels of smoke and
additives that impart impact strength, flexibil- toxic gases during burning. For this reason,
ity, and thermal stability. “While the additives smoke suppressants are commonly added to
are critical to performance, they must be PVC during its processing. Main markets for
blended with PVC resin of the correct molecu- PVC include building and construction, pack-
lar weight in order for the final processed mate- aging, and electrical and electronics sectors,
rial to possess the desired properties” (Carroll e.g., wire coating (. Fig. 16.11).

16.3.2 Polyethylene (PE) tha, liquefied petroleum gas, and/or ethane.

Ethylene “can also be copolymerized with
The name polyethylene covers a family of vinyl acetate, ethyl acrylate, and acrylic acid;
thermoplastic resins manufactured by polym- the resulting copolymers share the good
erization of ethylene (monomer). Polyethylene chemical resistance of polyethylene to
(PE) is the most widely used polyolefin poly- improved adhesion properties” (Correia
mer. It represents the simple straight-chain Diogo 2015).
hydrocarbon. Ethylene is found in certain Polyethylene is described as low, high, and
sources of natural gas but the main source of linear low by its specific gravity, strength,
ethylene is crude oil. It is manufactured at pet- molecular weight, crystallinity, and melt flow
rochemical plants by steam cracking of naph- or rheological properties. Low-molecular-
16.3.3 Polypropylene (PP)
Polypropylene (PP) is the second most impor-

tant commercial polyolefin and the thermo-
plastic material mostly produced in the world.
Polypropylene is extremely versatile. It has the
lowest density, about 0.9 g/cm3, of all thermo-
plastics. PP is commonly termed the steel of
the plastic industry since it can be modified
and/or customized in various ways to best
serve a particular purpose. It is available in
many grades even as a copolymer (ethylene/
propylene). There are three main families of
polypropylene based on internal structure,
which lead to different properties: homopoly-
mer, random copolymer, and block copoly-
.. Fig. 16.12 HDPE pipes
mer. PP is produced by polymerizing
propylene gas utilizing the adequate catalysts.
weight polyethylene is liquid while polyethyl- It is highly resistant to chemical agents and
ene with high molecular weight is solid. solvents. PP is used in the production of con-
Because amorphous polyethylene has lower tainers, electrical appliance frames, tubes, and
density than fully crystallized polyethylene geosynthetics. Piping systems manufactured
and crystallization of polyethylene is fast, an with PP are widely used in industrial process-
estimation of the density provides direct mea- ing (. Fig. 16.13).

sure of the crystallinity. The value of long- Polypropylene encompasses its versatility
chain branching in linear polymers with in physical properties, regarding ease of man-
superior physical properties is available with ufacture and utilization in numerous applica-
high-density polyethylene (HDPE) or linear tions. It exhibits high strength, high wear and
low-density polyethylene (LLDPE). The latter chemical resistance, low water vapor and gas
can replace low-density polyethylene (LDPE) permeability, and good dielectric characteris-
in many applications due to its superior prop- tics. Nevertheless, PP is brittle and its frost
erties. resistance is poor (−15 °C). One benefit of PP
Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) (0.910– is that it can be easily copolymerized with
0.935 g/cm3) is a flexible material with remark- other polymers like polyethylene. This process
able toughness even at low temperatures changes significantly the material properties
(impact resistant), good resistance to chemi- and allowing for robust engineering applica-
16 cal agents, low water vapor permeability, good tions that would not be possible with pure
electrical insulator, good transparency, and polypropylene. The physical and mechanical
ease processing. High-density polyethylene properties of polyethylene are shown in
(HDPE) has density values in the range . Table 16.3.

0.935–0.965 g/cm3, and it is more crystalline

than LDPE. HDPE is much stronger and
stiffer than LDPE and finds applications in 16.3.4 Polystyrene (PS)
fluid containers and pipes (. Fig. 16.12).

Polyethylene has drawbacks that include low Polystyrene (PS) is an amorphous thermo-
environmental stress cracking resistance. plastic polymer commonly obtained by the
However, with increase in molecular weight it polymerization of styrene and initiated with
has better tensile and environmental stress benzoyl peroxide. It is further copolymer-
cracking resistance. The physical and mechanized with several monomers such as acrylo-
ical properties of polyethylene are given in nitrile, butadiene, methyl methacrylate, and
. Table 16.2.
acrylates. In general, typical characteristics
491 16
.. Table 16.2 Physical and mechanical properties of polyethylene (Posch 2017)
Physical Properties of Polyethylene

LLDPE LDPE HDPE
Optical Transparent to opaque Transparent to opaque Transparent to opaque
Tmelt (°C) 120–130 105–115 130–138
Tg (°C) −100 −100 −100
H2O absorption (%) <0.01 <0.01 <0.01
Oxidation resistance Low, oxides readily Low, oxides readily Low, oxides readily
UV resistance With stabilization high With stabilization high With stabilization high
Alkaline resistance Resistant Resistant Resistant
Acid resistance Oxidizing acids Oxidizing acids Oxidizing acids
Mechanical Properties of Polyethylene
LLDPE LDPE HDPE
Density (g/cm3) 0.91–0.925 0.926–0.94 0.941–0.96
Crystallinity (%) 55–65 30–50 70–90
Molecular weight (*103) 10–30 30–50 50–250
Tensile strength (MPa) 8–45 3–56 10–43
Tensile modulus (MPa) 140–1000 110–1200 180–1800
Tensile elongation at yield (%) 8–30 13–400 6–45
Izod notched low temp. (kJ/m2) 23–97 24–70 11–80
Hardness, shore D 44–70 38–60 56–71
geofoam, is an excellent thermal insulator so

that it is one of the most broadly used com-
modity polymers. It has been a material of
choice for more than 60 years because of its
versatility, performance, and cost effective-
ness. Expanded polystyrene foam can be used
in all construction types, typically found in
walls, roofing, and below grade as a continu-
ous insulation. . Figure 16.14 shows the use

of EPS in the manufacture of precast wall

.. Fig. 16.13 Piping system using PP. (Image courtesy
panels.
of ABN Pype Systems)
of PS are the following: high rigidity, high 16.3.5 Polyurethane (PUR)

refractive index and transparency, low resis-
tance to organic solvents, and environmental Polyurethane (PUR) is a resilient, flex-
agents as well as relatively low-cost mate- ible, and durable manufactured material.
rial. Polystyrene is available in an expanded There are several types of polyurethanes,
form after foaming. Polystyrene foam, also which look and feel very different from each
known as expanded polystyrene (EPS) or other. Polyurethane is obtained by a reac-
.. Table 16.3 Physical and mechanical properties of polypropylene (Posch 2017)
Mechanical Properties of Polypropylene

PP Homo PP Copo PP Impact
Density (g/cm3) 0.90–0.91 0.90–0.91 0.90–0.91
Tensile strength at yield (MPa) 35–40 20–35 11–28
Tensile modulus (MPa) 1200–2000 1000–1500 500–1200
Shrinkage 0.01–0.03 0.02–0.03 0.02–0.03
Hardness, shore D 70–83 70–80 45–55
HDT A (°C) 100–120 85–104 75–88
Dielectric constant 2.3 2.3 2.3
Processing Properties of Polypropylene
PP Homo PP Copo PP Impact
Processing temperature (°C) 180–260 180–220 180–220
Drying temperature (°C) 80 80 80
Molding pressure (tons/ cm2) 230–450 230–450 230–450
characterize PUR. One of the great advan-

tages of polyurethane is versatility in for-
mulation, density, and processing. The main
applications of this type of product are in
the automotive, transport, construction, and
furniture sectors (rigid foam is widely used as
an insulation material). Main applications of
PUR in the construction sector are as ther-
mal insulation and acoustic absorbent.
16.3.6 Polycarbonate (PC)

.. Fig. 16.14 Expanded polystyrene used in the manu- Polycarbonate (PC) is an amorphous engi-
16 facture of wall panels. (Image courtesy of Prefabricados neering polymer that presents different spe-
Pujol)
cific properties such as high toughness, high
continuous working temperature, flame retar-
tion between two monomers: one polyol dant properties, and natural transparency. It is
(polyalcohol) with several hydroxyl groups, particularly useful where impact resistance is
e.g., ethylene glycol, and a polyisocyanate an important requirement. Nevertheless, the
with several isocyanate groups: for instance, main disadvantages of polycarbonate are the
toluene diisocyanate and methylene diphe- high melt viscosity and notch sensitivity. These
nyl diisocyanate. According to the selected issues of polycarbonate are commonly over-
monomers, the resulting plastic can be rigid come through blending with other polymers,
polyurethane, polyurethane elastomer includ- e.g., acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene. Based on
ing thermoplastic elastomer, and different its structure, PC can be divided into linear and
types of foams and gums. High strength branched polymer, these polymers showing
and good chemical and abrasion resistance distinct rheological behavior. Polycarbonate
16.4 · Applications of Plastics in Buildings
493 16
plastic is engineering plastic provided that it is
typically used to get up more capable, robust
materials such as in impact resistant glass-
like surfaces. In building and construction,
PC is suitable alternative to glass in differ-
ent glazing applications such as greenhouses
(. Fig. 16.15), industry or public buildings,

facades, windows, shelters, etc. This is due to

its high impact strength, transparency, and
resistance to UV light.
16.4 Applications of Plastics

in Buildings
Polymeric materials have very many applica-
tions in the building and construction mar-
kets. They offer unique and pioneering
solutions at relatively low price. . Table 16.4
shows the fundamental benefits of plastics in

construction. The wide functionality of plas-
tics provides a distinct advantage over many
other traditional building materials in respect .. Fig. 16.15 Polycarbonate in a greenhouse. (Image
to resistance to weathering, flexibility for courtesy of Sproutwell Greenhouses)
.. Table 16.4 Fundamental benefits of plastics in construction (British Plastic Federation)
Plastics are lightweight:

Easy to transport, maneuver, and handle
Fewer accidents
Plastics are strong:
Durable, knock and scratch resistant with excellent weatherability
Do not rot or corrode
Plastics are easy to install:
Lightweight
Snap fit
Plastics offer design freedom: Plastics promote energy efficiency in building:
A limitless array of shapes possible Plastics are low conductors of heat
Products can be colored, opaque or transparent, Tight seals achievable
rigid or flexible
Plastics are low maintenance: Plastics score highly in environmental assessments:
Plastics building products can be repaired. Plastics materials are an efficient use of resources
They do not need painting. Rated highly in BRE’s “Green Guide to Specification.”
Plastics have a variety of waste management options Plastics are cost-effective:
available: Favorable whole-life costs
Plastics building products can be recycled with low Offer a combination of durability, quality, low
energy inputs and when this is not feasible can be used maintenance, and labor saving.
in energy from waste schemes.
.. Table 16.5 Main properties of plastic polymers in building and construction (PlasticsEurope)
Plastics are durable and They are ideal for applications such as window frames
corrosion free and pipes which can last for over 50 years.
Plastics effectively insulate from They save energy, offer great value for money, and
cold, heat, or sound reduce noise pollution.
Plastics are lightweight They contribute to savings by reducing man-hours and

the need for heavy equipment such as cranes; they are
also easier to handle, transport, and store.
Plastics can either be recycled or The overall recovery of plastic waste in the building and
their energy recovered construction sector shows a positive trend, improving
from 56.2% in 2010 to 57.6% in 2011.
Plastics are easy to maintain, They are ideal for household and hospital surfaces or
easy to clean, and impenetrable floor coverings that must remain hygienic.
many applications, and lower costs. Thus, over 50 years ago continuing to function as
polymer-based building materials are often well as ever today. Plastic hardware is corro-
used as replacement for traditional materials sion resistant and able to survive outside in
such as brick, cement, concrete, wood, metal, inclement weather indefinitely.
and glass. Although plastics are not always Plastics are available in different colors
visible in buildings, they are used in a broad and textures, requiring minimal or no paint-
and growing group of applications, including ing. Other important characteristic of plastic
insulation, piping, window frames, and inte- materials deals with inherent resistance to
rior design. The increasing expand is basically heat transfer and moisture diffusion as well
caused by the special plastic properties such as preservation against metallic corrosion
as durability and resistance to corrosion, insu- and/or microbial attack. Regarding plastic
lation, cost efficiency, hygiene, sustainability, waste generation and recycling management,
innovation, and fire safety. “From polyure- . Table 16.6 reviews the data about the build-

thane foam insulation, which is a thermoset, ing and construction post-consumer plastic
to transparent polycarbonate glazing, which waste generation in Europe in 2018 and their
is a thermoplastic, plastics are used in innu- recycling options (Plastics Europe 2019).
merable applications in the building industry Although the number of applications for
for both structural and nonstructural applica- plastic in building and construction sector is
tions” (Agarwal and Gupta 2017). huge, they can be grouped into four major
. Table 16.5 shows the main properties of fields: (1) roofing systems and house wraps,
16

plastic polymers in building and construction. (2) piping, (3) Insulation, and (4) glazing, win-
In general, plastics are easy to install and dows, and doors.
require minimal maintenance. In terms of
whole life cycle, plastics are one of the most
energy-effective materials. Moreover, the easy 16.4.1 oofing Systems and House
R
capacity of plastics to be molded means that Wraps
many components can be combined into one,
making them relatively simple to produce and Roofing systems and house wraps together
install. According to PlasticsEurope, “the typ- protect buildings from weather elements such
ical lifespan of plastic applications in building as rainwater and snow. Roofing systems safe-
and construction range from 30 to 50 years,” guard the roof while house wraps protect the
with many plastic pipes, which account for the surrounding walls. These systems offer insula-
majority of all new pipe installations, installed tion against heat transfer to and from a build-
495 16
.. Table 16.6 Building and construction post-consumer plastic waste generation in Europe in 2018
(PlasticsEurope 2019)
Type of Total waste generation Recovery Disposal/landfill

plastic in kt in % Total in Thereof mechanical Thereof energy Total
kt recycling recovery
in kt in % in kt in % in kt in %
PE-LD 90 5.1 70 24 27.0 46 51.0 20 22.0

PE-HD 225 12.8 164 54 24.0 110 49.0 61 27.0
PP 130 7.4 95 30 23.0 65 50.0 35 27.0
PS 30 1.7 21 2 7.0 19 64.0 9 29.0
EPS 140 8.0 95 13 9.0 83 59.0 45 32.0
PVC 910 51.7 683 309 34.0 373 41.0 228 25.0
Other 235 13.4 172 18 7.50 154 65.5 63 27 0
Total 1760 100.0 1300 450 26.0 850 47.5 460 26.5
ing. The plastic membrane must be strong to ing as good heat insulators for energy-efficient
withstand stresses but flexible enough to building designs. Roofing materials are
accommodate any building movement. Since exposed to environmental conditions (wind,
the 1960s, polymeric sheets acquired an sunlight exposure, rainwater, snow, hail, and/
important role as roofing materials. Plastic- or temperature variations) that cause degra-
based roof membranes are formed mainly of dation in properties over time. For this rea-
a waterproofing membrane located directly at son, it is common to add thermal and UV
the roof structure and/or on top of a layer of stabilizers, antioxidant materials, and flame
insulation. retardants in different quantities to prevent
Single ply roofing membranes consist of and/or minimize degradation of the plastics.
either reinforcing fibers or fabric sandwiched Thermoplastic roofing membranes
between two sheets of flexible material. The were pioneers on flat roofs (. Fig. 16.17).

reinforcing material can be short glass-fiber Provided their technical advantages, they can
mat, polyester scrim, and nonwoven polyester be found in all areas where large or specially
mat. Polymeric sheets can be either thermo- shaped surfaces have to be waterproofed
plastic or thermoset. . Figure 16.16 illus-
quickly and reliably. Thermoplastic roofing
trates “the various polymeric materials used membranes are available in a wide range of
as roofing materials: bitumen, modified bitu- materials. Roofing and waterproofing mem-
men, PVC, PE, chlorinated PE, chlorosulfo- branes made of ethylene copolymer bitumen
nated PE (CSPE), ethylene propylene diene (ECB) are bitumen-compatible, free of plasti-
monomer (EPDM), ketone ethylene ester cizers and halogens, and combine the product
(KEE), polyisoprene (PI), and polyisobutyl- properties of bitumen with those of polyeth-
ene (PIB)” (Agarwal and Gupta 2017). ylene copolymer to create a new material in
Specifically, PVC sheets are the first thermo- which the share of plastic ranges from 50%
plastic used as roofing membranes. PVC to 75%. Other examples of thermoplastic
membranes contain plasticizers for flexibility. roofing membranes are ethylene vinyl acetate
Moreover, thermal insulation sheets, com- copolymer/terpolymer membranes (EVA),
monly in the form of foamed sheets of poly- roofing membranes made of flexible polyole-
isocyanurate or polystyrene, are used under fins (FPO), halogen- and plasticizer-free PIB
the roof membranes with the objective of act- roofing membranes, and PVC membranes.
Roofing membranes
Asphalt based Poymer based
Built-up roof Modified bitumen Thermsets Themoplasties
Ethylene propylene Polyvinyl chloride

Styrene Atactic polypropylene diene monomer (PVC)
butadiene elastomer (EPDM)
styrene
(SBS)
Polyehloroprene Ketone ethylene

(CR) ester (KEE)
Thermoplastic
olefin (TPO)
Chlorinated
polyethylene (CPE)
.. Fig. 16.16 Plastics used in roofing systems. (Agarwal and Gupta 2017)
16
.. Fig. 16.17 Polyethylene roofing membrane. (Image

.. Fig. 16.18 Volksparkstadion in Hamburg; the sta-
courtesy of KÖSTER)
dium features a distinct PVC roof covering the entire
spectator area. (Image courtesy of Reinhard Kraasch)
Moreover, PVC membranes play a promi-
nent role in modern stadium development in maintaining a comfortable atmosphere inside
Europe (. Fig. 16.18).
in an energy-efficient manner. House wraps
In building design, it is essential to safe- are used to protect buildings from intrusion
guard the structure and interior of houses by water and air by forming a protective enve-
from the outside weather elements while lope around them. As a rule, the three main
497 16
.. Fig. 16.19 Nonwoven polyolefin used in house .. Fig. 16.20 Plastics in piping
wraps. (Image courtesy of Barricade Building Products)
cal and biological degradation, being durable,
functions of a house wrap are as follows: “(1) and easy to maintain and replace. Nevertheless,
to provide a vapor-permeable membrane that “plastic pipes are limited to low pressure and
allows moisture in framing lumber or insula- temperature applications because of their low
tion to escape, (2) to create a secondary strength and tendency of polymers to soften
weather barrier behind the siding, preventing at high temperatures; from this reason, drain-
wind-driven rainwater and other water from age and wastewater pipelines from sinks and
reaching the sheathing, and (3) to serve as an toilets are made from plastics and pressurized
air barrier to prevent air infiltration, helping hot- and cold-water distribution systems are
to reduce heating and cooling costs” (Agarwal still principally manufactured of metal,
and Gupta 2017). mainly copper” (Agarwal and Gupta 2017).
Organic fiber felt and kraft paper satu- Plastic materials have long been used to
rated with asphalt were traditionally used as make pipes and tubing systems (. Fig. 16.20).

house wraps. However, in the four last decades, They are used in different applications such as
the use of polymeric films increased as house soil and waste, heating and cooling, and water
wrapping material (. Fig. 16.19). Polymeric
and gas distribution. For instance, plastic
house wraps are mainly manufactured using pipes and fittings are used to drain and carry
polyolefins, with polypropylene and HDPE effluent and wastewater from the house to the
being the most common. This plastic technol- sewage treatment plant. They are safe for all
ogy has decreased the infiltration of outside household applications because they have
air into the home by 10–60%, thus contribut- high resistance to corrosion from substances
ing to sharply decrease the energy needed to commonly encountered in effluents.
heat or cool a house. There are two main types of plastic pipes:
gravity pipes for building and civil engineering
and pressure pipes for utilities and plumbing,
16.4.2 Piping being the former sector the largest one. Several
types of plastics are used for piping depend-
Pipes produced with plastics are in competi- ing on properties and performance needed.
tion with other materials such as copper, steel, The first plastic pipes were made from PVC in
or aluminum and pipes manufactured using the 1930s while PE and Acrylonitrile-
concrete. This is because the plastic pipes offer Butadiene- Styrene (ABS) were later used.
many advantages over those traditional mate- According to the Plastic Pipe and Fittings
rials. They are lightweight, low cost, ease to Association (PPFA), other polymeric materi-
manufacture, and have good hydraulics (low als such as chlorinated PVC (CPVC), polysty-
resistance to flow and high resistance to scale rene, cross-linked polyethylene (PEX), PP,
or build-up. Since plastic materials are non- PVDF can be used to manufacture pipes.
conductive, they do not suffer from electro- Several glass-reinforced thermosets (e.g.,
chemical degradation, e.g., corrosion and epoxy and polyesters) are often used in these
rusting. Moreover, plastic pipes resist chemi- applications. Key additives added to plastics
for piping applications cover UV stabilizers, able in the market. They are simple to install
antioxidants, lubricants, coupling agents, and both in existing and in new buildings, are
colorants. very durable, and perform at the same high
PVC and various grades of PE dominate level over the whole life of the building. Due
the plastic piping market. PVC and CPVC are to these constant performance character-
the most broadly used plastics to manufacture istics, adopting plastic insulation materials
piping systems. For instance, in the United results in significant long-term energy saving.
States “PVC accounts for two-thirds of water Investments in insulation are recognized as
distribution systems and around three-fourths offering the lowest cost mitigation of carbon
of sanitary sewer systems” (Agarwal and dioxide emissions and have a rapid payback
Gupta 2017). The other major material for period when compared to most other solu-
plastic pipe manufacturing is PE. PE is less tions. In addition, plastic insulation systems
strong as compared to PVC, but it keeps flex- can make significant contribution to noise
ibility even at low temperatures due to very reduction within the building.
low glass transition temperature. Cross-linked Insulating materials form a major applica-
polyethylene (PEX) is the most common ther- tion sector for plastics in buildings. Polymers
moset used in the piping industry. ABS is a are conductors of heat, which makes them
copolymer with rubber particles, which impart useful components for manufacturing ther-
flexibility and impact strength to the material mal and moisture barriers. In a building, insu-
even at low temperature. Due to their excel- lation is used in the walls, basements, and
lent strength, walls of ABS pipes are made of roofs. Insulation materials are presented in a
foamed core instead of solid walls, which great variety of forms, i.e., rolls, loose fill,
reduces weight without compromising physi- sprayed foam, and foam boards.
cal properties. The major use of ABS pipes is Most common plastic insulation elements
in drain, waste, and vent applications. are produced from polyurethane. Other poly-
mers used in insulation are polyisocyanurate
(PIR), polystyrene (PS), and PVC. Since
16.4.3 Insulation foaming creates a lightweight structure,
highly resistant to heat transfer, foamed
Making the buildings more energy efficient and PU (. Fig. 16.21), PIR, extruded PS, and

reducing the quantity of energy needed is a key expanded PS are typical polymer foam insu-
to minimizing environmental impact. Up to lations. In this sense, foamed plastics show
60% of the energy used in buildings is due to the best insulation properties according to
heating and cooling requirements. Thus, insu- heat resistance values for insulation materi-
lation is recognized as one of the easiest and als. PU and PIR foams are used in different
most cost-effective ways to reduce energy con- ways, including sandwich panels for walls
16 sumption. For this purpose, plastic insulation
provides sustained environmental benefits for
and roofs, flexible boards, slab stocks for
relatively little initial environmental cost,

enhancing the energy efficiency of buildings
and decreasing CO2 emissions. Thus, insulation
using plastics is an effective contributor for sus-
tainability in construction. Plastic insulation
products save over 200 times more energy over
lifetime used for their manufacture and are
approximately 16% more energy efficient than
other alternative insulation materials.
As plastic insulation materials require
only minimal thickness to achieve maximum
energy efficiency, they are among the most
thermally efficient insulation materials avail- .. Fig. 16.21 Foamed PU
499 16
construction-size pieces, and spray-on foams. ties” (Goodman 2000), strength, and low cost,
The “good thermal and water-resistance prop- including the addition of plasticizers to make
erties of plastic foams, together with their it flexible. Since toxic smoke is generated on
good structural strength, led to development combustion, various smoke-reducing addi-
of structural panels known as insulated con- tives are added to minimize this issue. PVC is
crete forms (ICFs); the process of making an the major thermoplastic used to make electri-
ICF involves pouring concrete in between the cal wire conduits. This is because PVC is cor-
panels of foamed plastics, mainly extruded PS rosion free and water resistant. As a
and expanded PS” (Agarwal and Gupta 2017). consequence, PVC may be easily buried under-
Foamed plastics are also used to produce ground and within concrete structures. Other
structure insulated panels in which a sheet of polymers used in fabricating electrical ducts
foamed plastic is sandwiched between wood are polyethylene, nylon, and polyester.
boards and/or concrete walls (. Fig. 16.14).

Extruded PS and extruded polypropylene

foam boards are applied for this purpose. 16.4.4 Glazing, Windows,
As electrical wiring insulation and con- and Doors
duits are concerned, thermoplastics and ther-
mosets are good insulators of electricity. Glazing of window panels, building facades,
Consequently, these polymers are commonly and so on afford insulation from outdoor ele-
used as insulating and sheathing materials for ments such as hot and cold weather, high
wiring and cables in electrical and data trans- winds, rainwater, and snow. Glass was used as
mission. Several types of plastics are used for the traditional material for glazing applica-
these applications, including polypropylene, tions. Nevertheless, “the utilization of plastic
low-, medium-, and high-density polyethylene, materials in this sector has grown continu-
cross-linked polyethylene, polyamides, ethyl- ously over the years, and their application in
ene propylene rubber, polyesters, and fluo- flat glazing represents one of the largest appli-
ropolymers. In building construction, “PVC is cations for transparent polymers” (Feldman
the dominant polymer used as wire insulator and Akovali 2005) (7 Box 16.3: Plastics in

because of its inherent flame-resistant proper- Glazing, Windows, and Doors).
Box 16.3
Plastics in Glazing, Windows, and Doors An important application sector of plastics,

A good glazing material must be lightweight, basically PVC, is the manufacturing of window
inexpensive, UV protective, transparent, insu- profiles and doors, where PVC substitutes tra-
lating, and easy to install. On the other hand, it ditional materials such as wood and metal.
should have a good structural and impact Windows and doors manufactured with PVC
strength, adequate fire resistance, and reduced were first introduced at the beginning of the
smoke generation. Other main benefits gener- 1940s in Europe and elsewhere. Although the
ated by using plastic glazing materials are their doors market is still covered by wood and met-
superior thermal insulation properties com- als, plastic in window profiles is already a com-
pared to glass. Some basic characteristics of mon option. With a market share of around
plastic glazing materials are shown in 50% all over Europe, PVC windows are the pre-
. Table 16.7. Polycarbonate, glass-fiber rein-

ferred choice where it comes to installing new
forced polyesters, and PVC are commonly used windows either in renovation or in new build-
for substituting traditional glass glazing. ings. Plastic doors and windows are expected to
.. Table 16.7 Plastic-based glazing materials

and their desirable characteristics (Al-Obaidi
et al. 2014)
Material Desirable characteristics
GRP Diffuse light, high UV absorbance,

less discoloration, good for
industrial and commercial
applications
Polycar- High clarity, impact resistant,
bonate moldable, functional coatings and
additives, lightweight, multipane,
.. Fig. 16.22 PVC windows
multiwall assembly, highly
insulating
ity of plastic windows is reflected in their share
PMMA Lightweight, clear, impact of over 50% of the market in the continent.
resistant, durable, available in
Unplasticized PVC is the most important
colors and coatings
plastic used in window profiles and doors (PVC
Polyester Great clarity, easily thermo- is extruded into the form of a profile) but both
formed
unfilled and fiber composites are used in these
PVC Inexpensive, suitable for small applications. Glass-fiber reinforced windows
domestic applications contain polyester as the matrix material
whereas PVC is the major component in wood
plastic composite. Composite windows are
strong and durable, showing low thermal
grow in the market based on their recycling expansion. “Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene is
potential. PVC windows (. Fig. 16.22) are
another plastic used as molding material for
mainly used in residential buildings where they window profiles. This product is more expen-
are highly appreciated due to advantages such sive than PVC but provides better impact
as energy efficiency, minimal maintenance, and strength, higher heat-deflection temperature,
recyclability. According to the Association of less shrinkage, and better resistance to weather
Plastics Manufacturers in Europe, the popular- damage” (Agarwal and Gupta 2017).
16 16.4.5 Other Applications
Besides the four main application sectors,

plastics in building include cladding and
floor covering. Glass-fiber reinforced poly-
ester is commonly used as cladding mate-
rial (. Fig. 16.23), but for bigger structures

because of its cost. Thus, use of that type of

polyester is not widespread as thermoplastic-
based claddings are. Plastic floor coverings .. Fig. 16.23 One Ocean—Pavilion EXPO 2012, Yeosu
belong to the group of resilient floor cover- (South Korea), built by using glass-fiber reinforced poly-
ings and they are manufactured from polyester as cladding material. (Image courtesy of Transso-
lar Energietechnik GmbH)
urethanes and/or PVC. Plastic floor coverings
References
501 16
could be used in a great variety of applica- Carroll WF, Johnson RW, Moore SS, Paradis RA (2017)
tions such as residential and commercial uses Poly(vinyl chloride). In: Kutz M (ed) Applied plas-
tics engineering handbook – processing, materials,
(e.g., hospitals), heavy industrial applications and applications, 2nd edn. Willian Andrew, Elsevier
(floor covering in warehouse). Inc., pp 73–89
Correia Diogo A (2015) Polymers in building and con-
struction. In: Goncalves MC, Margarido F (eds)
16.5 Questions Materials for construction and civil engineering.
Springer, pp 447–499
Curiale JA (2018) Petroleum: chemistry and occurrence.
??Short Questions In: Sorkhabi R (ed) Encyclopedia of petroleum geo-
55 What is the origin of the term plastic? science, Encyclopedia of earth sciences series.
55 Discuss three benefits of using plastics. Springer, 6 p
Feldman D, Akovali G (2005) The use of polymers in
55 Enumerate the three categories of plastics.
construction. In: Akovali G (ed) Polymers in con-
55 Explain the terms monomer and polymer struction. Rapra Technology Limited, 514 p
55 What does thermoplastic mean? Gilbert M (2017) Plastics materials: introduction and
55 Enumerate the three most used plastics in historical development. In: Gilbert M (ed) Brydson’s
the world. plastics materials, 8th edn. Butterworth
Heinermann, Elsevier, pp 1–18
55 Define petroleum.
Goodman SR (2000) An overview of PVC compounds
55 List the principal classes of hydrocarbons for wire and cable applications. Wire J Int 33:214
found in petroleum. Jones DSJ, Treese SA (2014) Dictionary of abbrevia-
55 What is the secondary migration of petro- tions, acronyms, expressions, and terms used in
leum? petroleum processing and refining. In: Treese PE,
Steven A, Pujado, Peter R, Jones DSJ (eds)
55 List some fundamental benefits of plastics
Handbook of petroleum processing. Springer
in construction. International Publishing Switzerland, 91 p
55 What are the major fields of applications of Leythaeuser (2005) Origin, migration and accumulation
plastics in construction? of petroleum. In: Poli R (ed) Encyclopaedia of
55 Explain the concept of plastic-based roof hydrocarbons. Istituto della Enciclopedia Italiana,
pp 65–80
membranes.
Peters EN (2017) Engineering thermoplastics – materi-
55 Enumerate the main types of plastic used in als, properties, trends. In: Kutz M (ed) Applied plas-
piping and list the two more important. tics engineering handbook – processing, materials,
55 Explain the significance of building insula- and applications, 2nd edn. Willian Andrew, Elsevier
tion. Inc., pp 3–25
PlasticsEurope (2019) Plastics – the facts 2019: an analy-
55 List the most important polymers used to
sis of European plastics production, demand and
substitute traditional glass glazing. waste data. PlasticsEurope, 42 p
Posch (2017) Polyolefins. In: Kutz M (ed) Applied plas-
tics engineering handbook – processing, materials,
??Long Questions and applications, 2nd edn. Willian Andrew, Elsevier
55 Explain the origin of petroleum Inc., pp 27–53
Selley RC (1998) Elements of petroleum geology.
55 Explain in summarized form the distillation
Academic Press, San Diego, CA, 470 p
of petroleum process Subramanian MN (2017) Basics of polymer chemistry.
River publishers series in polymer science. River
Publishers, Delft, 236 p
References
Standards
Agarwal S, Gupta RK (2017) Plastics in building and EN ISO 472:2013+A1:2018. Plastics. Vocabulary
construction. In: Kutz M (ed) Applied plastics engi- ASTM C242 – 20. Standard Terminology of Ceramic
neering handbook – processing, materials, and Whitewares and Related Products
applications, 2nd edn. Willian Andrew, Elsevier ASTM C904 – 01(2018). Standard Terminology Relating
Inc., pp 635–649 to Chemical-Resistant Nonmetallic Materials
Al-Obaidi KM, Ismail M, Rahman AMA (2014) A ASTM D883 – 20a. Standard Terminology Relating to
review of skylight glazing materials in architectural Plastics
designs for a better indoor environment. Mod Appl
Sci 8(1)., 15 p
ASTM D5854 – 19a. Standard Practice for Mixing and Pujado, Peter R, Jones DSJ (eds) Handbook of
Handling of Liquid Samples of Petroleum and petroleum processing. Springer International
Petroleum Products Publishing Switzerland, 59 p
ASTM D6888 – 16. Standard Test Method for Available Merrington A (2017) Recycling of plastics. In: Kutz M
Cyanides with Ligand Displacement and Flow (ed) Applied plastics engineering handbook – pro-
Injection Analysis (FIA) Utilizing Gas Diffusion cessing, materials, and applications, 2nd edn.
Separation and Amperometric Detection Willian Andrew, Elsevier Inc., pp 167–189
ASTM D7708 – 14. Standard Test Method for Miall AD (2018) Depositional environments. In:
Microscopical Determination of the Reflectance of Sorkhabi R (ed) Encyclopedia of petroleum geosci-
Vitrinite Dispersed in Sedimentary Rocks ence, Encyclopedia of earth sciences series. Springer,
ASTM E2531 – 06(2014). Standard Guide for 16 p
Development of Conceptual Site Models and PlasticsEurope (2012) Plastics – architects of modern
Remediation Strategies for Light Nonaqueous- and sustainable buildings. PlasticsEurope, 16 p
Phase Liquids Released to the Subsurface PlasticsEurope (2019) The circular economy for plas-
tics – a European overview. PlasticsEurope, 36 p
Further Reading Shorkhaby R (2018) Petroleum industry. In: Sorkhabi R
(ed) Encyclopedia of petroleum geoscience,
Biron M (2017) Industrial applications of renewable
Encyclopedia of earth sciences series. Springer, 2 p
plastics – environmental, technological, and
economic advances, William Andrew, Elsevier Ltd,
632 p Useful Links
Denehy D (ed) (2011) Fundamentals of petroleum, 5th The Plastics Industry Association. www.plasticsindus-
edn. University of Texas at Austin, Petroleum try.org
Extension Service PETEX, Austin, TX, 720 p International Association of Plastics Distribution.
Holden G (2017) Thermoplastic elastomers. In: Kutz M www.iapd.org
(ed) Applied plastics engineering handbook – pro- The Plastics Division of the American Chemistry
cessing, materials, and applications, 2nd edn. Council. plastics.americanchemistry.com
Willian Andrew, Elsevier Inc., pp 91–107 The European Council of Vinyl Manufacturers. www.
Jones DSJ (2014) Introduction to crude oil and petro- ecvm.org
leum processing. In: Treese PE, Steven A, Pujado, European Association of Plastics Recycling. www.epro-
Peter R, Jones DSJ (eds) Handbook of petroleum plasticsrecycling.org
processing. Springer International Publishing Dow Chemical. www.dow.com
Switzerland, 39 p LyondellBasell. www.lyondellbasell.com
Jones DSJ, Treese SA (2014) Petroleum products and a Basf. plastics-rubber.basf.com
refinery configuration. In: Treese PE, Steven A, Saudi Aramco. www.saudiaramco.com
16
503 17
Geosynthetics
Contents
17.3 Manufacturing Processes – 510
17.4 Geosynthetic Functions – 514

17.4.1 Filtration – 514
17.4.2 Drainage – 515
17.4.3 Fluid (Gas) Barrier – 516
17.4.4 Separation – 518
17.4.5 Reinforcement – 518
17.4.6 Protection – 519
17.4.7 Other Functions – 520
17.5 Types of Geosynthetics – 520

17.5.1 Geotextiles – 520
17.5.2 Geomembranes – 522
17.5.3 Geogrids – 525
17.5.4 Geonets – 526
17.5.5 Geocells – 527
17.5.6 Geofoams – 527
17.5.7 Geomats – 527
17.5.8 Geosynthetic Clay Liners – 528
17.5.9 Geocomposites – 528
17.6 Applications of Geosynthetics – 529

17.6.1 Geosynthetics in Embankments on Soft Soils – 529
17.6.2 Geosynthetics in Erosion Control – 530
17.6.3 Geosynthetics in Hydraulic Applications – 530
17.6.4 Geosynthetics in Landfills – 531

17.6.5 Geosynthetics in Railroads – 532
17.6.6 Geosynthetics in Roadways – 532
17.6.7 Geosynthetics in Retaining Walls – 533
17.6.8 Other Applications – 534
17.7 Geosynthetic Standards – 535
References – 536
505 17
The discipline of geosynthetics began many
Summary years before it got a name. The terms geotextile
Chapter 17 provides an introduction to geo- and geosynthetic were not coined until Dr.
synthetics. The description begins with defi- J.P. Giroud used those words in a seminal paper
nitions of the term, including those from and presentation at an engineering conference
ASTM and EN ISO standards, and the rea- in Paris, in 1977 (Kelsey 2014). Nevertheless,
sons for the explosion of geosynthetic mate- even before these terms were proposed, the ma-
rials in the civil engineering market. The next terials were used in the field. A classic example
heading discusses the raw materials used in is the use of geotextiles into the Delta Works
manufacturing geosynthetics, polypropylene flood protection scheme conducted in the
(PP), polyethylene (PE), poly(vinyl chloride) Netherlands at the early 1860s.
(PVC), and polyester (polyethylene tere- The use of polymeric materials in the form of
phthalate—PET) being the most commonly geosynthetics has revolutionized the construc-
used polymers. In specific applications, some tion industry for the last three or four decades.
geotextiles can incorporate natural biode- This is because geosynthetics provide efficient,
gradable fibers. Manufacturing processes of cost-effective, and environment-friendly solu-
geosynthetics are then discussed, including tions to many problems in infrastructure and en-
nonwoven, woven, and knitting methods. vironmental protection works. In other words,
Subsequently, geosynthetic functions are de- geosynthetics are used because they work better,
scribed; hydraulic functions include filtra- last longer, and allow new and enhanced designs.
tion, drainage, and fluid(gas) barrier while It is essential to note that geosynthetics are com-
mechanical functions are mainly separation, monly a very minor cost percentage of the overall
reinforcement, and protection. The next top- project.
ic covers description of the most commonly Nowadays, geosynthetics have been included
available geosynthetics, i.e., geotextiles, geo- in the list of common construction materials at
membranes, geogrids, geonets, geocells, geo- the same level as stone, brick, concrete, gypsum,
foams, geomats, geosynthetic clay liners, and bituminous materials, steel, glass, and wood. In
geocomposites. At the end of the chapter, fact, geosynthetics can be used for achieving
geosynthetics applications are kept in mind, good durability of the civil engineering projects
including embankments on soft soils, ero- because they are versatile in use and adaptable
sion control, hydraulic landfills, railroads, to many field situations. Geosynthetics applica-
roadways, and retaining walls. To finish the tions mainly fall within the discipline of civil en-
chapter, geosynthetic standards are very gineering although they are also used in areas
briefly discussed. such as mining (. Fig. 17.1) and agricultural

engineering (. Fig. 17.2).

Reasons for the explosion of geosynthetics

in the civil engineering sector are numerous:
17.1 Introduction “(a) they are quality-control manufactured in
a factory environment, (b) they can be in-
The word geosynthetics is formed of the prefix stalled rapidly, (c) they generally replace raw
geo, which relates to the end use associated material resources, (d) they generally replace
with soil/rock/earth/ in civil engineering, and difficult designs using soil or other construc-
the suffix synthetics, since the materials in- tion materials, (e) their use is required by
volved in the manufacture are mainly man- regulations in many cases, (f) they have made
made products (polymers) obtained from heretofore impossible designs and applica-
crude petroleum oils. Geosynthetics is a ge- tions possible, (g) they are being actively mar-
neric name that encloses a broad range of keted and are widely available, (h) their
products such as geotextiles, geomembranes, technical database is nicely established, (i)
geogrids, geonets, geocells, geofoams, geosyn- they are being integrated into the profession
thetic clay liners, and geocomposites. via generic specifications, (j) they are invari-
506 Chapter 17 · Geosynthetics
ISO 10318-1 standard affirms that geosynthet-

ic is a “generic term describing a product, at
least one of whose components is made from a
synthetic or natural polymer, in the form of a
sheet, a strip, or a three-dimensional structure,
used in contact with soil and/or other materials
in geotechnical and civil engineering applica-
tions.” Summarizing both definitions, it is clear
that geosynthetics are polymeric materials and
they are used in geotechnical applications.
17.2 Raw Materials

.. Fig. 17.1 Geosynthetic in mining application (avoid-
ing filtration). (Image courtesy of Valoriza Minería) As discussed in a previous chapter devoted to
plastics, the two principal types of polymeric
materials are thermoplastic, e.g., polyethylene
or polypropylene, and thermoset, e.g., nitrile
and butyl. Geosynthetics consist almost en-
tirely of thermoplastic materials. Except for
ethylene propylene diene terpolymer (EPDM),
sometimes used in geomembranes, there are
not thermoset components commonly used in
geosynthetic applications (Koerner 2012). Of
.. Fig. 17.2 Geosynthetics in agricultural application the thousands of commercialized polymers,
(covering of silage). (Image courtesy of Huesker)
geosynthetics use very few to manufacture the
majority of products. The polymers used to
able cost competitive against other construc- manufacture geosynthetics are listed in . Ta-

tion materials, and (k) their carbon footprint ble 17.1 along with their typical abbreviations.
is very much lower than traditional solutions” In general, the most common polymeric mate-
(Koerner 2012). rials used in geosynthetics are polypropylene
Geosynthetics are offered in a broad range (PP), polyethylene (PE), poly(vinyl chloride)
of compositions according to different appli- (PVC), and polyester (polyethylene terephthal-
cations and environments. The link between ate—PET) (. Table 17.2) but polyamide and

geosynthetics and their applications is termed polystyrene are also used. Polyethylene and
Geosynthetic Engineering, which is defined as polypropylene are collectively termed polyole-
follows: “Geosynthetic engineering deals with fins or simply olefins.
the application of scientific principles and Polypropylene is the most used polymer in
methods to the acquisition, interpretation, geotextile manufacture (7 Box 17.1). Polyeth-
17

and use of knowledge of geosynthetic prod- ylene is used extensively in the production of
ucts for the solution to the problems in geo- geomembranes in the form of low-density
technical, transportation, environmental, and polyethylene (LDPE), medium-density poly-
hydraulic engineering, and also in some areas ethylene (MDPE), and high-density polyethyl-
of agriculture, aquaculture, and mining engi- ene (HDPE) (. Table 17.3). LDPE is easy to

neering” (Shukla 2013). process and shows good physical properties

According to ASTM D4439 standard, a while HDPE is more rigid and chemically re-
geosynthetic is defined as “a planar product sistant. Polyester is increasingly used in the
manufactured from polymeric material used manufacture of geogrids due to its high
with soil, rock, earth, or other geotechnical en- strength and high resistance to creep; it is
gineering related material as an integral part of chemically resistant, excepting in high pH envi-
a man-made project, structure, or system.” EN ronments, and stable to ultraviolet light.
507 17
.. Table 17.1 Polymers commonly used for the production of geosynthetics
Types of polymer Abbreviations
Polypropylene PP
Polyester (polyethylene terephthalate) PET
Polyethylene Low-density polyethylene LDPE
Very-low-density polyethylene VLDPE
Linear low-density polyethylene LLDPE
Medium-density polyethylene MDPE
High-density polyethylene HDPE
Chlorinated polyethylene CPE
Chlorosulfonated polyethylene CSPE
Polyvinyl chloride PVC
Polyamide PA
Polystyrene PS
.. Table 17.2 Major geosynthetics and the .. Table 17.3 Polyethylene density
most commonly used polymers for their classification according to ASTM D883 standard
production
Category Abbreviation Density
Geosynthetics Polymers used for range (g/
manufacturing cc)
Geotextiles PP, PET, PE, PA High-density HDPE >0.941

polyethylene
Geogrids PET, PP, HD PE
Medium-density MDPE 0.926–0.940
Geonets MDPE.HDPE polyethylene
Geomembranes HDPE, LLDPE.VLDPE, Linear LLDPE 0.919–0.925
PVC, CPE, CSPE, PP low-density
Geofoams PS polyethylene
Geopipes HDPE, PVC, PP Low-density LDPE 0.910–0.925

polymer
Box 17.1
Polypropylene hydrocarbons and propane. PP is manufac-

Polypropylene (. Fig. 17.3) is a semi-crystal-

tured by cracking naphtha (crude oil distillate).
line thermoplastic having a melting point of Polypropylene history started at 1954 when a
165 °C and a density of about 0.90 g/cm3. It German chemist named Karl Rehn and an
is the lightest polymer used in geotextile manu- Italian chemist named Giulio Natta were the
facturing being lighter than water. PP is pro- first to polymerize it. As a consequence, a large
duced by polymerization of propylene gas, production of the polymer begins a few years
which is obtained from cracking of petroleum later.
Polypropylene is manufactured in the pres-

ence of a catalyst system, resulting in a macro-
molecule that contains from 10,000 to 20,000
monomer units. Although polymerization con-
ditions (temperature, pressure, and reactant
concentrations) are set by the polymer grade to
be produced, polymerization is achieved at rela-
tively low temperature and pressure. Differences
in catalyst and production conditions can be
used to alter the properties of the plastic.
Production processes take place either in a gas-
phase (fluidized bed or stirred reactor) or in a .. Fig. 17.3 Polypropylene granules. (Image cour-
tesy of ThoughtCo)
liquid-phase process (slurry or solution). The
gas-phase polymerization is economical and
flexible and can accommodate a large variety of between 2 and 13. PP has a low resistance to sol-
catalysts, being the most common technology in vents, especially in temperatures above 60 °C,
modern polypropylene production plants. The being not inflammable. Polypropylene is also
obtained powder is finally conveyed to powder resistant to biodegradation because the formation
silos and then converted into pellets that incor- of biofilm or adhesion of microorganism is very
porate a full range of additives (. Fig. 17.3).
poor.
PP is resistant to photo-oxidation and ther- The reason for utilization of PP in geotextile
mal oxidation at moderate temperatures. manufacturing is mainly its cost/weight propor-
However, PP is sensitive to various external aging tion. It gives the geotextile the benefit of being
environments (e.g., heat, light, and radiation), more resistance at a determined price than its
having a relatively low service temperature. Where counterpart manufactured from other polymers.
it is exposed to high temperatures or to an irradia- Thus, polypropylene provides an excellent and
tion environment, the tertiary hydrogen atoms cost-effective raw material in the production of
present in PP chains are susceptible to be attacked geotextiles. However, “polypropylene tends to
by oxygen. Ultraviolet (UV) irradiation will cause lose its effectiveness because of relatively poor
a serious degradation of the material and, conse- creep deformation characteristics under long-
quently, weaken its strength where it is exposed term sustained load” (Shukla 2016). This lower
directly under sunlight. PP has an excellent resis- resistance to gradual extension under constant
tance to most acids, except for significant deterio- load makes the polymer less useful than polyes-
ration if exposed to high temperatures in the ter for reinforcement end uses, where significant
presence of acids. It has an excellent resistance to creep would result in unacceptable deformation
most alkalis and is considered stable where pH is of the geotechnical structure.
17 Poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) is a broadly used be made artificially, e.g., nylon and Kevlar.
polymer and one of the most valuable prod- Polystyrene (PS) is a polymer made after the
ucts of the chemical industry. More than 50% monomer styrene, a liquid hydrocarbon com-
of PVC manufactured in the world is used in mercially manufactured from petroleum. The
building and construction for house siding, “most common use of PS in geosynthetics is
piping, and etcetera. PVC is a hard plastic as expanded PS, which is a mixture of about
produced softer and more flexible by the addi- 5% PS and 95% air” (Koerner 2012).
tion of plasticizers (e.g., phthalates). Where There are several environmental factors that
used to manufacture geomembranes, plasti- cause the degradation of these polymers. The
cizer additions ranging from 25 to 35% are “ultraviolet component of solar radiation, hu-
common. Polyamide (PA) is a polymer con- midity, and heat and oxygen are the principal
taining monomers that occur naturally or can factors above ground to degrade polymers; be-
509 17
low the ground, the main factors to affect the ers, and/or other materials for a variety of
durability of polymers are soil particle size, purposes. The additives are used as ultraviolet
heavy metal ions, presence of oxygen and or- light absorbers, antioxidants, thermal stabiliz-
ganic matter, moisture, and temperature” (Shuk- ers, plasticizers, biocides, flame retardants, lu-
la 2016). . Table 17.4 shows the resistance to
bricants, colorants, foaming agents, or antistatic
different influencing factors of main polymers agents, ranging their quantities from a mini-
used in the production of geosynthetics and mum of 1% to as much as 50%. For example,
. Table 17.5 shows their physical properties.
carbon black is added up to 3% for decreasing
As a consequence, any geosynthetic product and/or delaying the ultraviolet light degradation
is entirely made of the polymer associated with process. Thus, the resulting formulation chang-
its name. In most cases, the polymer resin is es from product to product, but it can be gener-
mixed with many different components (addi- alized for the most common polymers used to
tives) such as antioxidants, screening agents, fill- manufacture geosynthetics (. Table 17.6).

.. Table 17.4 Resistance of main polymers used in the production of geosynthetics to different influencing
factors (Shukla 2016)
Influencing factors Resistance of polymers

PP PET PE PA
Ultraviolet light (unstabilized) Medium High Low Medium

Ultraviolet light (stabilized) High High High Medium
Alkalis High Low High High
Acids High Low High Low
Salts High High High High
Detergents High High High High
Heat, dry (up to 100 °C) Medium High Low Medium
Steam (up to 100 °C) Low Low Low Medium
Hydrolysis (reaction with water) High High High High
Microorganisms High High High Medium
Creep Low High Low Medium
.. Table 17.5 Physical properties of the main polymers used in the manufacture of geosynthetics
Polymer Density Tensile strength Elasticity (N/ Strain at Melting

(kg/m3) 20 °C (N/mm2) mm2) failure (%) point (°C)
Polyester 1380 800–1200 12,000–18,000 8–15 250

Polypropylene 900 400–600 2000–5000 10–40 160
Polyethylene 920 80–250 200–1200 20–80 110
LDPE
Polyethylene 950 350–600 600–6000 10–45 135
HDPE
Polyamide 1140 700–900 3000–4000 15–30 220
Polyvinylchloride 1250 18–50 10–100 50–150 –
PVC
.. Table 17.6 Common used geosynthetic polymers and their approximate weight percentage formulations
(Koerner 2012)
Polymer type Resin Filler Carbon black or Additives Plasticizer

pigment
Polyethylene (PH) 95–98 0 2–3 0.5–2.0 0

Polypropylene (PP) 85–96 0–13 2–3 1–2 0
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) 70–85 5–15 5–10 2–3 0
(unplasticized)
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) 30–40 20–30 5–10 2–3 25–30
(plasticized)
Polyester (PKT) 96–98 0 2–3 0.5–1 0 0
Polyamide (PA) (nylon) 96–98 0 2–3 0.5–1.0 0
Polystyrene (PS) 96–98 0 2–3 0.5–1 0 0
Chlorosulfonated Polyethylene 40–60 40–50 5–10 5–15 0
(CSPE)
Ethylene propylene diene terpolymer 25–30 20–40 20–40 1–5 0
(EPDM)
Note: All values are percent on the basis of weight measurement
Although most geosynthetics are manufac-

tured with synthetic polymers, some geosyn-
thetics can incorporate natural biodegradable
fibers, such as jute, coir (. Fig. 17.4), paper,

cotton, wool, silk, etc., for specific applica-

tions. Natural biodegradable fibers provide
high strength, high modulus, low breaking ex-
tension, and low elasticity. “By applying bio-
degradable geotextiles, the accumulation of
additives and micro-plastics in the environ-
ment, as well as the requirement of recollect-
ing the materials after the growth of natural .. Fig. 17.4 Geosynthetic (geomat) with a coir fiber
vegetation has set in, is avoided” (Prambauer composite layer. (Image courtesy of Salix)
et al. 2019). Moreover, the main benefits of
17 utilizing natural fibers in geotextiles are “low
cost, robustness, strength/durability, availabil- 17.3 Manufacturing Processes
ity, good drapability and biodegradability/en-
vironment friendliness” (Chandra Das et al. Geosynthetics are manufactured in different
2017). This type of fibers is commonly used ways depending on the type of geosynthetic
for prevention of soil erosion until vegetation (. Fig. 17.5). The manufacturing process of

can become properly established on the ground geosynthetics has become increasingly special-
surface. ized so that it is distinguished from the tradi-
511 17
Woven
Geotextile
Needlepunched
Geogrid Heat-bonded
Geosynthetic Materials
Chemical
bonded
Geonet
Knit
Extruded
Geomembrane
Calendared
.. Fig. 17.5 Manufacturing processes for the different types of geosynthetics
tional textile processes. In the case of geotextiles, The main three types of geotextiles are de-
the manufacturing processes trace the origins to fined by the processes used in their manufac-
traditional textile procedures although they are ture: nonwoven, woven, and knitted. Of these
nowadays a high technologically sophisticat- types, nonwoven geotextiles are the most
ed industry. Geotextile manufacturing process commonly used group of geotextiles due to its
mainly includes two steps: “(a) making linear broad range of functions for which they can
elements such as fibers or yarns (a fiber is a unit be used (7 Box 17.2). Woven geotextiles are

of matter and a yarn is a number of fibers from the second most important family, somewhat
the particular polymeric compound selected) more limited in their applications. Knitted
from the polymer employing heat and pressure, geotextiles are generally limited to some niche
and (b) combining these linear elements to make markets for specific applications needing
a planar structure generally termed the fabric” properties not offered by conventional non-
(Giroud and Carroll 1983). woven or woven geotextiles.
Box 17.2
Nonwoven Geotextiles using mechanical (punching thousands of

Nonwoven geotextiles are manufactured with- small barbed needles), thermal (partial melting
out the utilization of a weaving process. The of the fibers), or chemical (fixing the fibers
method consists of a continuous lying of the with glue, latex, etc.) bonding methods. A com-
fibers on a moving conveyor belt to form a bination of different bonding processes, e.g.,
loose web slightly wider than the finished prod- needled and thermofixed, is also possible
uct. The fibers are bonded together directly (. Fig. 17.6).

.. Fig. 17.6 Needle-punched and heat-bonded nonwoven geotextiles
.. Fig. 17.7 Needle-punching machine. (Image

courtesy of AUTEFA)
Needling “is the process most commonly

used to manufacture nonwoven geotextiles
made from short staple fibers. The process con-
sists of passing the web of fibers spread in the
needle-punching machine (. Fig. 17.7) between

two plates of metal with holes. These holes

allow the needles, which are equipped with
small barbs, to pass continuously through the
17 material” (Bérubé and Saunier 2016). The nee- .. Fig. 17.8 Metal rollers in heat bonding geotex-
dles are about 75 mm long, and each has three tiles. (Image courtesy of Danosa)
or four downward oriented barbs. The barbs
act to interweave the fibers for creating a ran- The “process of heat bonding using hot cal-
dom structure in which the fibers are tangled endering is sometimes used in the production
together. This process creates a felt with a cer- of short staple fiber geotextiles although this
tain level of cohesion depending on the inten- process is more commonly used for continuous
sity of the needling. “Fabrics weights up to 750 filament-based geotextiles. In this method, the
g/m2 can be made in a single pass but weights in filament web is directed to a machine where it
excess of 2,000 g/m2 can be obtained stacking will be compressed at a high temperature by
and needling single fabrics” (Koerner 2012). several heated metal rollers” (Bérubé and
513 17
Saunier 2016) (. Fig. 17.8). The heat and pres-

with an acrylic resin and, after curing and/or
sure fuse together the filaments forming a cohe- calendering, bonds are generated between fila-
sive filament structure. The resultant fabrics are ments. The resulting surface texture of the
rather stiff in texture and feel. Somewhat fabric is generally quite rough and abrasive.
higher fabric strength can be obtained with this Although this product is rare in the conven-
method of production at lower fabric weights tional geotextile industry, “chemical-based
than for other fabric styles, due to the fiber bonding geotextiles are particularly interest-
bonding used in the manufacture. ing for specialty products with characteristics
In the resin bonding method, a fibrous such as biodegradability” (Bérubé and Saunier
web or mat is either sprayed or impregnated 2016).
Woven geotextiles are produced by the con- rectional and mechanical resistance. Such fab-
ventional weaving processes. The manufacture rics, usually made from polyester for strength
uses the traditional method of making textiles and stiffness, are used mainly for reinforce-
involving the preparation of yarn and weaving ment.
the yard together; weaving is defined as the ac- Most of the geomembranes, which typi-
tion of interlacing two perpendicular yarns or cally use both HDPE and LDPE, are made by
filament together. As a consequence, the weav- either extrusion or calendaring processes
ing process gives these geotextiles their char- (. Fig. 17.5). In the extrusion process, a mol-

acteristic appearance of two sets of parallel ten polymer is converted into a nonreinforced
yarns interlaced at right angles to each other sheet by using an extruder. Production of
(. Fig. 17.9). The terms warp and weft are
geomembranes using the calendering method
used to distinguish between the two different is similar to nonwoven geotextiles. With re-
directions of yarn. The warp (also termed ma- gard to geogrids, all of them share common
chine direction) is the series of yarns running geometries comprising two sets of orthogo-
lengthwise in a woven geotextile roll while the nal load-carrying elements that enclose basi-
weft (also termed cross-machine direction) is cally rectangular or square patterns. Extruded
the series of yarns running in the perpendicu- geogrids are manufactured from polymer
lar sense across the width of the loom, that is, sheets in several stages of processing, thus
running widthwise in a woven geotextile roll. generating uniaxially (two stages) or biaxially
The manufacture of woven geotextiles uses (three stages) oriented geogrids (. Fig. 17.10).

different types of yarns and filaments, i.e., Woven geogrids are produced by weaving or
monofilament, multifilament, slit film, fibril- knitting processes from polyester multifila-
lated film, etc., in accordance with the proper- ments. The structure is commonly coated with
ties required in the finished geotextile. This acrylic or PVC or bitumen to prevent environ-
type of geotextile shows the most compact mental attack and construction induced dam-
structure of the three main types cited above. ages. Bonded geogrids are manufactured “by
Knitted geotextiles are manufactured uti- bonding the mutually perpendicular PP or
lizing knitting process, a producing method PET strips together at their crossover points
that interlaces the yarns together in the form using either laser or ultrasonic welding”
of loops for generating a planar structure. (Shukla 2016). Geonets are manufactured
Warp, rather than weft knitting, is the pre- typically by an extrusion method in which a
ferred manufacturing technique. This family minimum of two sets of strands are overlaid
of geotextiles is used in limited application to generate a three-dimensional structure.
because they are very extensible. The looped Unlike the geogrids, the intersecting ribs of
structure gives very specific functionalities in geonets are commonly not perpendicular to
terms of the textile’s extensibility and its di- one another (. Fig. 17.11).

.. Fig. 17.9 Woven geotextile (Shukla 2016)
17.4 Geosynthetic Functions 17.4.1 Filtration

17
Geosynthetic functions can be firstly classified Filtration function consists of the “restrain-
into two big groups: hydraulic and mechanical. ing of uncontrolled passage of soil or other
Hydraulic functions mainly include filtration, particles subjected to hydrodynamic forces
drainage, and fluid(gas) barrier while mechani- while allowing the passage of fluids into or
cal functions are principally separation, rein- across a geosynthetic material” (EN ISO
forcement, and protection; surface erosion 10318-1 standard) or the “retaining of soil or
control is recently taken into account. In some other particles subject to hydrodynamic forces
cases, the geosynthetic may serve dual functions. while allowing the passage of fluids into or
The functions for each type of geosynthetic through the geosynthetic” (IGS). In filtration
product are shown in . Table 17.7.
function (. Fig. 17.12), the geosynthetic acts

17.4 · Geosynthetic Functions
515 17
.. Fig. 17.10 Uniaxial and biaxial geogrids
similar to a sand filter by allowing water to 17.4.2 Drainage

move through the soil while retaining all up-
stream soil particles. Accordingly, the geosyn- Drainage function consists of the “collecting
thetic allows adequate fluid flow with limited and transporting of precipitation, ground wa-
migration of soil migration of soil particles ter, and/or other fluids in the plane of a geosyn-
across its plane over a projected service life- thetic material” (EN ISO 10318-1 standard) or
time of the application considered. When a “the collecting and transmitting of precipita-
geosynthetic filter (e.g., geotextile) is placed tion, ground water, and or other liquids or
adjacent to a base soil, a discont3inuity is gen- gases along the plane of the geosynthetic” (IGS
erated between the original soil structure and 2018). In drainage function (. Fig. 17.13),

the structure of the geosynthetic. This discon- geosynthetic, e.g., geotextile, collects and trans-
tinuity allows some soil particles to migrate ports mainly water within its plane. The pa-
through the geosynthetic under the influence rameter is then called in-plane water flow
of seepage flows (particles with diameters capacity, which is defined as volumetric flow
smaller than the filter opening size). rate of water per unit width of geosynthetic at
.. Fig. 17.11 Typical geonets (Shukla 2016)
an established hydraulic gradient and com- “the prevention or reduction of the movement
pressive stress. It is expressed as liters per sec- of any fluid through a construction by the use
ond and meter. If the geosynthetic performs of a geosynthetic barrier” (IGS 2018). This
filtration and drainage, it dissipates the excess latter hydraulic function (. Fig. 17.14),

pore water pressure by allowing flow of water sometimes called waterproofing, is developed
in plane (drainage) and across the plane (fil- if the geosynthetic, e.g., geomembrane and
17 tration). geosynthetic clay liner, acts like an almost im-
permeable membrane to prevent the migra-
tion or liquids or gases over a projected service
17.4.3 Fluid (Gas) Barrier lifetime of the application under consider-
ation. It is important to note that the geosyn-
Fluid barrier function consists of the “use of thetic only acts as a relatively impermeable
a geosynthetic to prevent or limit the migra- barrier; this use is quite common in waste
tion of fluids” (EN ISO 10318-1 standard) or containment applications (. Fig. 17.1).

517 17
.. Table 17.7 Primary functions of geosynthetics
Separation Reinforcement Protection Filtration Drainage Barrier Surface

erosion
control
Geotextiles X X X X X
Geogrids X
Geonets X X
Geostrip X
Geospacer X X
Drainage X X X X
geocomposites
(with geonet
core, geomat
core, or other
types of core)
Geosynthetic X X
barriers
(synthetic,
bituminous,
clay)
Geocells X
Geomats X
Geoblanket X
.. Fig. 17.12 Basic mechanism involved in the filtration function (IGS and EN ISO 10318-2 standard)
.. Fig. 17.13 Basic mechanism involved in the drainage function (IGS and EN ISO 10318-2 standard)
.. Fig. 17.14 Basic mechanism involved in the fluid barrier function (IGS and EN ISO 10318-2 standard)
17.4.4 Separation base/sub-base course and/or to prevent intro-

duction of granular particles into soil subgrade.
Separation function consists of the “preven- In some cases, e.g., geosynthetic layer placed at
tion from intermixing of adjacent dissimilar the interface between a soft foundation soil and
soils and/or fill materials by the use of a geo- the overlaying granular layer, it is difficult to
17 synthetic material” (EN ISO 10318-1 stan- differentiate separation function from rein-
dard) or “the prevention from intermixing of forcement function. Both functions are com-
adjacent dissimilar soils and or materials” patible; the separation function depends on the
(IGS 2018). This mechanical function particle size of the foundation soil.
(. Fig. 17.15) is probably the simplest applica-

tion of a geotextile. For instance, it prevents 17.4.5 Reinforcement

intermixing of soft soil and granular fill, thus
keeping intact the structural integrity and func- Reinforcement function consists of the “use
tioning of both materials. Separation function of the stress-strain behavior of a geosynthetic
is observed if a geotextile is located at the soil material to improve the mechanical properties
subgrade level in pavement or railway tracks to of soil or other construction materials” (EN
avoid pumping of soil fines into the granular ISO 10318-1 standard) or “the use of the
519 17
.. Fig. 17.15 Basic mechanism involved in the separation function (IGS and EN ISO 10318-2 standard)
.. Fig. 17.16 Basic mechanism involved in the reinforcement function (IGS and EN ISO 10318-2 standard)
properties of a geosynthetic to improve the 17.4.6 Protection

mechanical properties of soil or other con-
struction materials” (IGS 2018). In this func- Protection function consists of the “prevent-
tion (. Fig. 17.16), the geosynthetic, e.g.,

ing or limiting of local damage to a given ele-
geotextile, grid, acts as a reinforcement comment or material by the use of a geosynthetic
ponent within a soil mass or in combination material” (EN ISO 10318-1 standard) or “the
with the soil to generate a composite that has use of a geosynthetic material as a localized
improved strength and deformation properties stress reduction or dissipation layer to prevent
over the unreinforced soil; the composite ma- or reduce damage to a given surface, material
terial (reinforced soil) has high compressive or layer” (IGS 2018). In protection function
(soil) and tensile (geosynthetic) strengths. In (. Fig. 17.17), a geosynthetic, e.g., geotextile,

fact, any geosynthetic applied as reinforce- located between two materials performs the
ment has the main task of resisting the applied protection function where it alleviates or dis-
stresses and/or avoiding unacceptable defor- tributes stresses and strain transmitted to the
mations in the geotechnical structure (Shukla material to be protected against any damage.
2016). Applications of this function are in me- In some applications, a geosynthetic layer is
chanically stabilized and retained earth walls required to avoid the damage to a geotechni-
and steep soil slopes and/or in basal reinforce- cal structure (as a localized stress reduction
ment over soft soils and over deep foundations layer).
for embankments and heavy surface loadings.
17.4.7 Other Functions on the basis of their permeability characteristics

(. Fig. 17.19). The International Geosynthetics

Geosynthetics can also perform some other Society (IG) recommends the geosynthetics
functions besides those previously discussed. graphical symbols shown in . Fig. 17.20.

Examples of these functions are surface ero-

sion control (. Fig. 17.18), absorption, con-

tainment, cushioning, insulation, screening, or 17.5.1 Geotextiles

vegetative reinforcement. For instance, geosyn-
thetic can be used to prevent soil and/or other Geotextiles are the most popular geosynthet-
particle movements at the surface of a slope. ics. They were originally an alternative to soil
filter and, for this reason, they were termed
filter fabrics, synthetic fabrics, construction
17.5 Types of Geosynthetics cloths, construction fabrics, etc. The emergent
geotextile utilization with nonwoven fabrics in
Geosynthetic types are numerous. The most European countries at the beginning of the
commonly available products can be classified seventies contrasted with the utilization of
into the following major, specific types: (1) geo- woven fabrics in the United States.
textiles, (2) geomembranes, (3) geogrids, (4) EN ISO 10318-1 defines geotextile (GTX)
geonets, (5) geocells, (6) geofoams, (7) geomats, as a “planar, permeable, polymeric (synthetic
(8) geosynthetic clay liners, and (9) geocompos- or natural) textile material, which may be
ites. Moreover, geosynthetics can be classified nonwoven, knitted, or woven, used in contact
with soil and/or other materials in geotechni-
cal and civil engineering applications.” ASTM
D4439 states that geotextile is “a permeable
geosynthetic comprised solely of textiles,” but
adding that “geotextiles perform several func-
tions in geotechnical engineering applications,
including: separation, filtration, drainage, re-
inforcement, and protection.” This assertion
is essential because geotextiles provide many
functions while other geosynthetics, such as
geomembranes or geogrids, usually provide
just one function (containing in geomem-
branes and reinforcement in geogrids). Thus,
.. Fig. 17.17 Basic mechanism involved in the protec- geotextiles are used in some of the most inter-
tion function (EN ISO 10318-2 standard) esting and forward engineering projects.
17
.. Fig. 17.18 Basic mechanism involved in the surface erosion control (IGS and EN ISO 10318-2 standard)
17.5 · Types of Geosynthetics
521 17
Geosynthetics
Permeable Essentially impermeable
Geotextile Geomembrane Geomembranes

Geotextiles
related product related product
Geogrids (GGR) Polymeric
Woven (GTX-W)
Geonets (GNT) -elastomeric
Nonwoven (GTX-N)
Geocells (GCE) Geosynthetic clay -thermoplastic
Knitted (GTX-K)
Geomats (GMT) liners (GBR-C) Bituminous
Geomcomposites (GCO)
.. Fig. 17.19 Classification of geosynthetics based on permeability (Saathoff 2003)
.. Fig. 17.20 Recommended graphical symbols for geosynthetics. (Source: International Geosynthetics Society)
The main polymer used in the manufacture roads), the reinforcement of weak soils and
of geotextile fibers is polypropylene (about other materials (e.g., as basal reinforcement
95%) although polyester, polyethylene, or poly- over soft soils or to prevent puncture of geo-
amide can be sometimes used. Five principal membranes by landfill materials), filtration in
types of fibers are used in the construction of cross-plane flow (e.g., to filter hydraulic fills or
geotextiles: “monofilament, multifilament, sta- between backfill soil and voids in retaining
ple fiber yarn, slit-film monofilament, and slit- walls), and drainage in plane flow (e.g., as a
film multifilament and most of them are made drainage gallery in an earth dam or as a drain
by the melt process” (Koerner 2012). These fi- beneath sport and athletic installations). For
bers are further manufactured into fabrics such separation, the primary function of the geo-
as woven, nonwoven, and knit although the textile is to avoid mixing of different soil
latter is seldom used in geotextiles. These fab- types, for example in road construction, both
rics share common applications but also show paved and unpaved roads (. Fig. 17.21). In

significant differences, particularly in filtration that case, a large particle sized base course is
properties and performance. placed on a finer subgrade, which is then cov-
According to EN ISO 10318-1 standard, ered by fine-grained soil mainly to provide
nonwoven geotextile (GTX-NW) is a “geotex- drainage. This function is usually planned in
tile made of directionally or randomly orien- conjunction with other functions such as fil-
tated fibers, filaments, or other elements, tration and reinforcement. . Fig. 17.22 illus-

mechanically and/or thermally and/or chemi- trates the main applications of geotextiles.
cally bonded,” woven geotextile (GTX-W) is a
“geotextile produced by interlacing, usually at
right angles, two or more sets of yarns, fila- 17.5.2 Geomembranes
ments, tapes, or other elements,” and knitted
geotextile (GTX-K) is a “geotextile produced Geomembrane (7 Box 17.3) is a general name

by interlooping one or more yarns, filaments, used to substitute terms such as synthetic mem-
or other elements.” In general, woven and branes, polymeric membranes, plastic liners,
knitted geotextiles are used where high tensile flexible membrane liners, impermeable mem-
strength is needed while nonwoven geotextiles branes, and impervious sheets. Geomembrane
are used where deformation capability and ro- is “an essentially impermeable geosynthetic
bustness are required. . Table 17.8 shows the
composed of one or more synthetic sheets”
performance of geotextile families to achieve (ASTM D4439). A similar term is geosynthetic
functions. barrier (GBR), which is a “low-permeability
Major applications of geotextiles deal geosynthetic material, used in geotechnical
with the separation of dissimilar materials and civil engineering applications with the
(e.g., between subgrade and stone base in pave purpose of reducing or preventing the flow of
roads or between subgrade and ballast in rail- fluid through the construction” (EN ISO
17 .. Table 17.8 Performance of geotextile families to achieve functions (Koerner 2016)
Filtration Separation Drainage Reinforcement Protection Liquid barrier
Nonwoven XX XX XX X XXX –
Woven X XX – XXX – –
Knitted XXX – – X – –
Composites Variable depending on design of composite
—Not applicable, X adapted to certain applications, XX adapted to most applications, XXX ideal solution
523 17
.. Fig. 17.21 Geotextile in road construction. (Image

courtesy of NAUE)
10318-1 and ASTM D4439). The term barrier

applies “when the geomembrane is used within
an earth mass” whereas the term liner is “usu-
ally reserved for the cases where the geomem-
brane is used as an interface or a surface
revetment” (Shukla 2016). .. Fig. 17.22 Main applications of geotextiles
Box 17.3
Geomembranes used in the manufacture of geomembranes

Geomembranes have been used since the besides high-density polyethylene. VFPE is
1950s, and their utilization has steadily generally used in cover liner systems as it pro-
increased as a result of water resource con- vides similar chemical resistance as HDPE but
cerns. They have become essential to engineer- is more flexible. PVC geomembranes are used
ing projects acceptance and success, being in liners for many waste containment applica-
available in a variety of physical, mechanical, tions.
and chemical resistance properties designed to The main three methods to manufacture
meet the requirements of a wide range of geomembranes are extrusion, calendering,
applications. and spread coating. Depending on the appli-
Geomembranes are flexible, polymeric cations, the rigidity, thickness, and surface
sheets that have very low hydraulic conductiv- texture of geomembranes can be controlled
ity (generally less than 10−11 cm/sec) and, during manufacturing. The extrusion method
therefore, are used as liquid or vapor barriers. is more generally used to manufacture HDPE,
Polymeric geomembranes are not absolutely LLDPE, and PP geomembranes. In this pro-
impermeable but they are relatively imperme- cess, a molten polymeric compound is
able when compared to geotextiles or soils, extruded through a die to form a sheet. On the
even to clay soils. The most common types of other hand, this method may also be used to
geomembranes are shown in . Table 17.9.
manufacture textured geomembranes, which
Polyethylene is the most common polymer in can generate a higher friction surface.
geomembranes for landfill applications in The calendering method is frequently used
base and cover liner systems due to its high to produce PVC, CSPE, and reinforced geo-
chemical resistance and durability. Specifically, membranes. The spread coating process is used
HDPE is generally used in base liner systems. to produce geomembranes reinforced with
Very flexible polyethylene (VFPE) and polyvi- geotextiles (a type of geocomposite). With this
nyl chloride (PVC) polymers are also often process, which is rarely used, a uniform coat-
.. Table 17.9 Summary of the more commonly used polymeric geomembranes (U.S. Department
of the Interior 2018)
Geomembrane Abbreviation Polymer type Approximate Comment

type resin
formulation
(Percent of
total weight)
High-density HDPE Thermoplastic 95–98 High resistance to UV and

polyethylene chemical degradation. Can
be susceptible to stress
cracking.
Linear LLDPE Thermoplastic 94–96 LLDPE has less resistance
low-density to UV and chemical
polyethylene degradation. Slightly more
flexible than
HDPE. Excellent
elongation properties.
Polyvinyl chloride PVC Thermoplastic 30–40 Good flexibility at all
temperatures. Could
degrade quickly
depending on plasticizer.
Chlorosulfonated CSPE Thermoplastic 40–60 Difficult to repair once
polyethylene rubber installed because of
vulcanization.
Ethylene EPDM Thermoset 25–30 Excellent flexibility. Seams
propylene diene must be glued and may
terpolymer not be as durable as other
membranes.
Polypropylene fPP Thermoplastic 85–96 Fairly new product and
(flexible) service life not well known,
but considered to be
flexible and easy to install.
ing of molten polymeric compound is spread seaming; thermal fusion and extrusion welding
on a woven or nonwoven geotextile. To main- are the most commonly used techniques”
tain the impermeable character, geomem- (Zornberg and Christopher 2007).
branes should finally be seamed in the field; as The primary function of geomembranes is
17 liquid containments, one of the primary con- always containment as a liquid, vapor barrier,
cerns of geomembrane applications is poor or both. Thus, the applications of geomem-
sealing of two joining geomembranes. The branes include all types of landfills, reser-
main methods of seaming polymeric geomem- voirs, canals, and other containment facilities
brane sheets together are through thermal or (. Fig. 17.23). The range of applications is

chemical processes. These processes can very great and covers environmental, transpor-
involve “the addition of extra polymer in the tation, hydraulic, and geotechnical engineer-
bonded area, existing four general methods of ing. Examples of these numerous applications
seaming: extrusion welding, thermal fusion or are the following: “as liners for potable water
melt bonding, chemical fusion, and adhesive and waste liquids, as liners for the agriculture
525 17
and aquaculture industry, as covers for solid-

waste landfills, as waterproof facing for
masonry and concrete dams, as floating reser-
voirs for seepage control, to contain and trans-
port liquids, as a barrier to odors from landfills
or to vapors beneath buildings, to control
expansive or frost-susceptible soils, to prevent
infiltration of water in sensitive areas, beneath
and adjacent highways to prevent pollution
from deicing salts or to capture hazardous liq-
.. Fig. 17.23 Geomembrane in an evaporation
uid spills, and to contain seepage losses in
pond. (Image courtesy of NAUE)
existing aboveground tanks” (Koerner 2012).
17.5.3 Geogrids stretching during the manufacture: (a) uniaxial

geogrid (. Fig. 17.10): manufactured by the

Geogrids are geosynthetic materials having an longitudinal stretching of a regularly punched

open grid-like appearance. They show a uni- polymer sheet; it possesses a higher tensile
formly distributed array of open spaces (aper- strength in the longitudinal direction compared
tures) between their longitudinal and transverse to the tensile strength in the transverse direction,
elements (. Fig. 17.24). Geogrid (GGR) is “a

(b) biaxial geogrid (. Fig. 17.10): manufactured

geosynthetic formed by a regular network of stretching in both directions and hence possess-
integrally connected elements with apertures ing equal tensile strength in the longitudinal and
greater than 6.35 mm (1∕4 in.) to allow inter- transverse directions, and (c) triaxial geogrid:
locking with surrounding soil, rock, earth, and produced to obtain equal tensile strength in
other surrounding materials to function pri- multidirections.
marily as reinforcement” (ASTM D4439) and a Geogrids represent a rapidly growing seg-
“planar, polymeric structure consisting of a ment within the geosynthetics market. They
regular open network of integrally connected, are mostly manufactured after polypropylene,
tensile elements, which may be linked by extru- high-density polyethylene, and polyester poly-
sion, bonding, or interlooping or interlacing, mers. The main function of geogrids is in the
whose openings are larger than the constitu- area of soil reinforcement as they are charac-
ents” (EN ISO 10318-1). The resulting geogrids terized by high tensile strength. Therefore,
are termed extruded geogrid, bonded geogrid, or geogrids are used in the reinforcement of re-
woven geogrid, respectively. Geogrids show taining walls, steep slopes, dams, and other
large apertures between individual ribs in the structural bodies as well as for the reinforce-
machine and cross-machine directions. The ment and/or stabilization of granular materi-
junctions are called nodes. The apertures allow als in paved and unpaved roads (. Fig. 17.25),

soil particles on either side of the installed sheet railways, working platforms, etc. In some cas-
to come into direct contact, thus increasing the es, geogrids can act as a separator layer to re-
interaction between the geogrid and some soils. duce penetration of material into a soft
The market of geogrids embraces a wide subgrade. Biaxial geogrids are primarily used
range of types with a great diversity of materials in base reinforcement applications while the
and constructions. Extruded geogrids are classi- uniaxial products are used in the remaining
fied into three types based on the direction of applications.
.. Fig. 17.24 Geogrid configuration
D4439) and a “geosynthetic consisting of par-

allel sets of ribs overlying and integrally con-
nected with similar sets at various angles”
(EN ISO 10318-1). Geonets are made through
a method similar to that employed in the man-
ufacture of geogrids but the ribs are intercon-
nected in a homogeneous way through the
process of extrusion. Almost all geonets are
made of polyethylene.
The primary function of geonets is drain-
17 age. Geonets, sometimes called geospacers, ap-
pear to be similar to geogrids but they show
differences in their functions to perform the
.. Fig. 17.25 Geogrid in road applications. (Image in-plane drainage of liquids or gases. The de-
courtesy of Terrafix Geosynthetics Inc.) sign function of geonets yields absolutely with-
in the drainage zone where they are used to
17.5.4 Geonets convey any kind of liquids. Geonets can be
used as drainage core between two imperme-
Geonet (GNT) is “a geosynthetic consisting able layers working as control drainage, or
of integrally connected parallel sets of ribs combined with cover and carrier geotextiles as
overlying similar sets at various angles for pla- drainage layer in soil layers. If Geonets are
nar drainage of liquids or gases” (ASTM laminated with geotextiles on just one or on
527 17
.. Fig. 17.27 Geocell
17.5.6 Geofoams
.. Fig. 17.26 Drainage geocomposite. (Image courtesy
of Geofabrics) Geofoam is a “block or planar rigid cellular
foamed polymeric material used in geotech-
both surfaces, either in the manufacturing pro- nical engineering applications” (ASTM
cess or during laying, they are then referred to D4439 standard). It is a lightweight product
as drainage geocomposites (. Fig. 17.26).
(apparent density of 10–30 kg/m3) with a
high void content. Geofoam is used as light-
weight fills, thermal insulators, and drainage
17.5.5 Geocells channels, reducing the stresses on soil or
structures. Geofoam is produced “by the ap-
According to EN ISO 10318-1, a geocell (GCE) plication of the polymer in semi-liquid form
is a “three-dimensional, permeable, polymeric through the use of a foaming agent, resulting
(synthetic or natural) honeycomb, or similar cel- in a material that consists of many closed
lular structure, made of linked strips of geosyn- but gas-filled cells” (Shukla 2016). The unex-
thetics” (. Fig. 17.27). Geocells are commonly
panded polymeric component, e.g., polysty-
manufactured by using high-density polyethyl- rene, is the skeletal nature of the cell walls.
ene, polyester, or another polymeric material. Expanded polystyrene geofoam has been
They are used, for instance, to hold soil particles, used as a geotechnical material since the
roots, and small plants in geotechnical engineer- 1960s (. Fig. 17.28).

ing. When expanded during installation, the in-

terconnected strips constitute the walls of a
flexible, three-dimensional cellular structure.
The cells, typically 50 to 100 mm wide, may be 17.5.7 Geomats
filled with gravel, sand, or fine soil to generate a
permeable or impermeable structure, depending Geomat (GMA) is a “three-dimensional, per-
on the application. They are generally used to meable structure, made of polymeric monofila-
help in improving the performance of standard ments, and/or other elements (synthetic or
construction materials and erosion-control natural), mechanically and/or thermally and/or
treatments, preventing mass movements by pro- chemically and/or otherwise bonded” (EN ISO
viding confinement through tensile reinforce- 10318-1 standard) (. Fig. 17.29). Geomats are

ment. Geocells are also called geocellular used as erosion-control mats to reinforce roots
containment and their function is to transfer the of grass and small plants. They can also expand
downward load into the transverse plane of the the erosion-control limits of vegetation, princi-
soil-geocell structure. pally on slopes.
clay bonded to a layer or layers of geosynthetic

materials” (ASTM D4439) and a “factory-as-
sembled structure of geosynthetic materials in
the form of a sheet in which the barrier function
is essentially fulfilled by clay” (EN ISO 10318-1).
Geosynthetic clay liners, with average thickness
of about 7 mm, are rolls of factory-fabricated
thin layers produced by encapsulating clay be-
tween two or more layers of geotextile or by
bonding the clay to one side of a geomembrane
(Kong et al. 2017). An alternative process con-
sists in utilizing an adhesive bond to glue the
clay to the geosynthetic, which results in unrein-
forced GCL. Geosynthetic clay liners are pro-
.. Fig. 17.28 Cross section of road construction using duced in panels that are joined in the field by
EPS geofoam and overlying pavement system. (Illustra- overlapping. The first objective of the geosyn-
tion courtesy of Beaver Plastics) thetic material is to hold the clay together in a
uniform layer to permit transportation and in-
stallation of the GLC without loss of clay.
Bentonite is the preferred clay component of
geosynthetic clay liners (5 kg/m2) because of its
low permeability, swelling capacity, and relative
abundance (when hydrated under confinement,
the bentonite swells to form a low-permeability
clay liner with an equivalent hydraulic protec-
tion of one meter of compacted clay). A wide
range of materials, including geotextiles and
geomembranes, are used to carry and encapsu-
late the clay, providing a product with structural
support. Major applications of geosynthetic
clay liners (sometimes called bentonite mats) in-
.. Fig. 17.29 Geomat texture
clude surface impoundment, landfill lining, and
secondary containment for fuel storage facilities.
17.5.8 Geosynthetic Clay Liners Additional uses deal with a variety of contain-
ment structures such as dams, canals, rivers, and
The barrier system is an essential component lakes. . Fig. 17.30 shows a typical application

of modern closed landfills. In the early 1980s, of geosynthetic clay liner with bentonite.
the barrier system of a landfill mainly com-
prised of compacted clay liner (CCL). This
17 was progressively handover by geomembrane 17.5.9 Geocomposites
by the end of 1980s. Since the 1990s, the geo-
synthetic clay liner gained widespread popu- Geocomposite (GCO) is a “manufactured, as-
larity (Kong et al. 2017) because the interesting sembled material using at least one geo-
juxtaposition of polymer and natural soil ma- synthetic product among the components”
terials. In comparison with compacted clay (EN ISO 10318-1 standard) and a “product
liners and geomembranes, geosynthetic clay composed of two or more materials, at least
liners show several benefits, for instance low one of which is a geosynthetic” (ASTM
hydraulic conductivity, high mechanical be- D4439 standard). Geocomposites consist of a
havior, and simple and quick field installation. combination of geotextiles, geogrids, geonets,
Geosynthetic clay liner (GBR-C or GCL) is and/or geomembranes in a factory-fabricated
“a manufactured hydraulic barrier consisting of unit to achieve multiple functions simultane-
17.6 · Applications of Geosynthetics
529 17
.. Fig. 17.31 Geosynthetic in embankment on soft

.. Fig. 17.30 Geosynthetic clay liner with bentonite. soil. (Illustration courtesy of Arizona Geosynthetics
(Image courtesy of Terrafix Geosynthetics Inc.) Inc.)
ously. Any of these four geosynthetics can be struction type with soil displacement and sta-
combined with another synthetic material, bilizing berms (Duggal 2008) (. Fig. 17.31).

e.g., steel cables, and with soil. In fact, geosyn- In this situation, the use of a geosynthetic to
thetic clay liners are geocomposites. The ap- enhance embankment stability is one of the
plications of these geosynthetics are numerous most effective methods of the soil reinforce-
and growing, encompassing the entire range ment technology. This is because the utiliza-
of geosynthetic functions. tion of geosynthetic reinforcement can
significantly increment the factor of safety of
the embankment. Thus, the utilization of bas-
17.6 Applications of Geosynthetics al reinforcement enhances the stability of the
embankment by mobilizing the tensile strength
As discussed before, applications of geosyn- of the geosynthetic reinforcement. In address-
thetics are quite varied. The most common ing problems, geosynthetics can be adequately
fields of application are the following: (1) em- used to (a) reduce soft soils displacements
bankments on soft soils, (2) erosion control, caused by low bearing capacity of soft soils,
(3) hydraulic projects, (4) landfills, (5) rail- (b) prevent overall failure of the embankment
roads, (6) roadways, and (7) retaining walls. and soft foundation soil, and (c) avoid sliding
failure along the geosynthetics surface.
Geosynthetics are used in a number of
ways for the construction of embankments
17.6.1 Geosynthetics over soft ground. These include mainly three
in Embankments on Soft categories (Chu et al. 2012): “(1) basal rein-
Soils forcement utilizing geosynthetics, (2) consoli-
dation using prefabricated vertical drains
Embankment on soft ground is a big topic in (PVDs), and (3) geosynthetic-reinforced col-
geotechnical engineering. The construction of umns/pile supported embankment (GRCSE)
embankments on soft soils can be a challeng- system.” Sometimes a combination of two or
ing task. If the foundation soils underlying the three of the above methods can be taken into
embankment are too weak to allow the con- account. High stiffness geotextiles are com-
struction of an embankment to the needed monly used to prevent foundation failure of
height, then geosynthetic-reinforced (geotex- the embankment constructed over soft soil.
tiles and/or geogrids) embankments can offer Geotextiles used as reinforcement are gener-
considerable savings over conventional con- ally high-strength woven geotextiles.
17.6.2 Geosynthetics in Erosion long-term systems including partially or com-

Control pletely geosynthetics are the following: “(a)
turf reinforcement mats (TRM), (b) fabric
Geosynthetics continue to replace traditional formed revetments (FFR), and (c) geocellular
materials such as soil and stone in performing confinement systems (GCS)” (Sprague 2013).
important engineering functions in erosion- Based on project characteristics, an erosion-
control applications while simultaneously intro- control work can implicate the utilization of
duce great versatility and cost- effectiveness. one or more geosynthetic products.
Geosynthetics are used extensively in erosion-
control systems such as: “(a) temporary, degrad-
able materials for the enhancement of vegetative 17.6.3 Geosynthetics in Hydraulic
establishment, (b) long-term, non-degradable
materials to extend the erosion control limits of
Applications
vegetation or soil, (c) primary slope or channel
Geosynthetics in hydraulic applications com-
linings, (d) silt fences and turbidity curtains, and
prise a widespread range of geosynthetics that
(f) components in sediment retention devices”
interact with soil and water. They cover basi-
(Sprague 2013). A large construction site may
cally the functions separation, filtration,
have several distinct erosion-control materials
draining, and lining. For these objectives, pro-
based on location, flow conditions, and regula-
duced geosynthetics embrace wovens and
tory requirements. . Fig. 17.32 shows an illus-
nonwovens geotextiles manufactured with

tration of the application of geocells in erosion

natural and synthetic fibers, bituminous and
control.
synthetic geomembranes, and all types of geo-
There are two main categories of erosion-
composites. In hydraulic structures (dams and
control systems: temporary or degradable and
canals), geosynthetics are generally “used to
long-term or nondegradable. There are four
limit the interaction between the structure
main temporary degradable systems composed
and water, thus increasing the stability of the
partially or completely of geosynthetics: (a)
hydraulic structures; the elements of the geo-
erosion-control netting (ECN), (b) open weave
synthetic system chosen for utilization with a
meshes (ECM), (c) erosion- control blankets
hydraulic structure are extremely project- and
(ECB), and (d) fiber roving systems (FRS). The
site-specific” (Stevenson 2008).
The main objectives of geosynthetics in
hydraulic structures are as follows: (a) to re-
duce or prevent water infiltration through the
employment of geomembranes, (b) to reduce
or prevent bank erosion of canals using geo-
membrane liners, (c) to provide drainage and/
or filtration through the use of geotextiles
and geonets, and (d) to provide reinforcement
17 for the foundation of the structure or the
structure itself by utilizing geogrids. In the
case of geomembranes, they can either be left
exposed or covered with materials, e.g., con-
crete panels. Covered geomembranes may be
susceptible to damage, specifically puncturing
produced by the overlying and/or underlying
materials. “To avoid this issue, geotextiles are
commonly placed underneath and sometimes
over the geomembrane to protect the material
.. Fig. 17.32 Geocells in erosion control. (Illustration from puncturing, serving as cushions to mini-
courtesy of TYPAR) mize stress concentrations” (Stevenson 2008).
531 17
.. Fig. 17.33 Geosynthetics in canals. (Illustration .. Fig. 17.34 Intermediate sealing system in a landfill
courtesy of Huesker) using geosynthetics. (Illustration courtesy of Huesker)
In canals (. Fig. 17.33), where the liquid

liner systems of landfill facilities, including
(water or many other liquids, including indus- the following: (a) geogrids: to reinforce slopes
trial chemicals and wastes) is moving, a geo- beneath the waste and for reinforcing cover
membrane is located either directly on the soils above geomembranes, (b) geonets: used
prepared soil subgrade or on previously infor in-plane drainage, (c) geomembranes: used
stalled geotextile. The soil cover of even thick- as a barrier to liquids, gases and/or vapors, (d)
ness is then placed over the geomembrane. geocomposites: used for separation, filtration
Moreover, it is usual to cover the geosynthetic or drainage, (e) geosynthetic clay liners: used
with a nonerodible cover of asphalt, shotcrete, as an infiltration/hydraulic barrier, and (f)
or concrete. This is because the liquid can geotextiles: used for filtration purpose or as
erode the soil cover and act directly on the geo- cushion to protect the geomembrane from
membrane. In dams, the geomembranes are puncture.
commonly preserved with a facing of cast-in- Landfill base liners are installed below the
place concrete slabs or a soil cover of gravel. waste to eliminate the release of liquids from
As a consequence, it is necessary to protect the waste. Landfill cover liners are placed above
geomembranes against puncturing from the the final waste configuration to prevent water,
bedding layer generated from the water pres- usually from rain or snow, from percolating
sure on geomembrane as well as puncturing into the waste and producing leachate. In some
from the gravel of the cover layer. Geotextiles cases, a double composite liner system is used
are typically used as protection layers. for containment of municipal solid waste; the
system is often used for landfills designed to
contain hazardous waste. A typical example of
17.6.4 Geosynthetics in Landfills a double composite liner system includes the
following: “a geomembrane/GCL composite
Geosynthetic systems are currently an accept- as the primary liner system and a geomem-
ed and well-established component of the brane/compacted clay liner composite as the
landfill industry. Containment systems for secondary system. The leak detection system,
landfills generally incorporate both geosyn- located between the primary and secondary
thetics and earthen materials (e.g., compacted liners, is a geotextile/geonet composite. The
clays for liners, granular media for drainage leachate collection system overlying the pri-
layers, and different types of soils for protec- mary liner on the bottom of the liner system
tive and vegetative layers). Multiple geosyn- consists of gravel with a network of perforated
thetic utilization in the design of modern pipes. A geotextile protection layer beneath the
municipal solid waste landfills is good illustra- gravel provides a cushion to protect the prima-
tion of an application in which different geo- ry geomembrane from puncture by stones in
synthetics have been used (. Fig. 17.34).
the overlying gravel. The leachate collection
Almost all types of geosynthetics are ap- system overlying the primary liner on the side
plied in the design of both base and cover slopes of the liner system is a geocomposite
sheet drain (geotextile/geonet composite) sizes compatible with the particle sizes of the
merging into the gravel on the base. A geotex- material to be retained. While performing as a
tile filter covers the entire footprint of the land- separator, at the same time the geotextile must
fill and prevents clogging of the leachate act as a filter, allowing the water to pass freely
collection and removal system. The groundwa- into the plane of the geotextile and retaining
ter level may be controlled at the bottom of the the subgrade solid particles. To perform this
landfill by gradient control drains built using role, the geotextile must have adequate perme-
geotextile filters. Finally, several types of geo- ability and retention properties, and be resis-
synthetics (e.g., geogrids or geotextiles) can be tant to blockage.
selected for stabilization of the foundation Geosynthetics can also help to reduce set-
soils” (Zornberg and Christopher 2007). tlements associated with lateral spreading of
the ballast and sub-ballast materials. For this
purpose, geosynthetics must be installed with-
17.6.5 Geosynthetics in Railroads in the ballast or sub-ballast layers. Major geo-
synthetic characteristics to be taken into
Geosynthetics used in railroad applications em- account in reinforcement function are the in-
brace geotextiles, geogrids, geocomposites, and teraction between geosynthetic-soil/ballast,
geocells. Geosynthetics can perform different resistance to mechanical damage, tensile stiff-
functions in new track construction or rehabili- ness modulus, and tensile strength. Good
tation such as separation of materials with dif- drainage is essential in railroads to prevent
ferent particle size distributions, filtration, track deterioration due to the action of the
drainage, and soil reinforcement (. Fig. 17.35).
water originating from rain precipitation onto
In railroad construction, geosynthetics may be the track and/or pumped from the subgrade
installed within or beneath the ballast or sub- into the ballast layers. A drainage geotextile
ballast layers. It is important to take into ac- or geocomposite installed at particular points
count that the subgrade mud-pumping and the in the track structure can afford cross-track
bearing capacity failure beneath railway tracks drainage, avoiding the accumulation of water
are essential issues. These problems may be and allowing water entering the plane of the
solved using geotextiles, geogrids, and/or geo- fabric to be transmitted laterally away from
membranes at the ballast/subgrade interface. the areas of loading. Excess pore pressures
Geotextiles can be used to separate layers from wet subgrade pumping are relieved, and
of the track support structure with different ballast contamination is minimized. In this
particle sizes and properties. Furthermore, application, the geosynthetic must have ade-
separation is the key function of the geotextile quate large discharge capacity and be resis-
in most railroad applications because it acts as tant to mechanical damage.
a barrier preventing the intermixing of fine
subgrade materials from contaminating clean
ballast. To provide this function, the geosyn- 17.6.6 Geosynthetics in Roadways
thetic must be resistant to concentrated stress-
17 es (tear, puncture, and burst) and have aperture Roadway construction is one of the earliest areas
of application of geosynthetics. Geosynthetics
have been satisfactorily used to comply different
functions that contribute considerably with the
good performance of roadways (paved and un-
paved). Geosynthetics incorporate the func-
tions of reinforcement, filtration, separation,
stabilization, drainage, stiffening, protection,
and barrier. The geosynthetic types generally
used in roadway systems include “geotextiles
.. Fig. 17.35 Geosynthetics in rail construction on (woven and non-woven) and geogrids (biaxial
soft soil. (Illustration courtesy of Huesker) and multiaxial), but erosion-control products,
533 17
geocells, geonets (or geocomposite drainage pected caused by traffic of heavy vehicles, cli-
products), and geomembranes have been used in mate conditions, and mechanical properties
a number of applications” (Zornberg 2017). of the materials used. In order to solve the is-
Thus, 7 biaxial geogrid can be used for ground
sues raised, geosynthetics may be cost-
reinforcement, sub-base aggregate reduction for effective and improve the performance and
paved and unpaved road foundations, and per- durability of pavements. The utilization of
meable paving construction. It allows reduction geosynthetics in paved roadways displays dif-
in the amount of aggregate required to improve ferent design options that allow for improved
the bearing capacity of the ground (. Fig. 17.36).
pavement performance in an economically ef-
Geosynthetics can be used to comply one ficient manner. Thus, “a paved roadway de-
or more specific functions in several roadway sign incorporating geosynthetics can be
applications. As an example, “geosynthetics economically efficient from the standpoint of
have been used since the 1970’s to improve the reducing construction costs and/or operation
performance of unpaved roads on soft sub- and maintenance costs” (Shukla 2012).
grade soils. Beginning in the 1980’s, geosyn- Geotextiles and geogrids used to reinforce
thetics were used to minimize reflective asphalt-paving layers must provide increased
cracking in asphalt overlays and to improve tensile strength at a very low strain. This is
the performance of base aggregate layers” compatible with the asphalt in order to create
(Zornberg 2017). The pavement of paved strong internal adhesive and/or mechanical
roadways may last considerably less than ex- bond within the asphalt matrix. On the other
hand, geotextiles and geogrids must be ther-
mally stable and physically durable enough to
support paving operations. In general, the as-
phalt reinforcement is located between two
bituminous layers, which enable “the aggre-
gate components of the asphalt to become
mechanically interlocked with the geosynthet-
ics” (IGS 2018). Finally, geotextiles (typically
nonwoven) and geocomposites can be applied
to enhance protection of the subgrade from
water intrusion and reflection cracking for as-
phalt overlays. Geosynthetics can also be suc-
cessfully used to reinforce unpaved roads (e.g.,
temporary access roads or tracks, forest roads,
and haul roads) and working platforms on
soft soils. Since geosynthetics may perform
different functions in unpaved roads, there are
many factors leading to their election, and
several design solutions may be equally effi-
cient for a specific project.
17.6.7 Geosynthetics in Retaining

Walls
In the early seventies, different kinds of geo-
synthetics were used to reinforce soil in the
construction of retaining walls. The design of
reinforced soil walls involves considering the
.. Fig. 17.36 Biaxial geogrid used for ground stabiliza- internal stability of the reinforced soil mass to
tion in roads. (Illustration courtesy of abg) establish the geometric arrangement of the
These geosynthetic systems are easy to install

compared to conventional construction tech-
niques. The wall facing can be connected to
the geosynthetics without performance com-
plications. The use of geogrids, made from
high-strength polyester (PET) or polypropyl-
ene (PP), for the reinforcement of steep walls
.. Fig. 17.37 Geogrids in retaining walls and slopes.
and retaining structures is essential in cases
(Illustration courtesy of Huesker) where the shear strength of the soil material
alone is insufficient to provide the required
geosynthetics and the tensile strength needed stability. This is because the layers of geogrid
to insure stability, avoiding thus the failure by inserted between the blocks and extending be-
sliding, overturning, foundation bearing ca- hind the retaining wall interlock with the sur-
pacity, and along deep-seated surfaces (IGS rounding soil to create a cohesive soil mass.
2018). Geosynthetic-Reinforced Retaining Grid layers must be correctly spaced to dis-
(GRR) walls have been increasingly used in tribute internal forces.
highway projects provided that it represents
the most cost-effective solution to retaining
walls. The GRR walls mainly consist of wall 17.6.8 Other Applications
facing, compacted backfill material, and geo-
synthetic reinforcement. During construction There are no limits to geosynthetic applica-
of the GRR wall, geosynthetic reinforcement tions. Some examples of other applications of
is installed between layers of compacted back- geosynthetics include, among others, agricul-
fill to provide tensile resistance. Thus, “hori- tural and mining applications (. Figs. 17.1

zontal layers of geosynthetic reinforcement and 17.2) (7 Box 17.4). Agricultural applica-

can be included with retaining wall backfills tions include the use of geosynthetics as ani-
to provide a reinforced soil mass that acts as a mal waste lagoon liners, animal waste odor
gravity structure to resist the earth forces de- control covers, water containment geomem-
veloped behind the reinforced zone” (Bathurst branes and GCL, anaerobic digester liners, etc.
2019). . Fig. 17.37 shows an example of the

In mining applications, the use of geosynthet-
application of geogrids in retaining walls and ics is now widespread, including containment
slopes. of liquors/mine tailings/acid mine drainage
Geogrids and geotextiles are used for the and chemical compatibility, heap leach pads,
construction of reinforced retaining walls. filtration, and dewatering of mine tailings.
Box 17.4
Mine Tailings Capping and Drainage (Carrshield Management Plan in respect of mine water
17 Mine Works, UK): Courtesy of ABG pollution, contributing around 20% of the
The former Barneycraig lead mine at Carrshield total quantities of lead, zinc, and cadmium
(UK) is located within the North Pennines found in the Tyne Estuary, over 40 km down-
Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty, which stream of the site.
itself is a UNESCO Global Geopark. The As part of the action plan for the site, the
mine operated primarily between c.1760–1920, tailings storage facility required a permanent
and the mine tailings were deposited along the capping solution to prevent rainwater infiltra-
east bank of the River West Allen during that tion into the tailings, thus achieving the two key
time. As a result, the river was the joint second objectives for this part of the works, which
worst in the Northumbria River Basin were: (a) to afford long-term stability to the tail-
17.7 · Geosynthetic Standards
535 17
.. Fig. 17.39 Geocell panels providing soil veneer

reinforcement. (Image courtesy of ABG)
.. Fig. 17.38 Drainage geocomposite installation.
(Image courtesy of ABG) or both sides) was installed (. Fig. 17.38). It

provides both functions in a rapidly installed

ings dam, which had already begun to collapse single layer without compromising the integrity
into the River West Allen in several places, and of the containment. The drainage geocomposite
(b) to mitigate the creation, and subsequent saved significant material costs compared to pur-
ingress, of an estimated 3500 kg of leached lead, chasing separate FML and GDL layers as well
zinc, and cadmium into the river each year. as reducing the program time for the installation
The original capping solution for this site works while still fulfilling the key objectives of
included a separate flexible membrane liner the project. The utilization of wide width rolls of
(FML) and a geocomposite drainage layer the product enabled rapid installation and mini-
(GDL). Finally, a drainage geocomposite (a mized the number of joints. Finally, a geocell
high-strength flexible polyethylene cuspated core was also used on the 1:2.5 slopes to reinforce the
with a nonwoven geotextile bonded to either one soil veneer (. Fig. 17.39).

17.7 Geosynthetic Standards draulic properties, durability, and design using

geosynthetics standards. Finally, European
The number of ASTM, ISO, and EN standards Committee for Standardization and its CN/TC
used in geosynthetics is impressive. For instance, 189-Geosynthetics committee includes six
as of the writing of this book, ASTM Committee working groups (1—geotextiles and geotextile-
D35 on Geosynthetics, formed in 1984, has pub- related products—general and specific require-
lished over 155 standards related to geosynthet- ments, 2—terminology, identification, sampling
ics. These standards include test methods, guides, and classification, 3—Mechanical testing, 4—
practices, and specifications. The International Hydraulic testing, 5—durability, and 6—geo-
Organization for Standardization (ISO) has 38 synthetic barriers—general and specific
published ISO standards and 23 ISO standards requirements) with 189 published standards.
under development devoted to geosynthetics More about these standards can be found on
(committee ISO/TC 221). The working groups their respective web sites, as needed (7 www.
in this committee cover terminology, identifica- astm.org, 7 www.iso.org, and 7 standards.cen.

tion and sampling, mechanical properties, hy- eu).

17.8 Questions Kelsey C (2014) A brief history of geotextiles: a 40-year

update. Land Water 2014:8–13
Koerner RM (2012) Designing with geosynthetics, vol
??Short Questions 1, 6th edn. Xlibris Corporation, Bloomington, Indi-
55 Define geosynthetics. ana, USA, 526 p
55 Enumerate some reasons for the explosion Kong DK, Wu HN, Chai JC, Arulrajah A (2017) State-
of geosynthetic materials onto the civil Of-The-Art Review of Geosynthetic Clay Liners.
Sustainability 9(11):2110. 19 p
engineering market.
Prambauer M, Wendeler C, Weitzenböck J, Burgstaller
55 What are the most commonly used poly- C (2019) Biodegradable geotextiles – an overview
mers types in geosynthetics manufacture? of existing and potential materials. Geotext Geo-
55 Enumerate the geosynthetics manufactur- membr 47:48–59
ing processes. Shukla SK (2013) Articles of professional interest: edi-
torial of the special issue on geosynthetics engineer-
55 What is the main difference between filtra-
ing. Ind Geotech J 43(4):281–282
tion and drainage functions on geosynthet- Shukla SK (2016) An introduction to geosynthetic engi-
ics? neering. CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, Lon-
55 Define geotextile according to ASTM and don, 472 p
EN ISO standards. Sprague CJ (2013) The evolution of geosynthetics in
erosion and sediment control. GRI-25, Geosynthet-
55 What is the major difference between a geo-
ics Research Institute, Long Beach, 18 p
textile and a geomembrane? Stevenson PE (2008) Geosynthetics – characteristics and
55 Enumerate the applications of geosynthet- applications. In: Caijun S, Yi-lung M (eds) High-
ics. performance construction materials: science and
55 What are the main geosynthetics used in applications. World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte.
Ltd., Singapore, pp 299–332
railroads?
U.S. Department of the Interior (2018) Design stan-
55 Comment the principal objectives of geo- dards no. 13, Embankment Dams, Chapter 20: Geo-
synthetics in asphalt-paving layers. membranes, Bureau of Reclamation, Washington,
110 p
Zornberg JG (2017) Functions and applications of
geosynthetics in roadways. Procedia Eng 189:
??Long Questions
298–306
55 Explain the functions of geosynthetics. Zornberg JG, Christopher BR (2007) Geosynthetics.
55 Enumerate the geotechnical applications of In: Delleur JW (ed) The handbook of groundwater
geosynthetics and summarize one of them. engineering, 2nd edn. CRC Press, Taylor & Francis
Group, Boca Raton, pp 37–36
Standards
References
ASTM D4439–2018. Standard Terminology for Geo-
synthetics
Bathurst RJ (2019) Geosynthetics in walls. International
ASTM D883 – 2020a. Standard Terminology Relating
Geosynthetics Society Leaflets on Geosynthetics
to Plastics
Applications, IGS Education Committee, 2 p
EN ISO 10318-1: 2015+A1:2018. Geosynthetics. Terms
Bérubé D, Saunier P (2016) Manufacturing process of
and definition
geotextiles. In: Koerner RM (ed) Geotextiles – from
EN ISO 10318-2: 2015+A1:2018. Geosynthetics. Sym-
17 design to applications, Woodhead Publishing series
in textiles: number 175. Woodhead Publishing, Else-
bols and pictograms
vier, San Diego, pp 25–60
Chandra Das S, Paul D, Fahad MM, Islam T, Nizam Further Reading
EH (2017) Geotextiles a potential technical textile Cook DI (2003) Geosynthetics. Rapra Rev Rep 14(2),
product. J Sci Eng Res 4(10):337–350 Rapra Technology Systems, 120 p
Chu J, Bergado DT, Shin EC and Chai J (2012) Embank- Das MB, Sobhan K (2018) Principles in geotechnical
ments on soft ground and ground improvement. 5th engineering, 9th edn. Cengage Learning, Boston,
Asian regional conference on Geosynthetics, Bang- 820 p
kok, 22 p Das MB (ed) (2011) Geotechnical engineering hand-
Giroud JP, Carroll RG (1983) Geotextile products. Geo- book. J. Ross Publishing, Fort Lauderdale, 800 p
tech Fabr Rep 1(1):12–15 PIANC (2011) The application of geosynthetics in
IGS (2018) Guide to the specification of geosynthetics. waterfront areas. The World Association for Water-
International Geosynthetics Society, IGS Secretar- borne Transport Infrastructure, PIANC Report no
iat, Jupiter, 26 p 113, 111 p
References
537 17
Rawal A, Shah T, Anand S (2010) Geotextiles: produc- European Association of Geosynthetic product Manu-
tion, properties and performance. Taylor & Francis, facturers www.eagm.eu
Technology and Engineering, Boca Raton, 226 p Geofabrics www.geofabrics.com
Sarsby RW (2006) Geosynthetics in civil engineering. Geosynthetic Materials Association geosynthetics.ifai.
Woodhead Publishing, Elsevier, Sawston, 312 pp com
Scheirs J (2009) A guide to polymeric Geomembranes: a Geosynthetics World geosyntheticseworld.com
practical approach. Wiley, Chichester, West Sussex, Huesker www.huesker.co.uk
United Kingdom, 596 p International Geosynthetics Society www.geosynthetic-
Shukla SK, Yin JH (2006) Fundamentals of geosynthet- ssociety.org
ics engineering. Taylor and Francis, London, 410 p NAUE www.naue.com
Salix www.salixrw.com
Useful Links Terrafix Geosynthetics Inc. www.terrafixgeo.com
ABG www.abg-geosynthetics.com
539 18
Wood and Cork
Contents
18.1 Introduction and Definitions – 540
18.2 Types of Wood – 542
18.3 Wood Structure – 544
18.4 Wood Properties – 545

18.4.1 Moisture – 545
18.4.2 Mechanical Properties – 546
18.4.3 Thermal Properties – 546
18.4.4 Acoustic Properties – 546
18.4.5 Exposure to Chemicals – 546
18.4.6 Fire Properties – 547
18.5 Processing of Wood – 548
18.6 Wood-Based Products – 550

18.6.1 Plywood – 550
18.6.2 Wood-Based Panels – 551
18.6.3 Glue-Laminated Timber – 554
18.6.4 Other Wood-Based Products – 554
18.7 Biodeterioration of Wood – 556

18.7.1 Fungi – 556
18.7.2 Termites – 556
18.7.3 Wood Preservation – 557
18.8 Cork – 558

18.8.1 Origin – 558
18.8.2 Properties – 559
18.8.3 Processing – 560
18.8.4 Construction Applications – 561
References – 563

540 Chapter 18 · Wood and Cork
Summary
This chapter introduces the reader to the
world of wood and wood-based products.
After summarizing the main definitions and
used terminology, main types of wood are
discussed, including differences between
hardwood and softwood. Structure, chemical
composition, and main properties of wood
are further addressed. The behavior of wood
to fire is also introduced. Then, processing of
wood is explained, including peeling process
to manufacture veneers. Wood-based products
(plywood, wood-based panels, and glued
laminated timber) are further described.
Biodeterioration of wood by fungi and insects
is taken into account in view of paramount
importance in wood products. Consequently,
wood preservation (wood preservatives and
preserving methods) is explained. The last
headings of the chapter are devoted to cork:
origin, main properties, processing methods,
and construction applications. .. Fig. 18.1 Big sequoia in Yosemite National Park
(California). (Image courtesy of Manuel Jorge Bustillo)
18.1 Introduction and Definitions
Wood is a natural composite material of bio-

logical origin constituted by a heterogeneous
and anisotropic substance produced by a liv-
ing organism: the tree (the biggest organism
on earth). The tallest existing trees on Earth,
Sequoia sempervirens, present in California
(. Fig. 18.1), may reach even more than

100 m (the tallest one measures 115.7 m).

Since ancient times, wood has been the most
important material used for protection and
shelter against wind, rain, and cold. In devel-
oped cultures, the art of house construction
with wood was already quite advanced several
hundred years ago (. Fig. 18.2). Since the

18 industrial era in the nineteenth century, in

which timber was widely used in the construc-
tion industry, the consumption of primary
and secondary wood products in construction
has increased continuously. Wood, probably
the most original source for building and con-
struction purposes, maintains nowadays its
importance within the building and construc- .. Fig. 18.2 Church built with timber in Norway.
tion market due to its versatility, diversity, and (Source: Wikipedia)
18.1 · Introduction and Definitions
541 18
aesthetic characteristics. Wood has a high
strength-to-weight ratio and, for this reason,
it is used most efficiently in structures where
wood is carrying a lot of its own self-weight.
Wood can be defined as “the material that
under the bark constitutes the stem of a tree,
being bark the outer covering of the stem (por-
tion of the tree above ground) and branches of a
tree” (ISO 24294 standard). Wood is the only
major renewable construction material, being
recyclable and biodegradable. In addition, wood
needs a minimal quantity of energy-based pro-
cessing, showing also a low level of embodied
energy (see 7 Chap. 1) in comparison with

many other materials used in construction (e.g.,

steel and concrete). Therefore, the utilization of
wood and wood-based products contributes to
overall sustainable development. Wood is used
in the production of different timber products,
most of them intended specifically for utilization
as both structural and nonstructural elements in
the construction of buildings (. Fig. 18.3) (the

word timber derives from old English word tim-

brian that means to build). Internationally, the
terms wood and timber are commonly used
interchangeably to represent the basic material .. Fig. 18.3 World tallest building of wood (Norway).
used to manufacture wood products. (Image courtesy of Nina Rundsveen)
As an introduction to the complex termi-
nology used in the wood industry, timber is Public construction, residential, and
(ISO 24294 standard) a “wood in the form of nonresidential activities as well as consumer
standing or felled trees, or a wood product of wealth and spending drive the derived
these after conversion; in the case of con- demand of primary and secondary wood
verted material, the term timber is not used to products. As a consequence, global housing
refer to certain wood products, such as wood- and construction trends are essential predic-
based panels, wood pulp, chips or sawdust; tors of wood products demand. In many
where the term timber is used in United States countries, housing, both new construction
to refer to a specific end-use product, it gener- and remodeling, is the largest value-added
ally refers to sawn lumber that is 114 mm market for wood products. . Table 18.1
(nominal 5 in) or greater in thickness.” In this indicates the global production for forest
ISO standard, sawn timber (or lumber or products in 2018. According to the Food
sawn lumber in the United States) is “a timber and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the
section produced by the lengthwise sawing or United Nations, “the global production and
chipping of logs or solid wood of larger trade of major wood products have surged
dimensions and possible cross-cutting, further to their highest level since the Food and
machining, or both, to obtain a certain accu- Agriculture Organization began recording
racy.” Besides that, lumber is a “manufactured forest statistics in 1947.” China is the world
wood product derived from a log through major producer and consumer in sawn wood
sawing or planning” (ASTM D6254/D6254M (18% and 26%, respectively) and wood-
standard). In summary, timber (or lumber) based panels (50% and 47%, respectively)
refers generally to wood harvested from trees. while the United States of America leads the
.. Table 18.1 Global production for forest products in 2018
Production
Change (%) compared to:
Product Unit 2018 2017 2000 1980

Roundwood million m3 3971 3% 14% 27%
Sawn wood million m3 493 2% 28% 17%
Wood-based panels million m3 408 1% 129% 321%
Plywood million m3 163 2% 179% 313%
Particleboard. OSB and fibreboard million m3 245 1% 105% 326%
Source: FAO
production (18%) and consumption (18%)

of industrial round wood (definitions of
these terms are included in the following
headings).
Wood is commonly used in buildings as
doors, windows, frames, temporary partition
walls, roofs, etc. With the advances in technol-
ogy, wood, in its natural form, is being quickly
replaced by composite wood materials in which
natural wood is only a basic ingredient of the
products. This is because they are more useful
and adaptable since they can be treated chemi-
cally, thermally, etc. Examples of this type of .. Fig. 18.4 Glulam arch roof in Stockholm central
products are plywood, fiberboards, glue-lami- railway station, built 1925 (Riberholt 2007)
nated timber, and impregnated wood. Glued
laminated timber, sometimes termed glulam, 18.2 Types of Wood
became one of the first engineered-wood prod-
ucts; it is still very competitive in modern con- Commercial woods can be classified as hard-
struction (. Fig. 18.4). Today, there are many
woods and softwoods, based on their botanical
new engineered wood materials, with very subdivision rather than their physical strength
interesting characteristics in terms of shape, (7 Box 18.1). In fact, the terms are not illus-

dimension, appearance and, mainly, physical trative of how strong a tree is since some soft-
and mechanical properties. woods are nowadays stronger than hardwoods.
18 Box 18.1
Hardwoods and Softwoods coniferous (the term hardwood does not infer

ASTM D1038 standard defines hardwood hardness in its physical sense).” Examples of
and softwood as follows: hardwood is a “gen- softwood species include pine, fir, and cedar
eral term used to designate the wood pro- while oak, beech, eucalyptus, and many of
duced from deciduous or broad-leaved trees the species that constitute the sources of
in contrast to softwood, which is produced tropical timber are examples of hardwood
from trees that are usually needle bearing or species.
18.2 · Types of Wood
543 18
Hardwoods (angiosperms) are from broad-

leafed trees, which in temperate climates are
deciduous, losing their leaves in autumn. By
contrast, in tropical climates, where there is lit-
tle seasonal variation, old leaves are constantly
being replaced by new. Softwoods (gymno-
sperms) are mainly from conifers, characteristi-
cally with needle- shaped leaves, and growing
predominantly in the northern temperate zone.
Mostly they are evergreen, with the notable
exception of the European Larch (Larix
decidua) and they include the Californian red-
wood (Sequoia sempervirens), the world’s larg-
est tree (. Fig. 18.1). Hardwood takes longer

to mature and grows than softwood, is mainly

tropical, and is usually denser than softwood.
For this reason, hardwoods are more expensive .. Fig. 18.5 Transverse and tangential-longitudinal
and used less commonly than softwoods in faces of the softwood European larch (Walker 2006)
wood building construction.
The fundamental differences between dif-
ferent kinds of woods are founded on the types,
sizes, proportions, pits, and arrangements of
different cells that compose the wood.
Softwoods have a comparatively simple struc-
ture and are more uniform in appearance than
hardwoods. An important cellular similarity
between softwoods and hardwoods is “that in
both kinds of wood, most of the cells are dead
at maturity even in the sapwood. The cells that
are alive at maturity are known as parenchyma
cells, and can be found in both softwoods and
hardwoods” (Wiedenhoelft 2010).
Under microscopy, softwood shows mainly
one type of cell (tracheid), which changes in
size between the fast growth of spring and early
summer (early wood) and the slow growth of .. Fig. 18.6 Transverse and tangential-longitudinal
the late summer and autumn (late wood). The faces of the hardwood poplar (Walker 2006)
two principal functions of tracheids are sup-
porting the mass of the tree and transporting or vessels for conducting functions and smaller
water and mineral salts from the roots up the cells or wood fibers that provide the mechanical
stem. Approximately 90% of cells in softwoods support. In terms of evolution, hardwood is
are tracheids, aligned parallel with the trunk much younger than softwood and its cellular
and therefore allowing the vertical transporta- structure is more complex. . Fig. 18.5 and

tion of fluids while also acting as the primary 18.6 shows transverse and tangential-longitu-
structural elements. However, hardwood has a dinal faces of a type of softwood and a type of
more complex structure of cell with large cells hardwood, respectively.
18.3 Wood Structure
Despite their wide diversity, all trees show some

common features. Thus, all are vascular, peren-
nial plants capable of secondary thickening, or
adding yearly growth to previous growth. The
trunk of trees is formed by different materials
present in concentric bands. From the outside
of the tree to the inside are outer bark, inner
bark, vascular cambium, sapwood, heartwood,
and pith (. Fig. 18.7). Outer bark offers

mechanical protection to the softer inner bark,

helping to avoid evaporative water loss. Inner
bark is the tissue through which sugars (food)
produced by photosynthesis are transformed
from the leaves to the roots or growing portions
.. Fig. 18.8 Growth rings of a tree
of the tree. Cambium is a layer of cells that is
located between the woody part of the tree and
conditions; in temperate zones, growth rings
the bast (inner layer of bark). Sapwood is the
correspond to annual rings. Thus, the age of a
active, living wood that transports water (or
tree can be estimated from the number of
sap) from the roots to the leaves. Excepting
annual rings in a cross section of the tree log
young trees, the sapwood represents from 10 to
at its base. The portion of a growth ring
60% of the total radius, being common values
formed at the beginning of the growth season
ranging from 20 to 50%. In very young tress, the
is termed earlywood while the one formed later
sapwood will extend across the whole radius.
on is termed latewood. In some types of trees,
The heartwood is the inner zone of wood that,
the two portions are easily distinguishable as
in a growing tree, has finished to include living
bands of different color and/or porosity.
cells or to transport sap; it is frequently darker
When a tree reaches a certain age, generally
than sapwood from which it not always clearly
from five to thirty years (depending on the spe-
differentiated. The pith, sometimes called heart
cies), there is an onset of sapwood transforming
center, is the zone within the first growth ring
into heartwood. This transformation, radiating
that consists chiefly of soft tissue.
from the central zone of the trunk, results from
In a detailed analysis, it is possible to
the death of the cells and relates to chemical and
observe concentric bands, called the growth
physical changes. This process means the cessa-
rings (. Fig. 18.8); each one corresponds to a

tion of the transport of sap and the formation

tree vegetative season. The width of growth
and deposition of residual products (extrac-
rings depends on the species and on growing
tives). It often involves a change in the color of
wood, a decrease in its permeability and, in most
cases, an increase of the natural durability. This
is because the products deposited on the heart-
18 wood may be repellent and toxic for the fungus
and insects that usually degrade the wood.
On a major scale, wood is formed by cells
organized according to two interconnected sys-
tems: a longitudinal (vertical) one composed of
cells oriented along the stem axis and a radial
(horizontal) one formed by cells oriented from
pith to bark. The longitudinal system is the pre-
dominant one and the orientation of its cells
.. Fig. 18.7 Materials presented in a tree determines the grain of wood, that is, the gen-
18.4 · Wood Properties
545 18
eral direction or arrangement of fibers in wood 18.4.1 Moisture
(fibers are the long narrow cells of which wood
is basically composed). Where longitudinal Like many natural materials, wood is hygro-
cells are parallel to the stem axis, the grain is scopic, meaning that it absorbs water.
straight; if they form an angle with respect to Moisture exchange between wood and air
the stem axis, the grain is deviated. Grain devia- depends on the relative humidity and temper-
tion is generally considered a technical defect, ature of the air and the current quantity of
mainly because it reduces wood strength and water in the wood. The moisture relationship
makes wood machining more difficult. shows an essential influence on mechanical
From a chemical viewpoint, “the cellular and physical wood properties. “Many of the
walls consist essentially of cellulose and hemi- challenges of using wood as an engineering
celluloses (approximately 40-50% and 20-40% material are generated by changes in moisture
of its composition, respectively) that are content or an abundance of moisture within
embedded in an amorphous matrix of lignin the wood” (Glass and Zelinka 2010).
(approximately 15-35%). In addition, wood The moisture of wood can exist as both
possesses a set of organic compounds known liquid moisture in the cell voids or lumens
as extractives (approximately 1-5%)” (Cruz (free water) and as moisture in the cell wall
et al. 2015), whose removal does not affect the (bound water). The wood moisture content
material’s physical and mechanical properties commonly ranges between 8% and 25% by
significantly. . Figure 18.9 shows the chemi-

weight, depending on the relative humidity
cal composition of wood. of the air. The presence of moisture in wood
not only increment the mass of the timber
18.4 Wood Properties but also results in swelling of the timber;
thus, both mass and volume are affected. In
Similar to most other building materials, general, density of wood is commonly con-
wood has unique properties, which are mainly sidered at a 12% moisture content because
affected by the type of wood, natural growth this value is usually experienced in timber in
characteristics, and moisture content. use.
.. Fig. 18.9 Asphalt paving deterioration produced by cracking

18.4.2 Mechanical Properties expansion. Thermal conductivity of wood is

relatively low because of the porosity of tim-
The mechanical properties of wood generally ber. It is affected by factors such as density,
change in relation to the three perpendicular moisture content, extractive content, grain
axes of the material, that is, radial, tangential, direction, structural irregularities (e.g., checks
and longitudinal because wood is an anisotropic and knots), and temperature. Thermal con-
material. The source of strength in solid wood is ductivity increases as density, moisture con-
the wood fiber. Cellulose is the strongest poly- tent, temperature, and extractive content of
mer in wood, being highly responsible for the wood increases. In the direction of the
strength in the wood fiber. The strength of wood grain, thermal conductivity of wood is about
is directly related to its density and can be twice what it is perpendicular to the grain.
altered by environmental agents. Changes in The heat capacity of wood depends on its
moisture, temperature, and pH; influence of temperature and moisture content but it is
decay, fire, and UV radiation; and adsorption of almost independent of density or species.
chemicals from the environment can play an Thus, the heat capacity of wood containing
important role on strength properties. The water is greater than that of dry wood.
strength of wood can also be modified by pre- Because of the low thermal conductivity and
servative and fire-retardant components used to moderate density and heat capacity of wood,
avoid environmental degradation. Occasionally, the thermal diffusivity of wood is much lower
the loss in mechanical properties produced by than that of other structural materials such as
the cited treatments can be large enough that metal, brick, and stone. For this reason, wood
the treated product may no longer be consid- does not feel extremely hot or cold. Related to
ered the same material as the untreated product. the coefficient of thermal expansion, wood
Mechanical properties most often measured expands on heating and contracts on cooling.
and represented as strength properties for design
include modulus of rupture in bending, maxi-
mum stress in compression parallel to grain, 18.4.4 Acoustic Properties
compressive stress perpendicular to grain, and
shear strength parallel to grain. Additional Wood is a light material, so that its sound
measurements are commonly made to evaluate insulation efficiency is not good. Wood con-
work to maximum load in bending, impact ducts sound better in the longitudinal direc-
bending strength, tensile strength perpendicular tion of the grain than perpendicular to it; “the
to grain, and hardness. speed of sound across the grain is about one-
When subjected to compressive forces acting fifth to one-third of the longitudinal value”
parallel to the axis of growth, wood is usually (Kretschmann 2010). Therefore, a necessary
considered one of the strongest structural mate- level of sound insulation in wooden buildings
rials. In the direction of the grain, tensile strength can generally be achieved structurally by using
is commonly between 10 and 20 times more than multilayered system of construction.
tensile strength perpendicular to the grain. This
strength also depends on wood density. The
shearing strength of wood is from 10–15% of its 18.4.5 Exposure to Chemicals
18 tensile strength in the direction of the grain.
Shearing strength is weakened by knots and The effect of chemical solutions on wood
faults and cracks that can be present in the wood. properties is related to the specific type of
chemical. Properties are lowered in the pres-
ence of water, alcohol, and other wood-
18.4.3 Thermal Properties swelling organic liquids even though these
liquids do not chemically degrade the wood
The most important thermal properties of substance. Chemical solutions that decom-
wood are thermal conductivity, heat capacity, pose the wood substance either by hydrolysis
thermal diffusivity, and coefficient of thermal or by oxidation have a permanent effect on
18.4 · Wood Properties
547 18
strength. In summary form, the following 18.4.6 Fire Properties
generalizations can show the influence of
chemicals: “(a) some species are quite resis- The utilization of wood in structures depends
tant to attack by dilute mineral and organic on the fire engineering design aimed at insur-
acids, (b) oxidizing acids such as nitric acid ing that the building may maintain its struc-
degrade wood more than non-oxidizing acids, tural integrity for sufficient time. Thus,
(c) alkaline solutions are more destructive building occupants can be evacuated and/or
than acidic solutions, (d) hardwoods are more the fire can be extinguished. From viewpoint
susceptible to attack by both acids and alkalis of the reaction to fire, timber shows a poor
than softwoods, and (e) heartwood is less sus- performance because it is a combustible mate-
ceptible to attack by both acids and alkalis rial and is consumed by fire (7 Box 18.2).

than sapwood” (Kretschmann 2010).
Box 18.2
Wood and Fire son, it may happen that the temperature of the

According to Rowell and Dietenberger outer surface of the timber is insufficient to
(2012),“when wood temperature rises to promote the progress of charring, thus leading
100 °C, chemically unbound water begins to to the self-extinguishing combustion. Eurocode
evaporate. Whole wood starts to thermally that concerns structural design with regard to
degrade at about 250 °C. Between 300 and the action of fire assumes “a constant charring
375 °C, the majority of the carbohydrate poly- rate over time between 0.5 mm and 0.8 mm per
mers have degraded and only lignin remains. minute (depending on the type and density of
The hemicellulose components start to decom- the wood), which gives an average of about
pose at about 225 °C and are almost completely 1 cm progress of the charring front, from the
degraded by 325 °C. The cellulose polymer is exposed faces, every 15 min.” This explains why
more stable to thermal degradation until about the fire resistance of a timber structure strongly
370 °C, and then decomposes almost com- depends on its specific surface area.
pletely over a very short temperature range. The strength and stiffness of timber reduce
Both the acid lignin and milled wood lignin at lower temperatures than steel and concrete.
start to decompose at about 200 °C, but are For instance, the strength of timber is reduced
much more stable to thermal degradation as by more than 50% at 100 °C, compared with
compared to the carbohydrate polymers.” After that at 20 °C. However, “timber structural
ignition, the wood begins to carbonize; fire pro- members can still perform well at high temper-
gresses slowly in a solid wood product, as the atures in comparison with steel since the char
layer of carbon created protects the wood, and layer can act to insulate the material within
slows down the increase in temperature of the whilst the high thermal conductivity of steel
wood’s inner parts and thus the progress of the means that the complete section quickly heats
fire. For instance, at a distance of 15 mm from up” (Ramage et al. 2017).
the carbonization limit, the temperature of the In some cases, especially where enhance-
wood is under 100 °C. This property is used in ment of the fire resistance for existing struc-
dimensioning load-bearing structures. tures is intended, other solutions can be taken
In a fire situation, the wood begins to dry into account. In many residential construc-
by effect of temperature. The carbonization of tions, fire retardants may not be needed but fire
wood starts from the faces exposed to the fire. retardants are generally used in public con-
The char formed remains adhered to the ele- structions. Using fire retardants for wood may
ment, and because it is a good thermal insula- be documented back to the first century A.D.,
tor (superior to wood, which is already a good where the Romans treated their ships with
insulator), it helps delaying the rise in tempera- alum and vinegar for fire protection. Fire-
ture of the underlying material. For that rea- retardant treatments for wood can be classified
into one of six classes: “(a) chemicals that pro- wood, (e) chemicals that dilute the combustible
mote the formation of increased char at a gases coming from the wood with non-com-
lower temperature than untreated wood bustible gasses, and (f) chemicals that reduce
degrades, (b) chemicals which act as free- the heat content of the volatile gases” (Rowell
radical traps in the flame, (c) chemicals used to and Dietenberger 2012). In most cases, a given
form a coating on the wood surface, (d) chemi- fire retardant operates by several of these
cals that increase the thermal conductivity of mechanisms.
18.5 Processing of Wood remove bark and surface defects. During round
timber processing (. Fig. 18.10), about 50% is

The trees have to be processed in order to ren- reclaimed as viable board and plank materials
der the timber suitable for different applica- whereas dust, shaving, and fiber by-products
tions, being this process basically mechanical. are used either as biomass fuel or as fiber in
The processing of wood is summarized in engineered timber panel products.
. Fig. 18.10. The first step of timber process-

On arrival at sawmill, logs (crosscut por-
ing is harvesting the wood (. Fig. 18.11).

tions of round timber) are sorted and stored
Felled trees with branches removed and trunks according to species, diameter, length, and
cut to length for transportation are usually end use. The sorting process is essential for
termed as round wood or round timber (defined increasing the amount of wood that can be
in ISO 24294 standard as “felled tree crosscut used and for an optimum performance in the
at the top, with all branches removed, that may production process. Sufficient quantities are
or may not have been further crosscut”). Once stockpiled to insure the continuous operation
harvested, timber is transported from the for- of sawmill. Most commercial sawmills spe-
est to sawmill for further processing in order to cialize in processing either softwoods or hard-
18
.. Fig. 18.10 Timber processing (Ramage et al. 2017)

18.5 · Processing of Wood
549 18
.. Fig. 18.12 Stacked timber. (Image courtesy of

Wood-Mizer)
.. Fig. 18.11 Wood harvest an acceptable level, its value is enhanced because
the timber is dimensionally stabilized and its
woods. The residential and light commercial strength and color improved; moreover, the
construction industries mainly consume soft- reduction in weight also decreases transport
wood lumber. After log preparation, logs costs. Air-drying involves the stacking of sawn
incorporate to the sawing area, which is timber in piles on suitably prepared ground
formed by a series of saws and chippers. (. Fig. 18.12) while kiln-drying allows the

Different saw types are possible in a sawmill: sawn timber to dry in a closed and controlled
frame saws or gang saws, circular saws, and environment, so that the temperature, air circu-
bandsaws, depending on the characteristics of lation, and humidity can be adjusted.
the logs and the end products. Logs of suitable dimension and quality for
Three main timber products can be pro- slicing and peeling are commonly sorted
duced in a sawmill production line (sometimes according to size and species. Before peeling,
termed sawnwood). First are large-cut materi- the majority of timbers need to be condi-
als that are called timbers. Normally, timbers tioned so as to soften the wood in order to
find their way to heavy structures like exposed facilitate peeling and to produce an acceptable
beams and posts. Dimensional lumber (tim- quality of veneer (thin layer or sheet of wood).
ber section produced by the lengthwise sawing Conditioning includes the exposure of the
of logs) is the second type of sawmill product. logs to both heat and moisture. Currently,
The third product is termed board, which is a veneer usually is rotary cut; in this process, the
thin piece of sawn timber under 38 mm in peeler block is rotated around its axis in a
thickness and 38 mm or more in width. Laser lathe while a continuous sheet (around 3.2 mm
scanning or camera viewing estimates the raw × 1.2 m × 2.4 m) is cut by a knife mounted
log for its maximum cut value. This informa- parallel to the axis of the block (. Fig. 18.13).

tion determines what sizes of timber, dimen- The green veneer is further clipped to size,
sional lumber, and boards can come from a e.g., 19 mm in width, graded, and stored in
particular log. piles ready for drying. Any defects, such as
The different products obtained in the pro- knots and splits, are then cut out of the sheet.
duction line are subsequently graded in a qual- The drying of veneer to between 2 and 10%
ity control process. Grading means the moisture content is to aid the gluing process
segregation of the wood product based on the during the manufacture of the product. The
overall quality, direction of grain, presence of veneer sheets can either be left outdoor for
knots and defects, etc. Once graded, products drying in the air or dried in a kiln. Obviously,
either air dry or placed in kilns for forced d
rying. a controlled drying environment results in a
By drying and lowering the moisture content to more uniformly dried veneer.
.. Fig. 18.14 Recycled wood

.. Fig. 18.13 Wood veneer peeling machine. (Image
courtesy of Ultralam)
reclaimed and recycled into the chain of com-
mercial supply and reduced to a raw material
18.6 Wood-Based Products form” (EPF 2002) can be used in the manufac-
ture of wood-based panels. In this sense, the
In order for wood to be used to manufacture quantity of recycled wood (. Fig. 18.14) con-

wood-based products (any products contain- sumed for the production of wood-based pan-
ing wood—EN 335 standard), raw material els has strongly increased in the last recent years.
must be obtained from trees and logs, which Defining limit values for contaminants that can
include material of varying quality based on exist in recycled wood is a very important tool
different factors such as species, site location, for assuring that wood-based panel products
age, and position within the stem. Products manufactured from recycled wood are safe to
“such as plywood and laminated veneer lum- use.
ber (LVL) are made from plies that are Numerous types of wood-based products,
obtained from peeling or slicing logs, while sometimes termed engineered-wood products
sawn timber, which is an end product in its or wood-based composites, are used in building
own right, is used as the primary feedstock for and construction. A summary classification of
products such as cross-laminated timber and these products shows the following categories:
glue laminated beams” (Moore and Cown (a) plywood and other veneer-based products,
2015). (b) wood-based panels, (c) glue-laminated
Other products such as particleboard, ori- timber, and (d) other wood-based composites
ented strand board (OSB), and medium-density (e.g., wood-polymer c omposites).
fiberboard (MDF) are generally manufactured
using recycled wood. Preconsumer recycled
wood is a “wood material in the form of saw- 18.6.1 Plywood
dust, fibrous wood, solid wood off-cuts or com-
posite wood offcuts resulting from any wood According to ASTM D906 standard, plywood
transformation or manufacturing process and is “a panel generally flat built up of layers of
which may be reclaimed and recycled as raw veneer (. Fig. 18.15) called plies, united
18 material for a manufacturing process (e.g. from

under pressure by an adhesive to create a

the manufacture of panelboards, assembled panel with the bond between the plies as
products, building structures) (not to be con- strong as, or stronger than, the wood, and that
fused with sawmill co-products or post-con- has the following characteristics: (1) is con-
sumer recycled wood)” (EPF 2002). Sometimes, structed of an odd number of layers with
post-consumer reclaimed and recycled wood, grain of adjacent layers perpendicular, (2)
that is, “wood material (e.g. pallets or other with a layer consisting of either a single ply or
wood packaging material, demolition waste, two or more plies laminated with parallel
used furniture) that after consumer use is grain direction, and (3) with outer layers and
18.6 · Wood-Based Products
551 18
and thicknesses but commonly ranges from
1200 mm × 1200 mm up to 1525 mm × 3660 mm.
Thicknesses can range from 3 to 25 mm, being
the number of plies between 3 up to 35 veneers
in the production of 50 mm thick varieties.
In the building and construction market,
plywood is used in technically demanding
formwork that needs it for coating with a phe-
nolic film. Other applications include scaf-
folding working platforms, the lining and
paneling of houses, roof elements, in wood-
.. Fig. 18.15 Veneers (thin layers or sheets of wood)
based construction, facades, and flooring
(Hughes 2015). . Fig. 18.16 shows the end-

all odd numbered layers generally having the

uses of plywood in Europe.
grain direction oriented parallel to the long
Veneer is the basis of plywood but it is also
dimension of the panel.” EN 313-2 standard
present in other wood-based products such as
defines plywood as a “wood-based panel con-
LVL, which is perhaps the most important
sisting of an assembly of layers glued together
product added to the group of veneer-based
with the direction of the grain in adjacent lay-
wood products. LVL is “a layered composite
ers usually at right angles.”
of wood veneers with fibers principally in the
The history of plywood can be traced back
same direction” (EN 14279 standard). LVL
centuries, but its importance as a structural
differs from plywood in that “the veneers are
engineered wood product took place through
glued together and pressed with the grain of
two significant innovations: the invention of
all veneers generally oriented in the same
rotary peeling to produce thin wood veneer in
direction, forming a beam-like product.
the late-nineteenth century and the advent of
Bonded with structural adhesives, LVL is
synthetic waterproof adhesives in the early
principally used in load-bearing structures or
twentieth century. The first fiberboards manu-
as a component in structural wood products
factured with a combination of fibers of wood
like I-beams” (Hughes 2015) (. Fig. 18.17).

and high temperatures and pressures without

additional binders that were similar to hard-
board were obtained in 1898. Later, adapta- 18.6.2 Wood-Based Panels
tions of the lay-up led to the incorporation of
products such as laminated veneer lumber Wood-based panels can be subdivided into
(LVL), parallel strand lumber (PSL), which four big groups of products: particleboards,
generated new application areas for veneer-
based engineered wood products. Transport
Plywood is the original engineered wood Packaging
14 % 9%
product, being available either in hardwood,
softwood, or combinations of both. The cross- Other
banded design uses proper differences in the 8%
dimensional stability of wood along and
across the grain to minimize movement, thus
making plywood a very dimensionally stable
material. Plywood (and LVL) manufacturing Furniture
process involves numerous steps: (a) raw mate- 30 %
rial selection, (b) log conditioning, (c) veneer
peeling, (d) drying, (e) jointing, composing, Construction
and patching, (f) gluing and lay-up, (g) pre- 39 %
pressing and hot pressing, and (h) finishing.
.. Fig. 18.16 End-uses of plywood in Europe. (Source:
Plywood is produced in a wide range of sizes
European Panel Federation)
.. Table 18.2 Densities and process types for

main wood-based panel products
Panel Production Density

process (kg/m3)
Particleboard (PB) Dry 500–800

Oriented strand Dry 580–680
board (OSB)
High-density Dry >800
fibreboard (HDF)
Medium-density Dry 700–800
fibreboard (MDF)
Low-density Dry < 650
fibreboard (LDF)
Hardboard (HB) Wet 900–1100
Softboard (SB) Wet 140–400
bagasse fragments, straw and similar) with the

addition of a polymeric adhesive; particle-
.. Fig. 18.17 Composite I-beam consisting of an ori- boards are typically used for building and fur-
ented strand board web and LVL flanges (Hughes 2015) niture applications” (ISO 17064 and EN 309
standards).
medium-density fiberboards (MDF), oriented Particleboard is formed basically by wood
strand boards (OSB), and natural fiberboard chips prepared in a mechanical chipper. As
(NFB). . Table 18.2 shows the densities and

explained above, particleboard can incorpo-
process types for most important wood-based rate a large proportion of recycled wood. The
panel products. In general, the four manufac- chips are commonly bound together using a
turing steps included in the production of resin of synthetic origin. According to
these products are the following: (a) storage European Panel Federation, “particleboards
of raw materials and making particles of were developed commercially in the 1950s to
wood, (b) to dry these particles and fibers, (c) provide panel products with uniform proper-
forming and pressing mats, and (d) cooling ties at economic prices, using primarily
and finishing. Essential processes are drying chipped forest round wood, thinnings, and
of wood and pressing of dried wood particles sawmill waste.” In the building and construc-
and/or fibers into panels. tion sector, the good mechanical behavior of
Particleboard, also termed chipboard, is “a particleboards, similar along and across the
generic term for a composite panel primarily panel, make this product very useful in appli-
composed of cellulosic materials, generally in cations such as floor decking and doors.
18 the form of discrete pieces or particles, as dis- Particleboards are produced in various thick-
tinguished from fibers, bonded together with nesses (from 3 mm to >40 mm) and densities.
a bonding system, and that may contain addi- The term dry process fiberboards is a
tives” (ASTM D1554 standard) and a “panel generic term so-called due to their manufac-
manufactured from particles of wood by the turing process. Wood fiberboard is a “panel
application of pressure and heat (wood flakes, material with a nominal thickness of 1.5 mm
chips, shavings, sawdust and similar) and/or or greater, manufactured from lignocellulosic
other lignocellulosic fiber in particle form fibers with application of heat and/or pres-
(such as flax shives, hemp shives, palm shives, sure” (EN 316 standard) and “a panel manu-
553 18
factured from lignocellulosic fibers by the panel product with oriented layers resulting in
application of pressure and heat, with bond- directional properties; oriented strand board is
ing derived from either the felting of the comprised primarily of wood strands bonded
fibers and their inherent adhesive properties, with exterior adhesive formulations under heat
or from a synthetic adhesive added to the and pressure.” ISO 17064 and EN 300 stan-
fibers” (ISO 17064 standard). Under this def- dards defines OSB as a “multi-layered panel
inition, the most usual type of fiberboard is made from strands of wood of predetermined
the medium-density fiberboard (MDF) shape and thickness, together with a binder, by
(. Fig. 18.18) but it is certainly a generic
the application of pressure and heat, with the
class because it may be subdivided for com- strands in the external layers aligned and par-
mercial objectives into different panel types allel to the panel length or width; the strands in
according mainly to the density values: high- the center layer or layers can be randomly ori-
density MDF (HDF), low-density MDF ented, or aligned, generally at right angles to
(LDF), and ultra-low-density MDF (ULDF). the strands of the external layers.”
For instance, a medium-density fiberboard is OSB is easily identified by its relatively
“a composite panel product composed pri- large and long wood strands (. Fig. 18.19). It

marily of cellulosic fibers in which the pri- is commonly formed by three layers and the
mary source of physical integrity is provided strands of the outer two layers often orien-
through addition of a bonding system cured tated in a particular direction and the strands
under heat and pressure; additives may be in the surface layer oriented roughly in line
introduced during the manufacturing process with the length of the panel. Wood strands are
to improve certain properties; MDF density cut tangentially from debarked logs that are
at the time of manufacturing, is typically held longitudinally against rotating knives.
between 500 kg/m3 and 1,000 kg/m3” (ASTM After drying, these flakes are usually sprayed
D1554 standard). Fiberboards are manufac- with a synthetic resin binder and wax and fur-
tured in different thicknesses from 4 mm to ther bonded under heat and pressure between
60 mm and in various densities. steel belts. Oriented strand board was created
Standard MDF is used for manufacturing in the mid-1970s to utilize smaller logs that
table tops, door panels, and drawer fronts are not adequate for plywood making, being
with molded edges or profiled surfaces. The manufactured of strands normally about
smooth and stable surfaces of MDF provide 75 mm long. Because of the high mechanical
an excellent substrate for painting or applying properties and the orientation of the strands
decorative elements. MDF is also the primary within panels, OSB is especially appropriate in
substrate for laminate flooring, specifically its load-bearing applications of construction.
high-density option. Thus, OSB is commonly used in building con-
According to ASTM D7033 standard, struction and for the production of prefabri-
oriented strand board (OSB) is “a mat-formed cated building elements such as beams, walls,
and roof panels.
.. Fig. 18.18 Medium-density fiberboards. (Image .. Fig. 18.19 Oriented strand board. (Image courtesy
courtesy of Losan) of Ultralam)
Natural fiberboards (. Fig. 18.20) are

18.6.3 Glue-Laminated Timber
wood fiberboards produced without synthetic
glues acting as binding agents. During the A very important wood-based product is the so-
manufacturing process, a thermo-mechanical called glued laminated timber, generally known
treatment re-polymerize the lignin (glue of nat- as glulam, an engineered wood product used in
ural origin present inside the wood) that binds different structural applications. Glulam shows
the wood fibers without the addition of syn- “a better strength-to-weight ratio if compared
thetic glue or resin containing formaldehyde. to steel and concrete, and with its large cross-
Depending on the pressing value involved and, sectional and versatile dimensions, it has excel-
therefore, the density of the panel, the product lent fire resistance and can be used in
is d or softboard. The former is used in many construction as arches, beams and columns”
applications such as construction, packaging, (Ong 2015). In recent constructions, glulam
and furniture while the latter is used principally technology has been used, for example the tim-
in insulation applications. In addition, soft- ber exhibition hall in Johor, Malaysia, or the
board acts as an acoustic barrier against the Leonardo da Vinci bridge in Oslo (Norway)
transfer of noise. Easy to install, softboard is (. Fig. 18.22). Glulam is defined as a “struc-

used in different construction applications, i.e., tural member formed by bonding together tim-
roofs (. Fig. 18.21), walls, and floors.
ber laminations with their grain running
essentially parallel to the member’s longitudinal
axis, being lamination(s) piece or pieces of tim-
ber of not more than 50 mm in thickness” (ISO
12578 standard) or “a product made from suit-
able selected and prepared pieces of wood
bonded together with an adhesive wither in a
straight or curved form with the grain of all
pieces essentially parallel to the longitudinal axis
of the member” (ASTM D9 standard). The pro-
duction of glulam is shown in . Fig. 18.23.

18.6.4 Other Wood-Based Products

.. Fig. 18.20 Natural fiberboard production. (Image
courtesy of European Panel Federation) Wood-polymer composite is probably the best
example of other wood-based products devel-
oped recently. The denomination wood-polymer
18
.. Fig. 18.21 Softboards used in roofing. (Image cour- .. Fig. 18.22 The Leonardo da Vinci bridge in Oslo
tesy of European Panel Federation) (Norway), built with glulam
555 18
.. Fig. 18.23 Typical stages of glulam production (Ong 2015)
composites (WPC) is generally used to designate extrusion for profiles, calendaring for films and
products consisting of one or more natural sheets, injection molding, and compression
fibers or flours (e.g., fine powder of wood or molding. The quantity of natural fibers and
woody biomass from agricultural residues) and polymers depends on the application and the
one or a mixture of polymers. Currently, the processing technique. WPC products “may be
most usually used polymers are poly(vinyl chlo- considered neither as filled plastics nor as a spe-
ride) (PVC), polypropylene (PP), and polyethyl- cial kind of wood; should they be considered as
ene (PE) (EN 15534-6 standard). WPC materials different materials having their own characteris-
can be processed by different techniques as tics” (EN 15534-6 standard). Up to now, the
main applications of WPC are decking, clad- completely inhibited by an excess of moisture
ding, paneling and fencing, and furniture. since it can limit the supply of oxygen needed
for fungal respiration.
18.7 Biodeterioration of Wood

18.7.2 Termites
According to ISO 24294 standard, biodeterio-
ration is “spoilage of appearance, or loss of Wood-destroying insects are of major signifi-
strength properties, or both, caused by bio- cance in most regions of the world, existing a
logical agents.” Where timber durability is broad range of insects that can attack wood.
taken into account, reference is being made to Nevertheless, it is usual to take into account
the resistance of the timber to both fungi and only those affecting the dry timber after pro-
insects attack; this resistance is known as nat- cessing. The degradation of timber by insects
ural durability. Wood is used in different expo- can be produced by several species with chang-
sure situations, especially with respect to ing modes of action and different signs of activ-
hygrothermal environmental conditions that ity. Moreover, most insects are similar to fungi
affect the type and speed of material degrada- in attacking only moist wood. The termites
tion by biological agents. If the wood is ade- (order Isoptera) and beetles (order Coleoptera)
quately selected and it is properly prepared are the destroying insects of major importance.
and used, being subjected to preservative Among the xylophagous insects, the action of
treatment when necessary, the likelihood of subterranean termites (found throughout the
severe cases of biological degradation is very world within 40–45° of the equator) is one that
low, whether caused by fungi, termites, and/or presents greater difficulties in diagnosis, given
other insects, e.g., woodworms or beetles. the scarcity of external symptoms of activity.
The damage that termites cause in vulnerable
timbers is extremely serious, not only by the vol-
18.7.1 Fungi ume of wood affected but also by the fact that
the attack happens inside the pieces, so that the
In general, fungal infections of the wood may destruction progresses without being detected.
easily take place, beginning the attack as soon If present, the identification of this xylopha-
as the ecological conditions needed for their gous agent is possible through the laminated
development are established. They can result appearance of the wood (. Fig. 18.24). Other

from “the direct contamination by pieces species of insects affecting wood are wood-
already degraded or from spore germination worms and beetles. On the other hand, marine
in damp wood, carried by the wind or insects, borers damage wood structures in salt or brack-
in the cutting tools, etcetera. Fungi require ish water throughout most of the world,
air, moisture, and nutrients in order to colo- although the severity of attack generally
nize wood. Relative humidity conditions and increases in warmer waters. The most damaging
the temperature of the environment in which marine boring organisms are shipworms,
wood is used play an essential role in the pholads and gribbles.
development of fungi” (Cruz et al. 2015). The
18 fungus attack occurs only where the content
of moisture in the wood achieves continuous
periods of values higher than 20%, that is,
much higher values than those corresponding
to the condition reached by the timber when
placed in a normal environment, which are
about 15%. Nevertheless, fungi are aerobic
organisms and they need oxygen to survive.
.. Fig. 18.24 Termite galleries in wood
Thus, decay can be retarded and may even be
18.7 · Biodeterioration of Wood
557 18
18.7.3 Wood Preservation application of wood preservatives
(7 Box 18.3).

Wood preservation is the technology of pro-

tecting wood from biodeterioration by the
Box 18.3
Wood Preservatives and Preserving Methods latter can be further subdivided into two gen-
Wood preservatives are “products intended to eral classes: “(1) oil-type or oil-borne preserva-
prevent wood-destroying or wood- disfiguring tives such as creosote and petroleum solutions
organisms (fungi, insects and marine borers) of pentachlorophenol, and (2) waterborne pre-
from attacking wood and wood-based products” servatives that are applied as water solutions or
(EPF 2002). Thus, wood materials may be pro- with water as the carrier” (Lebow 2010).
tected from the attack of fungi or insects by With regard to preserving methods, there
using chemical preservatives that contain pesti- are two main kinds: (a) pressure processes: the
cides in the form of insecticides and fungicides. wood is impregnated in closed vessels under
Preservative treatments greatly increase the life high pressures, and (b) nonpressure methods:
of wood structures, thus reducing replacement widely change in the procedure and equipment
costs. The degree of protection achieved used. In the first group, wood is most com-
depends on the type of preservative used and monly treated by immersing it in a preservative
the proper penetration and retention of the using a high-pressure apparatus and applying
chemicals. Some chemical products are more pressure to drive the preservative into the
effective than others, and some are more adapt- wood. Thus, the wood is run into a long steel
able to certain use requirements. To obtain cylinder (. Fig. 18.25), which is then closed

long-term effectiveness, adequate penetration and filled with preservative (. Fig. 18.26).

and retention are required for each type of Pressure forces the preservative into the wood
wood, chemical product, and treatment method. until the desired amount has been absorbed. In
Wood preservatives meet two wide criteria: “(1) this method, considerable preservative is
they must provide the desired wood protection absorbed, with relatively deep penetration.
in the intended end-use, and (2) they must do so For the second group, nonpressure meth-
without presenting unreasonable risks to people ods mainly consist of: “(a) surface application
or the environment” (Lebow 2010).
Chemical preservatives can be broadly
grouped as follow: “(1) those that reduce or
eliminate the probability of attack by placing
the timber under natural conditions that pre-
vent the establishment and development of
biological agents, particularly important in the
case of rot fungi and termites, where the wood’s
moisture content is the primary factor, and (2)
those that prevent the development of the
infestation or infection by means of chemicals
and/or modification, either by treating the
wood and/or masonry and surrounding soil or
by acting at a more specific level for the pest .. Fig. 18.25 Pressure method of wood preserv-
species, such as the use of traps for controlling ing. (Image courtesy of American Wood Technol-
subterranean termites” (Cruz et al. 2015). The ogy)
.. Fig. 18.27 Surface application of preservative
variety of miscellaneous processes” (Lebow

2010). The several nonpressure methods differ
broadly in the levels of penetration and reten-
tion of the preservative and as a consequence
in the degree of protection of the timber. If
similar retention and penetration levels are
obtained, nonpressure methods have a service
life comparable to that of wood treated by
pressure. However, the results of nonpressure
methods, especially those involving surface
.. Fig. 18.26 Typical steps in pressure treating applications, are not commonly as satisfactory
process: “(a): untreated wood is placed in cylinder, as those of pressure treatment. As a rule, the
(b) a vacuum is applied to pull air out of the wood, efficacy of a preservative treatment in wood is a
(c) the wood is immersed in solution while still function of: “(a) type of organisms present and
under vacuum, (d) pressure is applied to force the
environmental conditions, (b) the intrinsic tox-
preservative into the wood, (e) preservative is
pumped out, and a final vacuum is pulled to remove icity of the preservative to or efficacy against
excess preservative, (f) excess preservative is pumped the target organism(s), (c) the ability of the pre-
away and the wood is removed from the cylinder” servative to resist leaching, UV degradation, or
(Lebow 2010) other forms of environmental degradation, (d)
the degree of penetration and uniformity of
(. Fig. 18.27), (b) soaking in preservative oils
distribution of preservative within the treated
or steeping in solutions of waterborne preser- wood, and (e) the retention, or concentration,
vatives, (c) diffusion processes with waterborne of the preservative within the treated wood”
preservatives, (d) vacuum treatment, and (e) a (Walker 2006).
18.8 Cork Mediterranean areas of Southern Europe and

18 North Africa. The European Union is the
18.8.1 Origin most important cork producer (up to 85 %) in
the world. Portugal is the leading cork-
ISO 633 standard defines cork as the “protec- producing country, responsible for over 50 %
tive layer of bark (. Fig. 18.28) that, periodi-

of total European cork production. Cork is a
cally, can be harvested from the trunk and biological cellular material, the 100 % natural
branches of the cork oak (Quercussuber L.) plant tissue that covers the trunk and branches
constituting the raw material for cork prod- of the cork oak. It has a specific group of
ucts.” Cork oaks are present in the western properties resulting from the characteristics
18.8 · Cork
559 18
.. Fig. 18.28 Cork, the outer bark of the cork oak tree.
(Image courtesy of AMORIM)
of its structure and chemical composition,

these properties being associated with the
physiological process of formation. Cork con-
sists of a honeycomb-like structure of micro-
scopic cells (. Fig. 18.29) filled with an

air-like gas and coated principally with

suberin and lignin. One cm3 of cork includes
more than 40 million of cells, representing a
solid fraction under 20 % of the total volume.
.. Fig. 18.29 Cork cell structure. (Image courtesy of
Each cell has the form of a minute pentagonal AMORIM)
or hexagonal prism that can measure between
10 and 50 microns. Cork is mainly composed
of suberin (a glyceridic polyester), which rep-
resents about 43 % of the total dry mass and
is responsible for many of the properties of
cork (Pereira 2007).
Cork is also known as nature’s foam due
to its alveolar cellular structure. The closed-
cell structure makes it lightweight, airtight
and watertight, resistant to acids, fuels, and
oils, and impervious to rot. Cork is sustain-
ably harvested by specialized professionals
(. Fig. 18.30) without damaging the trunk,

thus enabling the tree to grow another layer

of outer bark. If virgin cork (the first strip-
ping) is removed, a new phellogen is created .. Fig. 18.30 Harvesting cork. (Image courtesy of
and rebuilds a new periderm (. Fig. 18.31), AMORIM)
maintaining the same characteristics of regu-
larity and activity. Along the life of the oak 18.8.2 Properties
tree (about 200 years), the cork can be
stripped approximately 17 times, at intervals Cork has an unusual combination of proper-
of about 9 years. Therefore, cork is not only a ties: very low density, permeability to liquids
natural raw material but also renewable and and gases, low conductivity, chemical stability
recyclable. and durability, and high compressibility with
.. Fig. 18.31 Schematic periderm

representation of tissues
in a cross section of a
young cork oak stem
(Knapic et al. 2016)
phoem phoem phello-
xylem phellem
(active) (inactive) derm
cambium phellogen
epidermis
dimensional recovery. Cork has density values

.. Table 18.3 Average characteristics of
as low as from below 120 to over 200 kg/m3. It expanded agglomerated cork (Gil 2015)
is due to its cellular structure of hollow and
closed cells with a small solid fraction. Cork Density 100–140 kg/m3
absorbs water very slowly and floats on water
Transfer coefficient 0.039–0.045 W/m °C
with large buoyancy. The permeability of cork (θm = 23 °C)
to noncondensable gases, for instance helium,
oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide is low. It Specific heat (at 20 °C) 1.7–1.8 kJ/kg °C
“has very low heat transfer properties due to Expansion coefficient 25–50 × 10−6
both its large air content and small cell size, (20 °C)
being a viscoelastic material that allows large Maximum pressure in 50 kPa
deformations under compression without elastic conditions
fracture, and with substantial dimensional Elastic modulus 19–28 daN/cm2
recovery when stress is relieved” (Knapic et al. (compression) thermal
2016). The improvements in acoustic and
Diffusivity 0.18–
thermal insulation are enormous. Cork is con- 0.20 × 10−6 m2/s
sidered as one of the best materials for reduc-
ing impact sound. . Table 18.3 shows the

Poisson’s ratio 0–0.02
main properties of expanded agglomerated Water vapor permeability 0.002–
cork. 0.006 g/m h mmHg
Modulus of rupture 1.4–2.0 daN/cm2
Tensile strength, 0.6–0.9 daN/cm2
18.8.3 Processing transversal
Tensile strength, 0.5–0.8 daN/cm2
The utilization of cork in construction is longitudinal
mainly based on the production of cork Dimensional variation 0.3%
agglomerates. This is because the use of raw 23–32 °C, 50–90% RH
cork (cork planks) and/or of natural cork
Oxygen index 26%
components is very rare and generally limited
18 to special applications. Cork agglomerates are Tension deformation at
10% (compression)
1.5–1.8 daN/cm2
obtained from the large amount of residual
by-products from the production of cork Temperature deformation 1.4–2.4% (thickness)
stoppers and disks (the main end-use of cork) (80 °C)
and also “from the refuse raw-corkplanks and
other types of cork raw materials such as vir-
gin cork” (Pereira 2007). Since the cork mate- Cork granules are obtained by trituration,
rials have different compositions, they are which produces cork granules of different
directed to the different production lines dimensions and density that constitute the basis
according to their technical demands. for the production of agglomerates. The most
18.8 · Cork
561 18
common sizes of granulates are the following: agglomerated cork or natural cork on top of
1–10 mm, 2–5 mm, 1–2 mm, 0.5–1 mm, and each other. Other option is to use composites
0.2–0.5 mm. However, the product specification formed with other materials, specifically wood
dictates the distribution and density of parti- or fiber agglomerates of wood particles.
cles. The cork granules can be further destined “Gluing the successive layers together is per-
to three processing lines: “(a) the production of formed by spreading glue on one of the sides
cork composites with a resin binding the cork of each sheet and passing the whole set through
granules, (b) the production of expanded cork a press, usually a roll press or plate press; finer
agglomerates under superheated steaming and and denser granules are used for linoleum
without external binding agent, and (c) the manufacturing and are mixed with oxidized
copolymerization with rubber to make rubber- linseed oil, resin, jute, sawdust, metal oxides
cork composites” (Knapic et al. 2016). and coloring agents to form a compact prod-
The production of cork agglomerates uct that is highly resistant to wear and easy to
needs a mixture of cork with the addition of a clean, used mostly as a covering” (Gil 2015).
binder; “the percentage of cork, by weight,
shall be >90 %”—ASTM F3008 standard).
The process is carried out under moderate 18.8.4 Construction Applications
pressure and heating as adequate for the spe-
cific polymer curing and bonding. After cur- Cork uses have been known since Antiquity,
ing, the cork is removed from the molds and specifically for floating devices and as stopper
cooled/stabilized, until a block of agglomer- for beverages, principally wine. Moreover, it
ate is formed. Then, it is laminated into sheets, has also fulfilled various demands of the con-
sometimes using heat. For rolls of cork, the struction sector. Currently, construction
cylinders obtained are unrolled using continu- absorbs about 25% of worldwide cork pro-
ous lamination. The flooring and surfacing duction. The combination of properties such
agglomerates are manufactured from rectan- as “lightness, elasticity and resilience, imper-
gular prismatic blocks that are laminated into meability, insulation, wear-resistance, fire
boards. retardant qualities, hypoallergenic properties,
In the expanded cork agglomerates, the and durability differentiates cork from wood
granules are bound together without any and stone” (Pereira 2007). The most impor-
extraneous adhesives, leading to a 100% natu- tant applications of cork products in con-
ral product. The adhesion is produced by struction are related to its thermal insulation
chemical compounds resulting from the ther- and energy absorption properties. Thus, cork
mal degradation of the extractives and struc- can be used in construction applications such
tural components of cork. These agglomerates as waterproofing of infrastructures, founda-
are also called black agglomerates due to their tions and subfloors, acoustic and thermal
dark color induced by the high temperatures insulation as well as the final covering of
associated with the process. The best known floors, walls, ceilings, facades, and roofs.
and commercially important cork-polymer Different cork-based materials can be used in
composite is the so-called rubber-cork or cork- building, of which the following are the main
rubber. It is manufactured by mixing and ones: “(a) Unprocessed cork planks obtained
cross-binding cork granules with natural or by removal from the tree stem, (b) granulated
synthetic rubber, seeking a combination of cork, (c) cork agglomerates as composites of
the best properties of both materials. This cork granules and resin, namely rubber-cork
type of agglomerate is mainly used for joints composites, and (d) expanded cork agglomer-
and flooring. The amount of rubber involved ates without resin” (Knapic et al., 2016).
naturally depends on the use for which the . Table 18.4 shows examples of cork prod-

agglomerate is designed. ucts used in construction and . Fig. 18.32 a

The different types of decorative and cov- famous example of application of cork in
ering materials are produced either with a sin- construction: the Portuguese Pavilion at Expo
gle layer or by placing several sheets of 2010 Shanghai, built with 5500 m2 of cork.
.. Table 18.4 Cork products used in different applications in construction and their underlying properties
(Knapic et al. 2016)
Uses Products Examples Requited properties
Coverings (floors, Agglomerated cork Cork tiles for flooring Wear resistance
walls and ceilings) composites Underlay for ceilings Resilience
Expanded cork Underlay for flooring Shock absorption
agglomerates
Rubber-cork
composites
Thermal and Agglomerated cork Cork-epoxy agglomerates Low thermal
acoustic insulation composites Interior wall and roof panels conductivity coefficient
Expanded cork Filling material for empty spaces Nonmoisture
agglomerates between double walls and floors absorption
Granulated cork Adequate mechanical
resistance
Fire resistance
Durability
Low density
Vibration insulation Agglomerated cork Sandwich-type structures Vibration shock
composites Expanded corkboards with high absorption
Expanded density
agglomerated cork Structural joints
Rubber cork
Expansion joints Agglomerated cork Expanded corkboards High compressibility
composites and recovery
Rubber cork
.. Fig. 18.32 The Portuguese Pavilion at Expo 2010

Shanghai. (Image courtesy of AMORIM)
The composites of agglomerated cork are

18 principally used for covering surfaces (e.g., .. Fig. 18.33 Application of pure expanded agglomer-
wall panels and flooring) and as an essential ated cork in roof insulation (Gil 2015)
component in sandwich-type applications. For
instance, the flooring of the Sagrada Familia ceilings in private and public buildings. The
cathedral in Barcelona (Spain) is made of granules or regranulated expanded cork can
agglomerated cork tiles. The expanded cork be used as a final product for thermal insula-
agglomerates are mainly used for thermal and tion, filling empty spaces between double
acoustic insulation as well as for vibration walls, floors, and as a ceiling application to the
absorption. Their applications include insula- last floor of a building. The insulation proper-
tion in roofs (. Fig. 18.33), walls, floors, and
ties and the low density of cork granules sug-
References
563 18
gest their inclusion in a number of composite Dinwoodie J (2010) Timber. In: Domone P, Illston J
materials for building applications, i.e., cork- (eds) Construction materials – their nature and
behaviour. Spon Press, London, pp 403–506
gypsum, lightened plaster, lightweight poly- EPF (2002) EPF standard for delivery conditions of
mer mortar, and concrete, (Knapic et al. 2016). recycled wood. European Panel Federation, 7 p.
For instance, a layer of granulated cork can be Gil L (2015) Cork. In: Goncalves MC, Margarido F
used to insulate blocks of concrete against (eds) Materials for construction and civil engineer-
impact noise transmission. ing. Springer International Publishing, pp 585–627
Glass SV, Zelinka SL (2010) Moisture relations and
physical properties. In: Wood handbook – wood as
an Enginnering material. United States Department
18.9 Questions of Agriculture, Forest Service, General Technical
Report FPL–GTR–190, pp 4.1–4.19
Hughes M (2015) Plywood and other veneer-based
??Short Questions products. In: Ansell MP (ed) Wood composites,
55 Definition of wood, timber, and lumber Woodhead Publishing series in composites science
55 What is the difference between hardwood and engineering: number 54. Woodhead Publishing,
Oxford, pp 69–89
and softwood?
Knapic S, Oliveira V, Machado JS, Pereira H (2016)
55 Make and illustration of the main parts of Cork as a building material: a review. Eur J Wood
the trunk of trees Wood Products 74:775–791
55 Discuss the importance of moisture in Kretschmann DE (2010) Mechanical properties of
wood wood. In: Wood handbook – wood as an Engineering
material. United States Department of Agriculture,
55 Define plywood
Forest Service, General Technical Report FPL–
55 Comment the main difference between ply- GTR–190, pp 5.1–5.146
wood and particleboard Lebow ST (2010) Wood preservation. Wood handbook –
55 Define MDF and OSB wood as an engineering material. United States
55 Define glulam Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, General
Technical Report FPL–GTR–190, pp 15.1–15.28
55 What does WPC means?
Moore JR, Cown DJ (2015) Processing of wood for
55 Explain the significance of biodeterioration wood composites. In: Ansell MP (ed) Wood com-
and natural durability of wood posites, Woodhead Publishing series in composites
55 What are the main insects attacking the science and engineering: number 54. Woodhead
wood? Publishing, Oxford, pp 27–45
Ong CB (2015) Glue-laminated timber (glulam). In:
55 List the main types of wood preserving
Ansell MP (ed) Wood composites, Woodhead
methods Publishing series in composites science and engi-
55 What is the main world producer of cork? neering: number 54. Woodhead Publishing, Oxford,
55 Comment the main properties of cork pp 123–140
55 What black agglomerated of cork means? Pereira H (2007) Cork: biology, production and uses.
Elsevier, Amsterdam, 160 p
Ramage MH, Burridge H, Busse-Wicher M, Fereday G,
Reynolds T, Shah DU, Li Yu G, Fleming P, Densley-
??Long Questions Tingley D, Allwood J, Dupree P, Linden PF,
55 Explain the wood behavior to fire Scherman O (2017) The wood from the trees: the use
55 Detail the processing of wood of timber in construction. Renew Sust Energ Rev
68:333–359
Riberholt H (2007) Performance of old glulam struc-
tures in Europe. Rapport, BYG.DTU R-177,
References Danmarks Tekniske Universitet
Rowell RM, Dietenberger MA (2012) Thermal proper-
Cruz H, Jones D, Nunes L (2015) Costa C (2015) ties, combustion, and fire Retardancy of wood. In:
Hydraulic Binders. In: Goncalves MC, Margarido F Rowell RM (ed) Handbook of wood chemistry and
(eds) Materials for construction and civil engineer- wood composites, 2nd edn. CRC Press, Boca Raton,
ing. Springer International Publishing, pp 557–583 703 p
Walker JCF (2006) Primary wood processing - princi- natural fibre composites (NFC)). Specifications for
ples and practice, 2nd edn. Springer, Dordrecht, The fencing profiles and elements
Netherlands, 596 p ISO 633: 2019. Cork - Vocabulary
Wiedenhoelft A (2010) Structure and function of wood. ISO 12578: 2016. Timber structures – glue laminated
In: Wood handbook – wood as an engineering mate- timber – component performance requirements
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Forest Service, General Technical Report FPL– ticleboard and oriented strand board – Vocabulary
GTR–190, pp 3.1–3.18 ISO 24294: 2013. Timber – Round and sawn timber –
Vocabulary
Standards
Further Reading
ASTM D9–12. Standard Terminology Relating to Wood
Aghayere A, Vigil J (2007) Structural wood design: a
and Wood-Based Products
practice-oriented approach using the ASD method.
ASTM D906–98 (2017). Standard Test Method for
Wiley, 396 p
Strength Properties of Adhesives in Plywood Type
Aguilera A, Davim JP (eds) (2017) Wood composites,
Construction in Shear by Tension LoadingASTM
materials, manufacturing and engineering. Walter
D1038–19. Standard Terminology Relating to
de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG, 219 p
Veneer, Plywood, and Wood Structural Panels
Amorim (2014) The art of cook, 2nd edn. Corticeira
Amorim, S.G.P.S., S.A., 96 p
Wirebound Pallet-Type Wood Boxes
Davim JP (2012) Wood and wood products – wood and
ASTM D1554–10 (2016). Standard Terminology
manufacturing technology. Nova Science Publishers,
Relating to Wood-Base Fiber and Particle Panel
130 p
Materials
Gil L (2014) Cork: a strategic material. Front Chem
ASTM D7033–14. Standard Practice for Establishing
2:16, 2 p
Design Capacities for Oriented Strand Board (OSB)
Hoadley RB (2000) Understanding Wood. The Taunton
Wood-Based Structural-Use Panels
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ASTM F3008 – 13e1. Standard Specification for Cork
Ruffinatto F, Crivellaro A (2019) Atlas of macroscopic
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wood identification. Springer Nature Switzerland
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AG, 439 p
Definitions, classification and specifications
United States Department of Agriculture (2007) The
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Encyclopedia of wood. Skyhorse Publishing Inc.,
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Washington, 478 p
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EN 335: 2013. Durability of wood and wood-based org
products. Use classes: definitions, application to American Wood Council www.awc.org
solid wood and wood-based products Amorim www.amorim.com
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(LVL). Definitions, classification and specifications European Panel Federation www.europanels.org
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ally called wood-polymer composites (WPC) or Weyerhaeuser www.weyerhaeuser.com
18
565 19
Construction
and Demolition Waste
Contents
19.2 CDW Composition – 570
19.3 Management of CDW – 574
19.4 Valorization Plants – 578
19.5 Recycling – 583
References – 584

566 Chapter 19 · Construction and Demolition Waste
sphere (Lauritzen 2019). Construction materi-

Summary als by weight account for more than 40 % of
This chapter explains the main characteristics the resources used in the United States, near 60
of construction and demolition waste (CDW). % in Japan, and 70 % in Germany. From 30 %
Important topics are the definition of this to 50 % of the materials used in Europe are for
material as well as its composition: concrete, housing; about 70 % of the amount of aggre-
bricks, metals, glass, asphalt, wood, etc. gates and around 20 % of the total metals are
Management of construction and demolition used in the construction sector. Building and
waste is discussed. Valorization plants for construction materials generate an environ-
recycling of CDW are described, including the mental impact at every stage of the building
two main plant types: stationary and mobile. and construction process: mining raw materi-
To finish the chapter, recycling processes are als, processing, manufacturing, transportation,
discussed and the most important product construction, and disposal at the end of the
obtained throughout these processes, i.e., useful life of buildings. In many countries
recycled concrete aggregate, is explained in worldwide, all or part of construction and
some detail. demolition waste stream is unlawfully depos-
ited on land (fly tipping) (. Fig. 19.3). For this

reason, the building and construction sector

19.1 Introduction focuses its resource management on resource
efficiency, reduction, and recycling of waste
The growth of world population, widespread materials. Provided that the bulk of construc-
urbanization, and the economic conditions of tion and demolition waste is inert (see next
developing countries have remarkably headings), this waste was typically landfilled in
increased the development of the building the 1970s and 1980s. Over time, CDW was
and construction industry. As a consequence, diverted from landfilling to recycling while cur-
old buildings were demolished to make new rently the focus has been on reuse and preven-
constructions (. Fig. 19.1). Because of these
tion.
demolitions, large quantities of debris are cre- The waste generated in the building and
ated worldwide, thus generating serious envi- construction sector is termed construction and
ronmental pollution issues as well as severe demolition waste (CDW) or construction and
disposal problems. demolition debris (CDD). CDW is a general
The building and construction market con- term that can be defined as the waste material
sumes the majority of the total resource con- produced in the process of construction,
sumption of the world. It produces one third maintenance, renovation, or demolition of
of all waste (. Fig. 19.2), which represents a
buildings, representing a big proportion of
main contributor to CO2 emission to the atmo- the overall waste generated in industrialized
countries. In general, the demolition waste of
construction works accounts for 70 % of
CDW. Construction can also need excavation
work such as ground works and tunneling
that generate softer materials such as soils,
subsoils, and clays (. Fig. 19.4); these mate-

rials can be also considered as CDW. The sug-

gested theoretical approach to define CDW is
19 “to take into account both its nature (materi-
als used in buildings and constructions) and
the activities that originate it (construction
and demolition activities), regardless of who
performs these activities” (BioIS 2011).
.. Fig. 19.1 Old building being demolished. (Image CDW includes materials that are com-
courtesy of Luis Fueyo) monly used in the construction of buildings,
567 19
.. Fig. 19.2 Amounts MSW
of waste from several (or households)
sources in the material 24%
and product life cycle
(the data are for the
OECD countries and Energy production
exclude agricultural, 3%
forestry, mining, and Water supply, sewage
quarrying wastes. (UNEP Commercial treatment, waste managemnt
2015) 11% and land remediation
5%
C&D
36%
.. Fig. 19.3 Illegal disposal (fly tipping) of building .. Fig. 19.5 Hazardous CDW containing asbestos
and construction materials after demolition (image courtesy of Luis Fueyo)
and transportation and, therefore, the amount

of CDW is permanently growing. CDW con-
sists mostly of relatively inert and nonbiode-
gradable products that are usually heavy and
characterized by their high density. However,
if not separated at source, CDW can contain
hazardous waste, i.e., waste that has hazard-
ous properties and that may prove to be harm-
ful to human health or the environment
(. Fig. 19.5), the mixture of which can pose

particular risks to the environment and can

hamper recycling. . Table 19.1 shows some

examples of building components in which

.. Fig. 19.4 Excavations works harmful substances are found. Thus, at least
the inert mineral waste, e.g., bricks and con-
structures, roadways, and other landscaping crete, must be separated from the mixed
material, including soil, brick, drywall, mor- CDW. Metals like reinforcement bars are
tar, cellulose, wood, bituminous materials, recovered in the recycling process and inert
and metals. The high speed of urbanization CDW can be easily recycled into recycled
entails on the increased demand for housing aggregates.
.. Table 19.1 Examples of building .. Table 19.1 (continued)

components in which harmful substances are
found (Strufe 2005) Substance Building components and/or
materials
Substance Building components and/or
materials HCFCs and Thermal insulation—PUR
HCFs foam
Asbestos Roots and tiles Foam for joints
Glue
Sulfur Soundproof windows
Sound insulation
hexafluoride
Fire-resistant sealing
Wall plaster
PVC Gutters and pipes
Compared to other resources and products,
Lead Roofs and tiles building and construction products have rela-
Electrical cables
tive long life and most of the materials are
Cadmium Plastic (e.g., cable, pipes, and valuable and recyclable. EU-28 generated 820
plates) million tons of CDW in 2017, 46 % of the total
Occurring with zinc
waste generation, representing an average of
Occurring with concrete
1.7 tons per person (Gálvez-Martos et al.
Mercury Fluorescent tubes 2018). The European Commission considers
Switches and relays (electrical
CDW as a priority waste stream due to the
installations)
Others (e.g., concrete) large quantities that are continuously gener-
ated. In fact, construction and demolition
Nickel Stainless steel
waste, based on volume, is the biggest waste
Surface treatment
stream in the European Union. An average
Chromium Stainless steel European citizen produces not less than 160
Others (e.g., painted surfaces)
tons of CDW, a quantity that is continuously
Copper Cables and wires increasing. Article 11.2 of Waste Framework
Permanent installations Directive (2008/98/EC) points out that
Temporary installations
“Member States shall take the necessary mea-
Roofs, pipes, etc.
Screws, locks, etc. sures designed to achieve that by 2020 a mini-
Pigments and dyes mum of 70 % (by weight) of non-hazardous
construction and demolition waste excluding
Zinc Gutters/pipes and galvanized
products naturally occurring material defined in cate-
Plastic (especially gutters and gory 17 05 04 in the List of Wastes
pipes) (. Table 19.2) shall be prepared for re-use,

PCB Small capacitors and recycled or undergo other material recovery”

electrical installations (including backfilling operations that use waste
Double-glazed windows to replace other materials).
(glue) According to the Environmental Protection
Sealant (softener)
Agency, the United States generated 569 mil-
Paint (pigments)
Fire-resistant additive (paint, lion tons of CDW in 2017, which accounts an
glue/binder) average of 1.5 tons per person. . Fig. 19.6
shows the 2017 generation composition for

19 Chlorinated
paraffin
Plastic (in general)
Sealant (softener) construction and demolition debris. European
Others (e.g., glue) countries recycle between 0 and 98 % of these
CDW, depending of the state. To enhance the
CFCs Thermal insulation—PUR
foam recycling quantity of construction and demo-
Other insulation materials lition waste, several countries ratified some
569 19
.. Table 19.2 7 Chapter 17 of the European

waste catalogue related to the construction and
demolition wastes 17 Insulation materials and asbestos-containing
06 construction materials
17 Concrete. Bricks, tiles, and ceramics
17 06 01 insulation materials containing
01
asbestos
17 01 01 concrete
17 06 03 other insulation materials
17 01 02 bricks consisting of or containing dangerous
substances
17 01 03 tiles and ceramics
17 06 04 insulation materials other than
17 01 06 mixtures of, or separate fractions those mentioned in 17 06 01 and 17 06 02
of concrete, bricks, tiles, and ceramics
containing dangerous substances 17 06 05 construction materials containing
asbestos
17 01 07 mixtures of concrete, bricks, tiles,
and ceramics other than those mentioned in 17 Gypsum-based construction material
17 01 06 08
17 Wood. Glass and plastic 17 08 01 gypsum-based construction

02 materials contaminated with dangerous
substances
17 02 01 wood
17 08 02 gypsum-based construction
17 02 02 glass materials other than those mentioned in 17
17 02 03 plastic 08 01
17 02 04 glass, plastic, and wood containing 17 Other construction and demolition wastes
or contaminated with dangerous substances 09
17 Bituminous mixtures. Coal tar and tarred 17 09 01 construction and demolition

03 products wastes containing mercury
17 03 01 bituminous mixtures containing 17 09 02 construction and demolition

coal tar wastes containing PCB (for example
PCB-containing sealants, PCB-containing
17 03 02 bituminous mixtures other than resin-based floorings, PCB-containing
those mentioned in 17 03 01 sealed glazing units, PCB-containing
capacitors)
17 03 03 coal tar and tarred products
17 09 03 other construction and demolition
17 Metals (including their alloys)
wastes (including mixed wastes) containing
04
dangerous substances
17 04 01 copper, bronze, brass
17 09 04 mixed construction and demolition
17 04 02 aluminum wastes other than those mentioned in 17 09
01, 17 09 02, and 17 09 03
17 04 03 lead
17 04 04 zinc
17 04 05 iron and steel governmental laws and specific regulations. As
a consequence, the recycling level of CDW in
17 04 06 tin
some countries reached around 90 % of the
17 04 07 mixed metals total quantity produced. From a purely eco-
17 04 09 metal waste contaminated with nomic viewpoint, CDW recycling is only
dangerous substances attractive where the recycled product is com-
17 04 10 cables containing oil, coal tar, and
petitive with natural products in relation to
other dangerous substances cost and amount.
Compared with other forms of waste, e.g.,
17 04 11 cables other than those mentioned
in 17 04 10
household waste, more than 90 % of the con-
struction and demolition waste may be used
Asphalt Shingles
2.5%
Brick and Clay Tile Asphalt Concrete

2.1% 15.0%
Steel
0.8%
Drywall and
Plasters
2.7% Wood Products
7.1%
Concrete
69.7%
.. Fig. 19.6 Composition of construction and demolition debris in 2017 in the United States. (EPA 2019)
as a resource and a replacement of construc- struction value chain. “Systematic implementa-

tion materials. Reuse, recovery, and recycling tion of best practices could radically improve
depend on the quality and market for the resource efficiency, reducing environmental
materials as well as the environmental impact impact by: (a) reducing waste generation, (b)
of the processes used in the transformation of minimizing transport impacts, (c) maximizing
CDW into new buildings and structures. re-use and recycling by improving the quality of
Recycling is usually considered as the most secondary materials, and (d) optimizing the
environment-friendly system for managing environmental performance of treatment meth-
CDW. Thus, to find a market for a recycled ods” (Gálvez-Martos et al. 2018).
CDW material is the most important stage for
establishing a recycling program. Nevertheless,
the use of construction and demolition waste 19.2 CDW Composition
products as secondary materials is nowadays
negligible because most CDW is generally The composition of construction and demoli-
placed or used as fill material, neglecting the tion waste differs broadly based on the type of
chances of their utilization in recycling of site. For instance, road construction generates
high quality. Nowadays, recycling of CDW massive quantities of excavated materials
19 plants is a fair option to the existing unsus- while a building demolition site will produce
tainable landfill methods. This is because large amount of waste concrete. As a conse-
technology for the separation and recovery of quence, the diversity of construction activities
CDW is firmly established, easy to access, and makes almost impossible to define reliable
as a rule inexpensive. CDW composition. As an example, Pacheco-
Consequently, best practices are essential for Torgal et al. (2013) reported the following
the management of CDW across the entire con- CDW composition per square meter: “(a)
19.2 · CDW Composition
571 19
120.0 kg of construction of new buildings, (b) the area, a great deal of excavated rock and
338.7 kg of rehabilitation, (c) 1129.0 kg of stone can be produced as by-product. On the
total demolition, and (d) 903.2 kg of partial other hand, soil and sand are originated from
demolition.” . Fig. 19.7 illustrates the diver-
site preparation and excavation activities
sity of CDW in Europe and . Table 19.3 pro- associated with construction works. Huge
vides an overview of the range of components amounts of fine materials are produced
of the European CDW. These components through these activities and unless the mate-
can be subdivided into major and minor com- rial can be reused on site, it needs treatment
ponents as shown in . Table 19.4. and/or disposal.
In general, concrete (. Fig. 19.8) is the
Wood is generated from the demolition
main component of CDW (excavated materi- sector because it is ubiquitous in building and
als excluded). This is because concrete is used construction (. Fig. 19.10); a great number

in huge quantities in all types of building and of houses in the United States and other
construction structures. Concrete waste arises countries worldwide are wood-frame. A bar-
from several sources: returned concrete that is rier to growing the reuse market of wood is
fresh from ready-mix trucks, manufacturing the increasing mechanization of demolition
waste in the precast production facility, and works, which makes it more difficult for sal-
CDW, which is the most important source. vage operations to take place. The most usual
Bricks (. Fig. 19.9) are often presented as
type of wood originated in CDW is typically
mixed masonry with concrete and, like source- dimensional lumber, but also other wood-
separated concrete, that material of the CDW based products such as plywood, treated
stream is relatively straightforward to process, wood, and manufactured wood, e.g., compos-
with similar end markets for aggregate prod- ite panels (see 7 Chap. 18).

ucts. Bricks and concrete make up the heaviest Asphalt materials are originated in the
portion of the CDW stream. civil road construction sector. They are poten-
Excavation materials (. Fig. 19.4) are tially 100 % recyclable. The retrieved material
recovered where civil or site preparation works is usually carried to an asphalt plant for sort-
are undertaken. Depending on the geology of ing and batching to assure that the physical
Construction and demolition waste
Public works, including Building works from residential, school,

Sources
Roadwork hospital, industrial sectors, etc
Road, Railroad, Airport,

Runway Construction Building construction activities Building demolition and
Activies
renovation activities
Renovation, Demolition activity
Aggregates Concrete Concrete

Concrete Roofing construction Concrete with Iron
Broken asphalt Wall material: bricks, briquette, Roofing cover: wood, tile, isolation
Materials Paving stone stone material including asbestos
Sand Studdo Wall material: bricks, briquette,
Pebble Gypsum stone, gypsum
Railway traverse and ballast Metal Wood
Excavates materials : soil, gravel Wood Glass
rock, clay, vegetation Glass Metal
Plastics Plastics
Paper and carton Paper and carton
Excavated materials: soil, gravel Other waste containing hazardous
rock, clay, vegetation substances such as PCB, ozone-
Other materials depleting substances
Other materials
In fewer quantities in renvovation
.. Fig. 19.7 Diversity of CDW in Europe. (Deloitte 2017)

.. Table 19.3 Construction and Demolition

Waste composition in Europe (BioIS 2011)
Waste category %, min–max range
Concrete and masonry 40–84

Concrete 12–40
Masonry 8–54
Asphalt 4–26
Others (mineral) 2–9
Wood 2–4
Metal 0.2–4 .. Fig. 19.8 CDW constituted mainly by concrete
Gypsum 0.2–0.4
Plastics 0.1–2
Miscellaneous 2–36
.. Table 19.4 Major and minor components of

CDW
Major Cement concrete

components Brick
Cement plaster
Steel (from RCC, door/window
frames, roofing support, etc.)
Rubble .. Fig. 19.9 CDW formed basically by masonry bricks
Stone (marble, granite,
sandstone)
Timber/wood (especially
demolition of old buildings)
Minor Conduits (iron, plastic)
components Pipes (GI, iron, plastic)
Electrical fixtures (copper/
aluminum wiring, wooden baton,
wire insulation
Panels (wooden, laminated)
Others (glazed tiles, glass panes)
properties of the mix incorporate the ade-

quate ratio of bitumen to aggregate and the
appropriate proportion of aggregate size and .. Fig. 19.10 Wood generated in the demolition pro-
air voids. Asphalt shingles (. Fig. 19.11) cess. (Image courtesy of Demoliciones Anka)
19
have several excellent engineering characteris-

tics that allow them to be used in different plasterboard is usually more present in new
applications. construction and remodeling waste (. Fig.
Gypsum plasterboard is one of the most 19.12) than in demolition debris. Most gypsum
recent materials incorporated into the CDW plasterboard recovery is regarded as contami-
waste stream because it is a common interior nant where presented in recovered construction
finish system since 1950s. As a result, gypsum and demolition waste. Thus, gypsum plaster-
19.2 · CDW Composition
573 19
.. Fig. 19.11 Post-consumer recycled asphalt shingles .. Fig. 19.13 Metals separated from the CDW stream.
(PRAS) as feedstock material in hot mix asphalt (image (Image courtesy of Demoliciones Anka)
courtesy of North Carolina Environmental Quality)
.. Fig. 19.14 Cables in the CDW stream. (Image cour-

tesy of Demoliciones Anka)
.. Fig. 19.12 Gypsum plasterboard waste

mostly aluminum (1 to 2 %), stainless steel, and
copper piping or wire. Ferrous metals like steel
board is one of the most challenging compo- are easily recovered from the waste stream
nents where improving the recovery of mixed using relatively inexpensive magnets. Metals
CDW, even though plasterboard itself is almost are collected in bins and transported to the pro-
100 % recyclable. cessing plant, either directly from the construc-
Metals and plastics are not distinctive to the tion and demolition site or from sorting
construction industry and typically occur in facilities. The treatment process separates the
small amounts in the CDW stream in compari- different metal types and leads to removal of
son with the main CDW products described any other materials such as plastic, wood, etc.
above. Coupled with the value of avoided land- Plastics used in building and construction
fill disposal costs, there is a strong economic show two different categories: packaging and
incentive to recover metals in CDW stream durables (nonpackaging). The categorization
(. Fig. 19.13). The majority (around 90 %) of
of these materials is associated with the life
metals recovered from the CDW sector comes span of the plastic product. Even though
from commercial demolition sites. Of this there are wide uses of plastic products in
material, up to 95 % is steel and the remaining building and construction, most common
materials (approximately 5 %) are nonferrous products are packaging films, waffle pods,
metals. These nonferrous components are flexible cables (. Fig. 19.14), and pipes. As a

rule, very little plastic components are recov- and penalties (Poon 2007). As a rule, an ade-
ered from the CDW sector. quate product management tends to lead to a
better end product that can be used in a
broader group of applications. For this rea-
19.3 Management of CDW son, CDW can be also classified according to
its management requirements: (a) it requires
After World War II, many of the regulations in management at an approved facility (e.g.,
developed nations encouraged CDW manage- asphalt shingles, wallboard/drywall, plastic
ment. Most of them were promulgated to plumbing, insulation products, plaster) or (b)
decrease environmental impacts. Nowadays, a it can be used as clean fill (inert), e.g., rock,
life cycle analysis from the time the waste was aggregate, soil, bricks, concrete, asphalt pave-
generated until the point that the material is ment.
recycled or dissipates into the environment is In principle, CDW management is basic
commonly used to evaluate the environmental and simple and the benefits of proper waste
impacts of various methods of CDW manage- management are not solely environmental but
ment. This type of analysis, e.g., Hackenhaar also economic. Responsible management of
et al. (2019), is a useful tool in conducting a CDW is an essential aspect of sustainable
systematic environmental impact assessment building. In this context, managing CDW
of different CDW management scenarios. As looks seeks to eliminate waste where possible,
an example, . Table 19.5 shows the life cycle
minimizing waste where feasible, and reusing
environmental burdens for one ton of CDW materials that might otherwise become waste.
treated using different methods (Blengini In . Fig. 19.15, upper figure illustrates a

and Garbarino 2010). It can be concluded demolition project and a construction project
that recycling is the best treatment for without any synergy while lower figure shows
CDW. Moreover, because any material incor- exploitation of the recycled CDW materials
porated into the building structure remains from demolition as resources for the construc-
until removed during renovation or demolition of a new building. . Table 19.7 shows

tion, at which point it becomes demolition the principles of business model of integrated
waste, life span values of different construc- CDW management compared with tradi-
tion materials are essential in CDW manage- tional CDW management, as illustrated in
ment (. Table 19.6).
. Fig. 19.15.

Incentives have been commonly incorpo- In order to reduce the construction and
rated to prevent the utilization of virgin prod- demolition wastes, several regulations impose
ucts and to deter landfilling and incineration the execution of a waste management plan.
of CDW through strong systems of taxation This plan should contain information about
characterization of the construction works,
main waste streams, waste management
framework, estimation of the quantities of
.. Table 19.5 Life cycle environmental burdens each material, proposal for minimization,
for one ton of CDW waste treated using reuse, and recycling, and transport of the
different methods (Blengini and Garbarino 2010)
CDW. The efficiency of the waste manage-
Treatment Global Primary Land ment plan can be defined as the relationship
warming Energy Use between the amount of materials purchased
and the amount of waste generated at the end
19 potential,
kg CO2e/
MJ/Mg PDF m2
a/Mg of the site work, which could not be reused.
Mg
Effective management of building-related
Collection 6 100 0.15 waste needs a coordinated action of govern-
mental, business, and professional groups and
Landfill 15 300 0.80
their activities. Nevertheless, practices in the
Recycling 2.5 45 0.18 management and disposal of CDW are gener-
ally established by factors such as “the avail-
19.3 · Management of CDW
575 19
.. Table 19.6 Life span values of different construction materials (EPA 2016)
Material Source Life span

Short Typical Long
Concrete Buildings 50 75 100

Roads & bridges 23 25 40
Other structures 20 30 50
Lumber Buildings 50 75 100
Railroad ties Other structures 20 35 45
Plywood and veneers Buildings 50 75 100
Wood paneling Buildings 20 25 30
Drywall and plasters Buildings 25 50 75
Steel Buildings/ roads & bridges 50 75 100
Brick Buildings 50 75 100
Clay floor & wall tile Buildings 15 20 25
Asphalt shingles Buildings 20 25 30
Asphalt concrete Buildings 20 25 30
.. Fig. 19.15 Principle of business model of integrated CDW resource management. (Lauritzen 2019)
ability of suitable disposal sites, economic keep materials separated on site. If inert CDW
conditions, societal priorities, availability of is separated, recycling will be more effective
markets for recycling and reuse, transporta- and the quality of the different recycled mate-
tion options, and the capabilities of local rials will be higher, e.g., recycled aggregates.
workforces and construction businesses to . Fig. 19.16 shows three possible construction

adapt demolition processes for management and demolition waste pathways; the first one
of wastes” (World Building Design Guide). includes separation of CDW on site; the sepa-
A key aspect of an appropriate construc- ration process depends mainly on the options
tion and demolition waste management is to offered at the site (e.g., space and labor) and
implement synergy. The following precondi-

.. Table 19.7 Principles of business model of
integrated CDW management compared to
tions for integrated CDW management must
traditional CDW management, as illustrated in be met: “(a) basic understanding of the need
Fig. 19.15 (Lauritzen 2019) for substituting natural resources with recy-
cled waste materials, (b) dialogue based on
Type of CDW management Cost/CO2 mutual, equal understanding between the
waste sector and the building and construc-
1. Traditional CDW
management, demolition, and tion sector, (c) matching demolition contracts
construction: and production of CDW with new building
and construction contract needs for resources,
Handling A tons CDW. I.A
transport, fees, disposal, etc. and (d) establishment of a professional and
viable market for recycled CDW resources”
Providence of B tons raw I.B
(Lauritzen 2019).
materials, production,
transport, etc. Adequate regulations on the recycling
rates form a crucial step toward a more sus-
Total Cost/Load I.A + I.B
tainable CDW management. Thus, regula-
II. Integrated CDW tions can impose the execution of a waste
management, demolition, management plan, which represents a funda-
recycling, construction:
mental step for CDW reduction. For instance,
Handling A—X tons CDW, II.A – X the revised waste framework directive no.
transport, fees, disposal, etc. 2008/98/EC that establishes the minimum
Providence of B—X tons raw II.A – X recycling percentage for nonhazardous CDW
materials, production, at least 70 % by weight until the year 2020 will
transport, etc. increment the recycling rate in the European
Transformation, crushing, X countries. CDW can also undergo other mate-
qualification of X tons rial recovery such as backfilling operations in
recycled materials which waste substitutes for other materials.
Total Cost/Load (IIA – Moreover, the Construction Resource
X) + (II.B – Initiatives Council introduced a series of tar-
X) + X gets as a “global call to action” for the entire
Preferences: building industry under the international
“Mission 2030” initiative (. Fig. 19.19). As

I.A + I.B > (II.A – X) + (II.B – X) + X →
Integrated CDW management to be preferred an example of these practices, . Fig. 19.20

illustrates the recovery and disposal of CDW

I. A + I.B < (II.A – X) + (II.B – X) + X → (including excavation—CDEW) in the UK in
Traditional CDW management to be preferred
2014.
Current policies and standards influencing
the management of CDW can be subdivided
on the costs and revenues of separated materi- into five principal categories (BioIS 2011): “(a)
als. . Figs. 19.17 (lead sheets) and . 19.18

waste framework policies: national policies or
(roof tiles) show two examples of materials regulation on waste, usually at least transpos-
separated on site. In this sense, when waste ing concepts, targets, and obligations set in the
management controls were firstly incorpo- European Waste Framework Directive, (b)
rated in the 1970s, illegal dumping of con- landfill regulations: stricter control of landfill-
19 struction and demolition waste was prevalent ing of certain types of waste represents a major
(UNEP 2015). Consequently, the adequate driver towards better management of CDW,
management of CDW is essential within (c) CDW policies: when specific obligations
sound waste management overall. regarding the management of CDW are not
Besides CDW reduction, recycling, and directly included in the waste framework poli-
efficient use of resources, the aim of an inte- cies, specific policy or legal documents may
grated CDW management is to create and have been developed, specifically addressing
19.3 · Management of CDW
577 19
.. Fig. 19.16 Three construction and demolition pathways. (NYC-DDC 2003)
.. Fig. 19.17 Lead sheets separated on site. (Image .. Fig. 19.18 Roof tiles separated on site. (Image cour-
courtesy of Demoliciones Anka) tesy of Demoliciones Anka)
the issue of C&D waste, (d) secondary raw cally addressing CDW.” Taking into account
material regulation and standards, e.g. stan- these factors, CDW can be classified based on
dards on the quality of secondary materials “the type of work that gave rise, the type of
from CDW, and (e) construction and demoli- material, how hazardous the components are,
tion sites regulations and standards: for and the final treatment it can be undergone”
instance, requirements for buildings specifi- (Margarido 2015) (. Table 19.8).

Zero waste
35% 50% 75%
to landfill
by 2015 by 2020 by 2025
by 2030
.. Fig. 19.19 Mission 2030 initiative. (UNEP 2015)
CDW recycled - 51.0 CDW recovered-

backfilled - 1.4
Total
CDW disposed - 2.6
CDEW
108.3
EW disposed - 23.0
EW recycled - 9.4 EW recovered –

backfilled – 20.9
.. Fig. 19.20 Recovery and disposal of CDW (including excavation—CDEW) in the UK, 2014 (figures are pre-
sented in million tons and exclude hazardous waste). (MPA 2019)
19.4 Valorization Plants main fractions of construction and demolition

waste, EU-27 estimates, their distribution, and
Construction and demolition waste minimiza- the possibilities of recycling, reuse, and recov-
tion involve the application of the 3Rs, that is, ering.
reduce, reuse, and recycling. They are presented After demolition of a building structure
in an order of preference, representing a hierar- (conventional or selective—sometimes termed
chy of environmental benefit and potential for deconstruction), CDW is sent to the valoriza-
economic savings. Reduce in CDW sector tion (recycling) plant, in which most materials
means reducing the consumption and wastage are recycled. In 1980s, as a consequence of the
of building materials. It is commonly the most scarcity of landfills and the growing aware-
cost-effective possibility because it provides ness of the environmental impact and resource
both raw material and waste disposal cost sav- potential of CDW, numerous plants for CDW
ing. Reuse involves the direct reuse of CDW in valorization went into operation in many
its original form. Thus, materials from a demo- countries worldwide. Although the source
lition project can be used in new construction. separation is mandatory in some countries,
Finally, recycling involves reprocessing of the off-site construction waste sorting is
CDW into new products. It diverts waste from always the most preferred choice to contrac-
landfill but it needs labor, machinery, and tors and usually has relatively lower sortabil-
19 energy to transport and to treat materials. The ity than segregation-at-source. To reduce the
quantity of material that can be salvaged for quantity of CDW disposed at landfill, selec-
reuse and recycling depends mainly on the type tive demolition must incorporate the disman-
of building being demolished, time constraints, tling of elements classified as hazardous
and the local recycling market. As a rule, recy- waste, electrical installations, and etcetera.
cling is the most common choice in CDW mar- There are two types of valorization plants:
ket. . Table 19.9 shows an overview of the

stationary (. Fig. 19.21) and mobile

19.4 · Valorization Plants
579 19
.. Table 19.8 Classification of CDW based on type of work, type of material, dangerous nature of the
material, and final destination (Margarido 2015)
Classification Characteristics
Type of work Construction waste: waste from new construction works for buildings and infrastructure
Demolition waste: waste from demolition of buildings and infrastructure
Repair work waste: waste from refurbishment and repair of buildings and infrastructure
Type of Waste from structural concrete (simple or reinforced
material
Waste from masonry
Waste from asphalt material
Waste from vegetation and unwanted soil
Dangerous Inert waste: this includes waste from concrete, soil, mortar, bricks, roofing tiles, masonry, etc.
nature (of
Noninert waste: this includes waste from different packaging, plastics, wood, metal, glass, etc.
this material)
Hazardous waste: this includes waste from asphalt, used oil, tins of paint, and solvent
asbestos, etc.
Final Reusable waste: waste that can be reused directly on the work site or on another, consisting
destination of clean bricks, concrete blocks, stone facades, roofing tiles and metal, vinyl coating, wooden
cupboards, balconies, stairs, piping/electrical equipment carpets, clean insulation, and
wooden/front beams
Recyclable waste: waste that can be recycled, consisting of broken bricks, concrete or stone
facades, ceramics and tiles, damaged or broken glass windows, wooden beams, trees, metal
dividers, covering material, aluminum window, and door frames
Nonrecyclable waste: waste that either due to its characteristics or because it is contaminated,
cannot be recycled, particularly mixed waste that cannot be sorted, nonrecyclable materials,
such as asphalt, linoleum flooring, dangerous waste including asbestos, treated wood waste
(cladding or door frames), wood shavings, and wood contaminated by paint
(. Fig. 19.22). Stationary plants, with recy-

nomically feasible from a quantity of 5000 to
cling capacities ranging from 100 to 350 ton/h, 6000 ton/site and can be moved to various
generally adopt higher-level technologies. locations (track-mounted plants allow supe-
They are typically provided with the sorting rior on-site mobility). However, there are lim-
equipment for the separation of unwanted ited cleaning facilities in this type of
fractions. Stationary plants are suitable in installation, generating therefore a low-quality
high-density areas, capable of producing a recycling product.
high-quality, efficient materials due to the Stationary CDW valorization plant
production of different recycled products of (7 Box 19.1: Salmedina Valorization Plant)

various grading. However, the initial invest- is an assembly of crushing, sieving, and wash-
ment for this type of plants can be in excess. ing machinery interconnected by conveyer
Mobile plants, with recycling capacities up to belts for material movement. The machinery
100 ton/h, can treat smaller quantities of is housed on steel/concrete platforms on a
CDW in temporary demolition worksites. permanent basis. The crushing units will
They deploy basic technologies and com- include dust control systems, noise control
monly produce low-grade recycling products systems, magnetic separator devices
by in situ recycling. Mobile plants are eco- (. Fig. 19.23), and other additional devices

.. Table 19.9 Overview of the main fractions of construction and demolition waste, EU-27 estimates,
their distribution, and the possibilities of recycling, reuse, and recovering (Lauritzen 2019)
CDW fraction Type of material Distribution Potential of recycling, reuse,

minmax by weight recovering
%
Concrete, plain Inert, ceramics 50–90 Recycling of crushed concrete, bound,

concrete, or reinforced and unbound applications
concrete
Masonry, bricks, and Inert, ceramics 35–50 Reuse of bricks recycling of crushed
tiles materials
Stones Inert, ceramics 1–2 Reuse of granite blocks, recycling of
crushed aggregates
Asphalt Mixed inert and 1–5 Recovering and recycling in new
combustible asphalt layers
Wood, timber, planks, Biodegradable. 1–10 Reuse of doors, windows, timber and
doors, windows combustible planks, production of chipboards,
energy recovery
Scrap iron, steel, Inert, metal 1–5 Recovering
metals
Gypsum 0,2–0,4 Recovering
Glass Inert 0.1–1.0 Recovering
Insulation materials, Inert 1–10 Recovering
mineral wool, glass
wool
Paper, cardboard, Combustible Incineration, energy
plastics
Ceramics and Inert Disposal, recycling possible
porcelains
Hazardous substances Disposal or special treatment
.. Fig. 19.21 Salmedina stationary CDW recycling

plant
19 based on requirements. The systems are either

semi-automated or completely automated .. Fig. 19.22 Mobile CDW recycling plant
units. Containers containing CDW are col-
lected and transported to diversion facilities dled. At the entrance to the plant, the CDW
via truck (. Fig. 19.24). Identification of
must be weighed. Because separating the dif-
loads on arrival at CDW is an important step ferent fractions by a selective demolition pro-
in ensuring materials to be appropriately han- cess can result in an increase in the cost of
19.4 · Valorization Plants
581 19
.. Fig. 19.23 Magnetic separator device
.. Fig. 19.24 Truck with a CDW container .. Fig. 19.25 Air separation device
demolition, the CDW valorization plants

must offer in its reception differentiated fees
depending on the degree of contamination of
the arriving CDW.
Facility management plans typically
describe materials that can be accepted. Loads
containing materials that are not accepted can
be turned away; in that case the materials
likely will be disposed in a landfill. Some
materials such as reinforcing bars of steel, big
pieces of wood, concrete, and materials with .. Fig. 19.26 Sort or triage station
sizes greater than one meter are generally
picked previous the sorting process may start. the belt (. Fig. 19.26). Materials are identi-

The lighter fractions can be effectively sepa- fied, grabbed, and deposited in vertical open-
rated from the inert material using air ings at each sort station. Diverted materials
separation devices (. Fig. 19.25). Sorting
are destined for incorporation in new prod-
commonly involves loading materials onto an ucts as recycled material (e.g., recycled aggre-
inclined metal belt and passed across a man- gates). Jaw crusher as a primary crushing
ual sort line. It consists of a flexible rubber device with a screen and a cone or impactor as
belt and integral sort stations that provide a secondary crushing unit could also be used.
places for several workers to stand, generally The circuit should also have a magnet for steel
opposite from one another down the length of removal (. Fig. 19.23).

Box 19.1
almedina Valorization Plant. (Courtesy

S ing sites, clean of other materials. This type of
of Salmedina TRI S.L.) waste is subjected to a recycling process in three
Environmental management of CDW at the operational stages: (a) crushing stage to reduce
plant begins with the right choice of materials the size of debris (. Fig. 19.28), (b) sieving

to recycle and the treatments that they will phase (. Fig. 19.29) to separate materials

receive according to their type. It results in new resulting from the previous stage, and (c) stock-
materials to be reused, thus minimizing their piling stage (. Fig. 19.30) in which the final

environmental impact. There are three possible aggregates are stored in an area intended for
destinations in the plant when the truck arrives: this purpose.
concrete plant, mixed CDW plant, and pur-
chase of material. In the first case, materials are
made up almost entirely of concrete and
undergo a number of processes, i.e., triage,
crushing, and screening, to produce recycled
concrete aggregate. In the second option, the
trucks contain a lower percentage of concrete
mixed with other CDW of various types. The
purchase of material option is for trucks buy-
ing recycling concrete aggregate of different
particle size depending on use; these aggregates
are produced as a result of previous destina- .. Fig. 19.28 Crushing process. (Image courtesy of
tions (concrete plant or mixed CDW plant). Salmedina TRI S.L.)
Salmedina processing plant can treat 250
tons/h of CDW concrete and 600 tons/h of
mixed CDW. It means about 7800 tons per day
of CDW, with a recovery and recycling per-
centage of around 70 % using both concrete
and mixed debris plants.
The plant is divided into two-level plat-
forms. The upper platform (. Fig. 19.27) is

used for the unloading of vehicles while the

lower level incorporates the machinery and the
area for stockpiling and dispatch of material.
.. Fig. 19.29 Sieving process. (Image courtesy of
In the concrete plant, CDW arrives from build- Salmedina TRI S.L.)
19
.. Fig. 19.27 Upper platform for unloading the .. Fig. 19.30 Stockpiling stage. (Image courtesy
trucks. (Image courtesy of Salmedina TRI S.L.) of Salmedina TRI S.L.)
19.5 · Recycling
583 19
In the mixed CDW plant, CDW is pro- both manually and mechanically. Once the
cessed to extract materials such as plastics, materials have been separated, the procedure is
paper, cardboard, or wood that are mixed with similar to the concrete plant, that is, the mate-
the concrete, separating and removing them rial is crushed and screened.
19.5 Recycling various opportunities of recycling. In principle,

all concrete waste is inert and can be recycled.
Although many building and construction Full implementation of recycling of concrete
materials can be recycled from the CDW stream, waste all over the world can save around 1 bil-
e.g., asphalt, brick, drywall, wood, and metals, lion tons of natural resources (Lauritzen 2019).
heavy materials generated in large amounts cost Because concrete is produced with coarse
more to dispose of to landfill (more than 50 % aggregates, fine aggregates, cement, water, and
of all CDW generated per year in the world admixtures (see 7 Chap. 6), the production

is concrete—Lauritzen 2019). This results in of recycled aggregates (7 Box 19.2: Recycled

these materials receiving priority attention for Concrete Aggregate—RCA) is obviously the
recovery and recycling. From a global perspec- first option for recycling concrete. The benefit
tive, recycling of c oncrete is therefore the most of using RCA in concrete manufacturing is sav-
challenging development because of the huge ing the aggregate virgin production for the new
amounts of consumption of raw materials and concrete.
Box 19.2
ecycled Concrete Aggregate (RCA)

R cations, (b) can be an accepted source of
Recycled concrete (RC) means concrete that aggregate into new concrete, (c) is currently
utilizes recycled aggregate (RA) produced by being used in concrete and asphalt products
crushing waste concrete to replace partly or with better performance over comparable vir-
completely virgin aggregate in concrete. gin aggregates, (d) provides for superior com-
Aggregate produced by crushing of concrete is paction and constructability, (e) weighs 10 to
called Recycled Concrete Aggregate (RCA) 15 % less than comparable virgin quarry prod-
(. Fig. 19.31). RCA can be coarse or fine
ucts, (f) offers a way to reduce landfill waste
(. Fig. 19.32). There are specifications in sev-
streams, and (g) means minimization of envi-
eral countries for the requirements of RA and ronmental impacts.”
their quality control (for instance, a maximum Recycling of crushed concrete into second-
amount of RA to incorporate in the new con- ary raw materials for utilization as unbound
crete). Concrete reprocessing involves the utili- road bases, sub-bases or fill, soil stabilization,
zation of relatively uncomplicated and landscape materials, and as a substitute of vir-
well-established crushing techniques. In princi- gin aggregate is usually applied all over the
ple, production of recycled aggregates is similar world. . Fig. 19.33 illustrates a cycle path

to the production of primary crushed rock developed using recycle concrete aggregate.
aggregates. A typical production plant consists Other applications, such as the use as gravel
of a crusher and a system of bands and sieves, substitute in concrete, are less commonly
depending on the required quality. accepted. Aggregates used for road base are
According to the Construction and mostly applied in layers. The total thickness is
Demolition Recycling Association (CDRA), often limited to several decimeters. Aggregates
recycled concrete aggregate: “(a) is high qual- used as foundation layer under building are
ity, meeting or exceeding all applicable specifi- often used in thicker layers. By application in
.. Fig. 19.32 Coarse and fine recycled concrete

aggregate
.. Fig. 19.31 Recycled concrete aggregate

.. Fig. 19.33 Cycle path developed using recycle
concrete aggregate
thick layers, the aggregates might be used for
multiple purposes: leveling and elevation as heavy loads. Therefore, requirements regarding
well as foundation layer. Aggregates used for grading and compression should be met
road base or foundation must be resistant to (Lauritzen 2019).
19.6 Questions ??Long Questions

55 Explain in detail the characteristics of
??Short Questions concrete recycled aggregate.
55 Define construction and demolition waste
(CDW).
19 55 List the main components of CDW. References
55 Which are the objectives of the manage-
ment of CDW? BioIS (2011) Management of C&D waste. European
Commission DG ENV Final Report Task 2, 240 p
55 Explain the aim of a valorization plant for
Blengini GA, Garbarino E (2010) Resources and waste
CDW treatment. management in Turin (Italy): the role of recycled
55 What is the more recycled CDW compo- aggregates in the sustainable supply mix. J Clean
nent? Explain the reasons. Prod 18:1021–1030
References
585 19
Deloitte (2017) Study on resource efficient use of mixed De Brito J, Saikia N (2013) Recycled aggregate in con-
wastes, improving management of construction and crete. Use of industrial, construction and demoli-
demolition waste – final report. Prepared for the tion waste. Springer, London, 445 p
European Commission, DG ENV., 213 p Cochran KM (2006) Construction and demolition
EPA (2016) Construction and demolition debris genera- debris recycling: methods, markets, and policies.
tion in the United States, 2014. United States Envi- Ph.D. Thesis, University of Florida, 185 p
ronmental Protection Agency, 23 p European Commission (2016) EU construction &
EPA (2019) Advancing sustainable materials manage- demolition waste management protocol, 52p
ment: 2017 fact sheet – assessing trends in material Iacoboaea C, Aldea M, Petrescu F (2019) Construction
generation, recycling, composting, combustion with and demolition waste – a challenge for the Euro-
energy recovery and landfilling in the united States. pean Union? Theor Empir Res Urban Manag
United States Environmental Protection Agency, 22 p 14, 24 p
Gálvez-Martos JL, Styles D, Schoenberger H, Mah CM, Fujiwara T, Ho CS (2018) Environmental
Zeschmar-Lahl B (2018) Construction and demoli- impacts of construction and demolition waste man-
tion waste best management practice in Europe. Res agement alternatives. Chem Eng Trans 63:343–348
Conserv Recycl 136:166–178 Mohan Y, Sheoran U, Rani A (2015) Construction and
Hackenhaar I C, Waskow R P, Tubino R and Passuello demolition waste management advantages of demo-
A (2019) Life Cycle Assessment applied to construc- lition in construction. Int J Sci Res, 4 p
tion and demolition waste treatment: proposal of a Pacheco-Torgal F, Jalali S (2011) Eco-efficient construc-
Brazilian scenario. IOP Conf. Series: Earth and tion and building materials. Springer, London, 247
Environmental Science 323, 10 p p
Lauritzen EK (2019) Construction, demolition and Silva RV, Brito J, Dhir RK (2014) Properties and com-
disaster waste management – an integrated and sus- position of recycled aggregates from construction
tainable approach. CRC Press, Taylor & Francis and demolition waste suitable for concrete produc-
Group, 337 p tion. Constr Build Mater 65:201–217
Margarido F (2015) Environmental impact and life Winkler G (2010) Recycling construction and demoli-
cycle evaluation of materials. In: Goncalves MC, tion waste – a LEED-based toolkit. McGraw-Hill’s
Margarido F (eds) Materials for construction and Greensource Series, 256 p
civil engineering. Springer, pp 799–835 Xiao J (2018) Recycled aggregate concrete structures.
MPA (2019) From waste to resource – a UK Mineral Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, 632 p
Products industry success story. Mineral Products Yeheyis M, Hewage K, Shahria Alam M, Eskicioglu C,
Association, London, 6 p Sadiq R (2013) An overview of construction and
NYC-DDC (2003) Construction and demolition waste demolition waste management in Canada: a lifecy-
manual. NYC Department of Design & Construc- cle analysis approach to sustainability. Clean Tech
tion, 28 p Environ Policy 15:81–91
Pacheco-Torgal F, Vivian T, Labincha JA, Ding Y, de
Brito J (2013) Handbook of recycled concrete and Useful Links
demolition waste. Woodhead Publishing, 672 p
Construction and Demolition Recycling Association.
Poon CS (2007) Editorial – reducing construction waste.
cdrecycling.org
Waste Mang 27:1715–1716
Federation Internationale du Recyclage. www.fi-
Strufe N (2005) Eliminating hazardous materials from
recycling.com
demolition waste. Proceedings of the Institution of
Construction and Demolition Recycling. www.cdrecy-
Civil Engineers, Paper 13762, Engineering Sustain-
cler.com
ability 158: 25–30
National Zero Waste Conference. zwconference.org/cd-
UNEP (2015, 2015) Global waste management outlook.
recycling-association
United Nations Environment Programme, 346 p
Recycling Inside. recyclinginside.com/construction-and-
demolition-waste-recycling
Further Reading
Arora G, Arora S (2015) Recycled aggregates: a sustain-
able solution of construction and demolished waste.
IOSR J Mech Civil Eng:58–63
587 20
Coating Materials
Contents
20.1 Introduction and Definitions – 588
20.2 Functions of Coating Materials – 589
20.3 Components and Raw Materials – 590

20.3.1 inders – 590
B
20.3.2 Solvents – 591
20.3.3 Pigments – 593
20.3.4 Additives – 596
References – 602

588 Chapter 20 · Coating Materials
generic meaning (paints or varnishes are just

Summary a part of the large group of coating materi-
This chapter deals with the diverse world of als). This is why this chapter is named Coating
coating materials. They are products, in Materials and not, for instance, Paints and
liquid, paste, and/or powder forms, that, Varnishes. In the English-speaking world, the
when applied onto a substrate, form a layer term coating is sometimes synonymous with
possessing protective, decorative, and/or paint; the only difference lies in the presence
other specific properties (ISO EN 4618 of pigments. Thus, ASTM D16 standard
standard). After introduction describing defines coating as “(1) a liquid, liquefiable, or
terms commonly used in the market, i.e., mastic composition that is converted by evap-
coatings, paints, and varnishes, the principal oration, cross-linking, or cooling to a solid or
functions of coating materials are outlined. semisolid protective, decorative, or functional
The components (binders, solvents, adherent layer after application; (2) the solid
pigments, and additives) and the raw or semisolid layer resulting from application
materials to their manufacture are discussed of the composition above; coatings include,
below. Manufacturing process of coating but are not limited to, paints, varnishes, seal-
materials is the next heading. The chapter ers, and stains,” paint as “a pigmented coat-
ends with the main applications of these ing,” and varnish as “a liquid composition that
products in building and construction, with is converted to a transparent or translucent
special attention to architectural coating solid film after application as a thin layer.”
materials. Regarding the onset of the utilization of
coating materials in History, Dioscorides and
Plinius the Elder reported the use of natu-
ral resins (early coating materials) from the
20.1 Introduction and Definitions time of the Ancient Greeks and Romans.
Previously, cave dwellers, about 30,000 years
Just to start, it is relevant to explain why this ago, used crude paints to leave behind the
chapter is entitled Coating Materials. The graphic representations of their lives. About
significance of terms such as paint, varnish, 8,000-6,000 B.C., the Egyptians used paints
coating, coating material, and others can be based on gum Arabic. Also in ancient Egypt,
confusing depending on the source of infor- many natural and synthetic pigments were
mation. With the aim of avoiding further mis- developed, especially the pigment termed blue
takes in the misunderstanding of the different of Egypt, made from lime, sand, copper oxide,
headings of the chapter, basic definitions writ- and sodium carbonate. The Chinese used
ten in ISO EN 4618 standard are discussed paints with the objective of coating furniture
here. Thus, coating material is a “product, and houses, both internally and externally.
in liquid, paste or powder form, that, when Later, in the 12th century, combinations
applied to a substrate, forms a layer possess- of hardened natural resins such as amber
ing protective, decorative and/or other spe- with resinifying natural oils were used. By
cific properties.” This standard considers that the end of the first millennium, the monk
the utilization of the term coating for coating Rodgerus of Helmarshausen gave first details
material is deprecated because coating is just of the composition and manufacture of a
the “process of applying a coat.” ISO EN standard paint. Accordingly, he is consid-
4618 standard defines paint as a “pigmented ered the creator of the first binding paint
coating material which, when applied to a formulation as well as the first in provid-
substrate, forms an opaque dried film having detailed instructions on how to make it.
20 ing protective, decorative or specific techni- Nevertheless, the coating materials industry
cal properties” and varnish as a “transparent had to wait until the Industrial Revolution
coating material.” Therefore, coating mate- before it became a recognized element of the
rials include paints and varnishes in a more world economy. Further mechanization made
20.2 · Functions of Coating Materials
589 20
the manufacturing process of coating mate- 20.2 Functions of Coating Materials
rials accessible to a larger and less special-
ized group of entrepreneurs. The Industrial Coating materials are usually selected because
Revolution opened vast new markets for of the necessity to protect surfaces from
coating materials. external factors, e.g., insects, rain, and solar
The coating materials market embraces radiation, decorative functions, and special
three main sectors: architectural, industrial, requirements. Although coating materials can
and special purpose sectors. The architectural meet many other functions, protection and
coating materials sector depends basically on decoration are generally the most important.
the construction and manufacturing activities Around 55% of the coating materials manu-
while industrial coatings are closely linked to factured worldwide is now used in decoration
the automotive, major appliances, and indus- and protection of new constructions and in
trial equipment sectors. The special purpose the maintenance of existing structures such
sector includes a broad collection of diver- as residential homes and apartments, public
gent coatings. According to the World Paint buildings, and etcetera. Another 35% of the
& Coatings Industry Association, the archi- coating materials are used to decorate and/or
tectural coating materials sector is the most protect industrial products. The most impor-
important of the three sectors, accounting tant economic goal of coating materials is sur-
for 53% of the global market. The architec- face protection. They help to maintain value
tural coating materials are broadly used for and enhance the usability properties of almost
the decoration and protection of buildings, all products. For instance, coating materials
architectural components, and parts of build- are essential in the automotive sector for the
ings with different materials. A major change resistance of the coating material to external,
in the coating materials market in the last 40 aggressive natural, and anthropogenic atmo-
years dealt with implementation of new coat- spheric influences. The anticorrosive protec-
ing technologies such as “water-borne (ther- tion acquired by metal objects after painting
mosetting emulsion, colloidal dispersion, deserves to be highlighted. Decorative paints
water-soluble) coatings, high-solids coatings, for aesthetic purposes are used to decorate a
two-component systems, powder coatings, surface or substrate with many different col-
and radiation-curable coatings” (Rajagopal ors, textures, and finishes.
2014). . Figure 20.1 shows the world pro-

Coating materials can be formulated for
duction of paints and coatings in 2018. certain usages such as, for instance, lumi-
nous paints that glow in the dark for emer-
gency signage and fire retardant paints for
South Korea Other enhancing the fire resistance of combustible
CIS surfaces. Other examples of applications are
Africa the informative tasks, e.g., conspicuousness
Japan
China of emergency service vehicles and road or air-
Middle East
port markings, and the achievement of special
Central/South physical effects. Color markings enable areas
America
and spaces to be clearly signed and/or divided.
Other Asia Color coding contributes to the indication of
content of containers and materials that are
India
conveyed in pipes. Optical effects induced by
colored or metallic pigments lend a coating a
Europe particular optical attraction.
North America A broad spectrum of requisites justifies
that no single coating material can comply
.. Fig. 20.1 World production of paints and coatings several functions simultaneously and in the
in 2018. (Source: HIS Markit) same way. “The aim of providing coating
materials for the lasting protection, decora- ground to produce a powder coating if there
tion, and improvement of objects made of are no solvents where higher molecular film-
wood, metal, plastic, and other materials at forming agents are used (Goldschmidt and
reasonable prices can be met only by adopt- Streitberger 2018). If the film-forming agents
ing different formulations based on a range are lower molecular liquid products, it is pos-
of material combinations; Each of these com- sible to eliminate some or all of the organic
binations targets a limited field of substrates, solvent. Apart from the intended application,
a selected application method, and a specific a film-forming agent that solidifies as a result
profile of film properties” (Goldschmidt and of physical or chemical processes is the only
Streitberger 2018). The choice of a suitable one that has to be present in every organic
coating material is based on quality require- coating.
ments, particular application conditions, The resin hardens and keeps the pigments
curing process, design features, and the dif- bound and permanently dispersed on the
ferent constituent materials of the object to painted surface. Most binders are formed of
be painted. In a summarized way, the char- resins that are greatly responsible for the pro-
acteristics of a good coating material are the tective and general mechanical properties of
following: “(a) to cover maximum area with the film. Thus, the binder dictates the most
minimum amount of product, (b) to be envi- important properties of the paint. Traditional
ronment friendly and cost-effective, (c) to film-forming agents are polymeric organic
possess aesthetic and decorative appearance, components. This is because of the range of
(d) to be easily applicable on a surface, (d) to requirements imposed on adhesion to the
be chemically inert to the atmospheric action substrate, mechanical strength combined with
and should not affect the health of the peo- elasticity, and resistance to ambient effects.
ple, (e) to provide protection to the surface Film-forming agents can be manufactured
forming a hard and durable coat, and (f) the from natural substances that have been chemi-
painted surface should not show cracks on cally modified or by industrial synthesis.
drying” (Sahu and Jena 2015). Irrespective of their origin, film-forming
agents can be divided into two basic groups.
One group consists of high molecular, physi-
20.3 Components and Raw cally curing film-forming agents such as
cellulose nitrate, cellulose acetobutyrate, ther-
Materials moplastic acrylates, and PVC copolymers.
They set by releasing solvents, but do not
Binders, solvents, extenders, pigments, and
undergo chemical change during film forma-
additives are the most common components
tion. The second group includes chemically
of liquid coating materials.
reactive film-forming agents or combinations
thereof; they are used for high-grade decora-
tive and industrial paints. Some examples of
20.3.1 Binders binders used in coating materials are naturally
drying oils, alkyds, epoxy resin compounds,
According to ISO EN 4618 standard, binder formaldehyde resins, vinyl resins, acrylic res-
is “the non-volatile part of a medium,” where ins, urethane resins, and other synthetic resins
the medium (or vehicle) embraces “all constit- such as polystyrene and cyclohexanone resins.
uents of the liquid phase of a coating mate- The three most commonly used binders are
rial” (this definition does not apply to coating acrylic polymers, alkyd polymers, and epoxy
powders). Binders (film-forming agents), com- polymers. . Table 20.1 shows a comparison
20

ponents that form a continuous phase, are the of some of the properties of the various resins
pigment-free and extender-free fractions of frequently used in coating materials. It is com-
the dried or cured coating material. The mate- mon that the name of the family of paints is
rial is a clear coat if there are no pigments related to the resin used in its manufacture; for
and extenders; the coating material can be instance, an acrylic paint has an acrylic resin
20.3 · Components and Raw Materials
591 20
.. Table 20.1 Comparison of some of the properties of various resins commonly used in coating materials
(Talbert 2008)
Alkyd Alkyd Baking Modified Acrylic Cellulose Catalyzed Urethane

Amino Polyester (Styrenated) (Lacquer) Epoxy
Alkyd
Exterior E E E G E E G E
durability
Salt spray E G G G E E E E
Alkali P F G G G P E F
resistance
Solvent G E E F F F E E
aliphatic
Solvent P P G P P P G E
ketone
Flexibility E G E G E E F E
Impact G E E G E E G E
Heat G G E G G P G G
resistance
Color G G E G E E F E
retention
Gloss E G E F E G P E
retention
E excellent, G good, F fair, P poor
as binder although a broad range of acrylic mation of the dry film. Sometimes the expres-
polymers can be used. sion volatile vehicle is used, in opposition to
fixed vehicle. Although they evaporate after
application, volatile components play a major
20.3.2 Solvents role in the paint; they determine the viscos-
ity, the ease of application, the rate of evap-
Solvent is a “single liquid or blend of liquids, oration and the adhesion and occurrence of
volatile under specified drying conditions and internal mechanical stresses in the dry film
in which the binder is soluble” (ISO EN 4618 (Simöes 2015). Adequate processing and film
standard). Solvents are responsible for the formation are possible only if the right sol-
dissolution of the resin and for the control vents are selected and combined.
of viscosity. It allows the application of the Volatile components can be classified as:
paint in the liquid state while promoting effi- “(a) true solvents: these are substances that
cient wetting of the surface in order to enable effectively dissolve a certain resin, with total
the formation of a continuous layer. Thus, an miscibility for any proportions, (b) auxiliary
organic solvent is added to the coating mate- solvents: these are substances that cannot dis-
rial to achieve the needed consistency, improv- solve the resin by themselves but that allow
ing the application of the paint, and reducing dissolution when added to the true solvent,
its viscosity. (c) diluents: these are organic compounds that
Solvents are usually volatile substances have no dissolving power but that are compat-
and its evaporation is at the origin of the for- ible with the solvents; their main role is to help
control the properties of the liquid mixture Solvent-based paints dominated the mar-
and control the curing rate, whilst increasing ket for building and construction paints
the volume at low price, and (d) thinners: these until the 1970s. In the last decades, environ-
are liquids added to the formulation with the mental issues and legislation forced strong
aim of decreasing the viscosity” (Simöes 2015). limits to the utilization of volatile organic
Some decades ago, turpentine was the most compounds (VOC). As a consequence, dras-
important solvent used worldwide for building tic changes in coating materials formulation
and construction paints but it was further sub- occurred, mainly toward water-based prod-
stituted by other types of organic solvents. The ucts. Therefore, solvents can be replaced by
most common organic solvents are “aromatic water if the resins or dispersions are miscible
hydrocarbons, e.g. xylene and solvent naph- with water. Waterborne coating materials are
tha, aliphatic hydrocarbons, e.g. mineral spirit dispersions based on synthetic polymers, dis-
or vernice, esters, e.g. ethyl acetate or butyl persions of polyacrylates being the most com-
acetate, alcohols, e.g. propanol or butanol, mon. They can contain water-soluble alkyd
ethers, e.g. butyl glycol, ether esters, e.g. ethyl resins and a mixture of polyacrylate and
and butyl glycol acetate, and various ketones” polyurethane. In comparison with organic
(Goldschmidt and Streitberger 2018). It is solvents, water has the advantages of being
important that the combination of solvents wholly clean from an environmental viewpoint
chosen from the range available matches the and its low cost. The main disadvantages deal
resin type. Traditionally, solvents have served with its high melting point, compared to the
merely as viscosity regulators although they organic solvents, which results in risk of freez-
can react chemically with the resins during ing in cold climates. On the other hand, water
film formation. Such reactive thinners remain does not dissolve by itself most resins so that
in the solidifying film, thus contributing to a it is necessary to be used in conjunction with
reduction in organic emissions. . Table 20.2 a real solvent, that is, water usually works as
shows properties of some solvents. a diluent.
.. Table 20.2 Properties of some solvents (Talbert 2008)
Solvent Specific Boiling Point Evaporation Flash Point

Gravity (°C) Ratea (°C)
Acetone 0.79 56 944 –18

Butyl acetate 0.88 125 100 23
Butyl alcohol 0.881 118 36 35
Ethyl acetate 0.90 77 480 –4.4
Ethyl alcohol 0.79 79 253 12
Ethylene glycol monoethyl ether (2 0.93 135 24 49
ethoxyethanol)
Methyl ethyl ketone 0.81 80 572 –7
Methyl isobutyl ketone 0.83 116 164 13
Toluene 0.87 111 214 4.4
Mineral spirits 0.80 150–200 –18 38 (min)
20 Xylene 0.87 138–144 73 17–25
aEvaporation rate values based on butyl acetate = 100; these values relate to pure solvents and will be lower
where dissolved solids or diluents are present
593 20
20.3.3 Pigments primary functions of pigments (. Fig. 20.2).

The ability of a paint to cover a surface and

ISO EN 4638 standard includes several defi- mask it from view is referred to as hiding
nitions of pigments and related products. power. Since most paint binders are trans-
Coloring material is “any substance that con- parent, the job of hiding the surface falls
fers color to other materials; coloring mate- primarily to the pigment. It contributes to
rials comprise pigments that are insoluble in hiding power in three ways: reflect, refract, or
the application medium as well as dyestuffs absorb the light that enters into the paint film.
that are soluble in the application medium,” . Figure 20.3 illustrates reflection, refrac-

pigment is a “colorant consisting of particles, tion, and absorption by a paint film. Other
insoluble in the application medium, e.g. coat- important features of pigments are their lim-
ing material or plastic,” and tinter is a “disper- ited solubility in water and in solvents and
sion of pigments, with or without extenders good color fastness.
and binders, that is compatible with a paint In addition, through absorbing UV radia-
and is used to modify the color.” In addition, tion, pigments avoid degradation of both the
the standard discerns between effect pigment substrate to be protected by painting and the
and functional pigment. The former is a “pig- polymeric protective coating material itself. A
ment, usually plate-like in form, that, confers further important objective in some specific
not only color but additional properties such pigments is to maximize protection against
as iridescence (interference at thin layers), corrosion. Pigments are also used to control
angle dependency of color (color travel, color rheology, durability, and mechanical proper-
flop, light-dark flop), or texture” and the lat- ties of the films. According to the concentra-
ter is a “pigment, which based on its chemical tion of pigment and its particle size, paints can
or physical properties fulfils additional func- be classified as glosses (15 to 20% of pigment
tions in addition to its color; additional func-
tions may be corrosion protection, function as
barrier pigment, photocatalytical properties,
infrared absorption or infrared reflection.”
For its part, ASTM D16 standard defines
pigment as “fine solid particles used in the
preparation of paint or printing ink and sub-
stantially insoluble in the vehicle; asphaltic
materials are not pigments except when they
contain substances substantially insoluble in
the vehicle in which they are used.”
The pigments used in coating materials .. Fig. 20.2 Pigments. (Image courtesy of Coatings
provide color and hiding power, which are the World)
.. Fig. 20.3 Light behavior on a painted surface (Talbert 2008)

content), flats (40 to 45%), and semi-glosses Inorganic Pigments). They are constituted by
between these two. extremely finely dispersed, generally crystal-
Pigments are commercially presented in line solids. Effectively, mixtures of organic and
three forms: primary particles, with dimensions inorganic pigments are commonly used with
typically below 1 μm, aggregates, and agglom- the aim to combine the strengths of the indi-
erates. Primary particles are single, small vidual classes of substances with each other
particles formed during synthesis. During cal- cost-effectively.
cination, “primary particles can join together The selection of a pigment for a specific
through chemical bonding to create larger application embraces different criteria to
particles termed aggregates; Alternatively, accomplish an optimal application result:
particles formed via physical bonding instead “(a) color properties: color, tinting strength,
of chemical bonds are called agglomerates” lightening power, hiding power, (b) chemical
(Milanovic and Casey 2017). ISO EN 4638 and physical properties: chemical composi-
standard includes the definition of the so- tion, particle size, particle size distribution,
called pigment volume concentration (PVC), an density, moisture and salt content, content of
important feature of pigments. It is the “ratio, water soluble and acid soluble matter, hard-
expressed as a percentage, of the total volume ness, (c) stability properties: resistance against
of the pigments and/or extenders and/or other light (especially UV light), heat, humidity,
non-film-forming solid particles in a product and chemicals, retention of gloss, corro-
to the total volume of the non-volatile matter.” sion resistance, (d) behavior in binders and
Pigments can be subdivided into many dif- other application systems: dispersion prop-
ferent categories for different purposes. One erties, interaction and compatibility with
of the most common classification groups pig- binder components, solidifying properties”
ments into organic and inorganic (7 Box 20.1: (Goldschmidt and Streitberger 2018).
Box 20.1
Inorganic Pigments Inorganic pigments can be classified based on

Originally derived from colored minerals, inor- their chemical composition, as listed below
ganic pigments are nowadays engineered com- (Pfaff 2017).
ponents that impart color to the objects in 55 Oxides and oxide hydroxides:
which they are used. They can provide other α-Fe2O3, α-FeOOH, γ-Fe2O3, Fe3O4,
properties such as corrosion protection, inter- Cr2O3, CrOOH, CoAl2O4, (Ti, Ni.
action with ultraviolet or infrared light, and Sb)O2;
modifying physical properties. Until the devel- 55 Sulfides and selenides: CdS, Cd(S,
opment of synthetic pigments, pigments of Se), CdSe, Ce2S3;
natural origin, e.g., clay, earth colors, and min- 55 Chromates, molybdates, vanadates:
erals, were used to color paints. Vegetable oils PbCrO4, Pb(Cr, S)O4, Pb(Cr, S, Mo)
with high lecithin content were used to wet out O4, BiVO4, 4 BiVO4 • 3 Bi2MoO6;
natural pigments. Since then, technology has 55 Ultramarine: NaAl6Si6O24(NaSn6);
progressed hugely. Inorganic pigments have 55 Hexacyanoferrate: K[FeIIIFeII(CN)6];
usually a high refractive index, meaning they 55 Oxonitrides: CaTaO2N, LaTaON2.
have a greater ability to scatter light. In general,
inorganic pigments are commonly more stable The most usually employed white pigment
20 against light, temperature, weather, and chemi- in coating materials is titanium dioxide (TiO2),
cals than organic pigments. The most impor- which may be used combined with zinc oxide. It
tant inorganic pigments are titanium and iron is extensively used because it has a good cover-
oxides as well as the mixed-phase pigments. ing power and an excellent reflector of infrared
595 20
.. Fig. 20.4 Examples of inorganic pigment colors and the compounds used for their manufacture
light. In fact, it offers highest performance of oxide (ochre). Chrome orange, molybdate
any material for opacity and whiteness. Raw orange, lead molybdate, and cadmium mercury
materials for the production of titanium diox- orange are examples of orange pigments.
ide pigments include natural products such as Chrome green and chromium oxide are exam-
ilmenite, leucoxene, and rutile although syn- ples of green pigments. Blue color is obtained
thetic materials such as titanium slag and syn- with a certain iron oxide and violet color with
thetic rutile are also used. Other white pigments manganese. Carbon black is the most com-
include white lead, lithopone (mixture of zinc monly used black pigment, but mineral black,
sulfide and barium sulfate), and antimony tri- bone black, graphite, and black iron oxide can
oxide. The most common white inorganic pig- also be used as black pigments” (Eslander and
ments used in the market are listed below Kanerva 2006). . Figure 20.4 illustrates some

(Talbert 2008). examples of inorganic pigment colors and the

55 Antimony pigments compounds used for their manufacture.
55 Antimony white; stibous oxide, Inorganic pigments can be manufactured
antimony(III) oxide, Sb2O3 utilizing different mechanical and physico-
55 Barium pigments chemical processes. The selection of the
55 Barium sulfate; BaSO4 method is based on the nature of the raw mate-
55 Lithopone; BaSO4 ZnS rials and on the properties needed for the pig-
55 Lead pigments ment to be produced. The chemical
55 Cremnitz white; basic lead car- composition, crystal structure, mean particle
bonate ((PbCO3)2 Pb(OH2)) size and particle size distribution, content of
55 Titanium pigments impurities, and surface characteristics are some
55 Titanium white; titanium diox- of the most important properties of a pigment.
ide (TiO2) As new environmental laws are very strict
55 Zinc pigments about toxicity, a few of these pigments are no
55 Zinc white: zinc oxide (ZnO) longer in use. This is because the existence of
hazardous heavy metals in some of the inor-
“Red pigments include inorganic com- ganic compounds used as pigments. For this
pounds such as synthetic iron oxides, red lead reason, many of them have limited or entirely
oxide, and cadmium red. Yellow pigments com- prohibited usage. For example, chromate pig-
prise chrome yellow (varying proportion of ments are rarely used due to environmental
lead chromate, lead sulfate, and lead monox- problems associated with chromium; similarly,
ide), strontium yellow, nickel titanate yellow, cadmium compounds have been mostly phased
zinc yellow, zinc chromate, or earthen iron out to their high toxicity.
Organic pigments vary extremely in their properties. Their particular advantage lies
composition. Nowadays, synthetically manu- in their brilliance and high tinting strength.
factured organic pigments offer excellent light Nevertheless, with some exceptions, synthetic
fastness and long-term outdoor exposure pigments are inferior, at high temperatures,
where the paint is applied, enhance levelling

.. Table 20.3 Advantages and disadvantages of
organic and inorganic pigments
during film formation, and improve tech-
nical properties by influencing the surface
Organic pigments Inorganic pigments smoothness or roughness” (Goldschmidt
and Streitberger 2018). The selection of the
+ Broad range of colors + Good durability
additive to use depends on the substrate and
+ Brilliant chromatic + Good hiding
colors + Good rheology desired performance. Additives are often
+ High tint strength − Low tint strength multifunctional and thus influence different
− Durability − Low brilliance properties of paints and the finished coat-
− Hiding powder − Small range of ings at once.
colors
Additives are often classified according
− Low chemical
stability to their aim. ISO EN 4618 standard includes
more than 20 different additives, the most
+ Advantage, – Disadvantage important being: “(a) driers: to reduce the
drying time by a catalytic effect in the film
formation (cobalt, manganese, iron, lead,
to the inorganic pigments in terms of heat zinc, and tin naphthenates, oleates, octoates,
stability. Organic pigments are intensely col- and resonates), (b) dispersing/stabilizers: to
ored; thus, they are incorporated exclusively improve dispersion and reduce the tendency
for their coloristic properties. Organic pig- to sedimentation of pigments during storage
ments tend to have smaller particle size than (sodium pyrophosphates, dioctyl sodium sul-
inorganic pigments, making them more trans- fosuccinate, sodium lauryl sulfate, and non-
parent. For this reason, organic pigments are ionic detergents), (c) anti-skin: to prevent the
often more difficult to disperse than inorganic formation of a dry layer on the surface of the
pigments. They are more expensive and com- liquid paint (skin) during storage (oximes,
monly used for special purposes. . Table 20.3
hydroquinone, and substituted Phenols), (d)
shows the advantages and disadvantages of plasticizers: to enhance the flexibility of the
organic and inorganic pigments. dry film (dibutyl and dioctyl phthalates, adipic
and sebacic acids and their esters, polyester
resins, and castor oil), (e) levellers: to give the
20.3.4 Additives dry film a good levelling, thus preventing the
marks left by the paintbrush, (f) antifoaming:
Additive is “any substance, added in small to avoid the formation of foam during the
quantities to a coating material, to improve application of the paint, (g) thixotropic agents
or otherwise modify one or more properties” (thickeners): to prevent the dripping from the
(ISO EN 4618 standard) and “a substance brush or on vertical surfaces (polyamides
added in small quantities to another sub- and cellulose), (h) antifouling: to protect the
stance, usually to improve specific properties paint from the attack of fungi, algae and bac-
(for example, a drier, etc.)” (ASTM D16 stan- teria, either during storage or after applica-
dard). Additives are incorporated in concen- tion (copper, organic tin, tetramethylthiuram
trations ranging from 0.2 up to 5% by weight disulfide, and zinc carbamates), (i) Coalescing
either to the liquid paint or to the dry film. agents: to plasticize temporarily a liquid coat-
Despite this low concentration, they have a ing (pine oil, butyl Cellosolve, and tributyl
significant impact on the properties of coat- phosphate), (j) corrosion inhibitors: to pro-
ing materials and simultaneously contribute tect metallic surfaces from oxidation (coal-tar
to facilitate manufacturing, storage, and derivatives, epoxy resins, and coal-tar modi-
20 satisfactory application. Additives facilitate fied epoxies), and (k) photoinitiators: to initi-
dispersion of the pigments during produc- ate the polymerization process in UV-curable
tion, that is, “they suppress the tendency for products (benzophenones)” (Estlander and
the pigments to settle, improve flowability Kanerva 2006; Simöes 2015). Some of these
597 20
.. Fig. 20.5 Main additives used in architectural coating materials and raw materials used in their formulation
additives have been under environmental ponents mixed together to produce the final
pressure due to their toxicity. . Figure 20.5
coating material. To meet the varied require-
shows the main additives used in architectural ments of practical applications, the formula-
coating materials and raw materials used in tions that must be developed contain not only
their formulation. detailed information on the components to
be used but also offer specific details about
the proportions of the different ingredients,
20.4 Manufacturing Process the sequence in which the formulation com-
ponents are mixed, and the settings for the
Manufacture of coating materials has been devices to be used for manufacturing. In
optimized from economic and environmen- manufacturing coating materials, e.g., paints,
tal perspectives. The coating raw materials the binder or coating resin is the most impor-
described above form the individual com- tant ingredient followed by the pigments and
a dditives. The last of these are critical from a are similar in all coating materials produc-
cost viewpoint and are of much greater rele- tion plants, including the following principal
vance for water-based formulations and high- stages: (a) dissolution of solid materials, (b)
solid products than for systems dissolved in mixing, and (c) sieving and filtering.
conventional solvents. The basic mechanical process for combin-
The adequate selection and proportion ing materials is agitation, which consists basi-
of the components must be based on precise cally in dissolving of resins, mixing of liquids,
knowledge of their interaction in the prod- and premixing of materials to be dispersed.
uct where used for its intended application, The objective is to remove inhomogeneities
knowledge of the processing technologies and present in material mixtures, which can be
available plant, and the economics of the coat- manifested in differences in concentration,
ing material to be manufactured. In fact, the density, and/or color. Different disperser
demands of cost-effective manufacturing have devices were developed in the last decades.
an impact on formulation design. Therefore, The most important are dissolvers, which
the essential goal manufacturing coating are adequate for readily dispersible pigments.
materials is to identify the correct combina- Three roll mills are suitable for highly viscous
tion of pigment, film-forming agent, and pastes while agitator mills are effective for
solvent components. If decorative aims are universal utilization. Some minor ball mills
the principal objective of the coating mate- are in use although they are often uneco-
rial, more attention will be paid to the pig- nomic by comparison with agitator mills and
ments and the choice of effect materials than dissolvers (Goldschmidt and Streitberger
to other ingredients. Otherwise, if the main 2018). After dispersion, pigment particles
purpose of the coating material is the protec- show trend to flocculate and form loose clus-
tion of commodities, the selection criteria are ters or to settle into a hard cake. To avoid the
aimed initially at the film-forming agent. cited issues, the dispersion must be stabilized.
Manufacture of coating materials is a Stabilization of pigments can be achieved by
physical process not commonly involving sig- electrostatic, steric, or electrosteric stabiliza-
nificant chemical changes. Although the basic tion (. Fig. 20.6).

process is quite simple, its details must be care- At the end of the manufacturing pro-
fully designed in order to manufacture each cess, a filtering step provides removal of any
different product, to adapt the process to the undispersed particles and/or other extraneous
characteristics of different ingredients, and to material that might have been introduced to
achieve the desired product performance. In the batch. Filtration devices are important for
order to obtain consistent performance from the filtering processes in the coating materi-
a product, procedures must be strictly fol- als industry; there exists an enormous variety
lowed. As a rule, the manufacturing processes available in the market. The most common
20
.. Fig. 20.6 Mechanisms of pigment stabilization (Milanovic and Casey 2017)

20.5 · Applications
599 20
method uses vibrating screens to split unde-
.. Table 20.4 Basic properties of coating
sired elements from the coating material. materials
Another filtering method enables draining
of the coating material through a felt bag. Properties Examples
In some cases, the product is passed through
cylindrical cartridges of porous material. Appearance Gloss/ Matt/ Semi-gloss
Particular mention may be made of plate- Application By Brush, Roller, or
and-frame and chamber filter presses for cake Method Sprayer
filtration, and bag and plate filters for the Drying Time Fast dry/ Slow dry
usual cleaning process during the manufac-
Adhesion Adhesion to substrates/
ture and utilization of coating materials. Once
Existing coating/
filtered, the product is usually canned and Intercoating
packaged. The properties of coating material
Mechanical Hardness/ Flexibility
determine the general quality of the product
Characteristics
and its workability, ease of application, and
resistance characteristics. . Table 20.4 shows

Resistance Ultraviolet/ Chemical/
Abrasion/ Fungus/Algae
some basic properties of coating materials.
Outdoor Gloss retention/ Color /
Durability Ultraviolet
20.5 Applications Storage Stability Settling tendency/Viscosity
stability
According to their applications, the American
Coatings Association subdivided coating
materials into three main categories: “archi- three major classifications of coatings. This
tectural, industrial, and special purpose; the segment can be further subdivided into the
biggest segment of the industry produces following major subsegments: (a) automotive
architectural coating materials” (7 Box 20.2:
refinish coatings, (b) industrial maintenance
Architectural Coating Materials). Products coatings, (c) traffic marking paints used on
applied at the time the products are manu- roadways, parking lots, and airport surfaces,
factured are known as industrial or original and (d) marine paints, including both OEM
equipment manufacturer (OEM) coatings. and refinish applications. For its part, the
Special purpose coating materials is a group European Council of the Paint, Printing Ink
including a broad array of divergent products. and Artists’ Colours Industry subdivided the
The only unifying feature is that these prod- coating materials into the following sectors:
ucts tend to be field-applied, as opposed to (a) decorative coatings, (b) food contact coat-
their utilization in a factory setting. Special ings, (c) marine coatings, (d) protective coat-
purpose coatings represent the smallest of the ings, and (e) vehicle refinishing coatings.
Box 20.2
Architectural Coating Materials for parking garages” (Hnatiw 2016). The evolu-
Architectural coating materials (decorative tion of synthetic resins, artificial pigments, and
coatings) have a long history of applications on other technological improvements has
a broad spectrum of surface types; architec- enhanced the stability, facility of use, and
tural coatings and decorative coatings are com- accessibility of architectural coating materials.
monly used as interchangeable terms. They Architectural coating materials range from
cover “an array of liquid- applied materials, wall paint for the interior to external coating
ranging from traditional linseed oil-based materials for facades as well as decorative coat-
paints to protective mineral silicate coatings to ings for wood and metal, as used, for instance,
the penetrating sealers and traffic coatings used with windows and doors. Architectural coating
.. Fig. 20.7 Main applications of architectural coating materials (Schaller 2014)
materials may be used on the outer and/or the

inner surfaces and include sealers or specialty
products. The substrate, i.e., the building mate-
rial to which the coating will be applied, deter-
mines “the type of coating material best suited
to the situation as well as the surface prepara-
tion necessary for durability and long-term
performance” (Hnatiw 2016). . Figure 20.7

shows main applications of the architectural

coating materials.
The architectural coating materials market
can be subdivided into different groups using .. Fig. 20.8 Painting a brickwork using a sprayer.
several criteria. On the basis of resin type, they (Image courtesy of Paint Sprayer Judge)
can be segmented into: (a) acrylic, (b) alkyd, (c)
vinyl, (d) polyurethane, and (e) others (epoxy, can be by means of brushes, rollers, sprayers
unsaturated polyester resin, saturated polyester (. Fig. 20.8), and others. They are intended

resin, etc.). Based on technology, including the basically for on-site application. The architec-
characteristics of the solvent ingredient, the tural coating materials are usually classified
architectural coatings market can be subdi- according to their function and composition.
vided into (a) waterborne, (b) solventborne, . Table 20.5 indicates the functions of these

and (c) powder coatings. These products can be products.

also classified according to their application: Architectural coating materials have under-
(a) residential (new construction, and remodel gone numerous changes in the last decades. The
and repair), and (b) nonresidential. traditional solvent-based products were
Most of the commercial architectural coat- replaced by the water-based materials. This is
ing materials are available in a form of liquid because water-based coating materials show
and as powdered particles that on application great elasticity and resistance to fading and
20 convert into solid coatings after evaporation of chalking, little odor and may be used on most
solvent, cross-linking, fusion bonding, and materials without requirement of a previous
coalescence process. The application method treatment. Moreover, the shift toward water-
20.5 · Applications
601 20
.. Table 20.5 Functions of architectural coating materials
Basic Protective functions Additional functionalities

functions
Color/ Water balance Self-cleaning coatings

aesthetics Exterior durability Dirt-repelling, low dirt pick-up coatings
Color stability Air cleaning/photocatalytic coatings
Resistance against biological Heat management, heat absorbing/reflecting
contamination coatings
Low dirt pick-up Anti-freeze/icing/fogging coatings
Light-emitting coatings
Self-healing coatings
Conducting, magnetic, electric coatings……
.. Fig. 20.9 Components of the architectural coating materials and their proportions (Schaller 2014)
based products has severely reduced the emis- thus reducing health risks to persons and mini-
sion of volatile organic compounds (VOC), mizing (or eliminating) hazardous waste.
which are harmful to human health and envi- . Figure 20.9 illustrates the components of

ronment. Water-based coatings are generally architectural coating materials and their pro-
safer to handle than those containing organic portions in the product.
solvents; they can be cleaned up with water,
Protective coating materials mean products crete, steel, and other metallic structures such
that are used for chemical resistance, corro- as petrochemical facilities (including oil and
sion, and fire protection of metal and con- chemical storage tanks), (c) offshore struc-
crete structures. Applications of protective tures such as jetties and oil and gas platforms,
coatings include the following: (a) structural (d) infrastructures such as bridges, dams,
framework of steel-framed buildings, (b) con- waterworks, and harbor facilities, (e) pipe-
lines, (f) seagoing containers, and (g) power Rajagopal R (2014) Sustainable value creation in the
generation, including nuclear, hydroelectric, fine and speciality chemicals industry. John Wiley &
Sons, 312 p
coal, oil and gas powered stations and sus- Sahu GC, Jena J (2015) Building materials and con-
tainable energy facilities such as windmills. struction. McGraw Hill Education India Pvt
Ltd:900
Schaller C (2014) Short course: basics of architectural
20.6 Questions coatings. European Coatings Conference –
Architectural coatings, Düsseldorf, 85 pp
Simöes A (2015) Organic coatings. In: Goncalves MC,
??Short Questions Margarido F (eds) Materials for construction and
55 Definition of coating material civil engineering. Springer International Publishing,
55 Explain the differences among paint, pp 773–798
Talbert R (2008) Paint technology handbook. CRC
varnish, and coating material
Press, Taylor & Francis Group, LLC, 223 p
55 Enumerate the main sectors of coating
materials market Standards
55 Explain in summary form the principal ASTM D16 – 19. Standard terminology for paint,
functions of coating materials related coatings, materials, and applications
55 What are the characteristics of a good ASTM E1610 – 18. Standard guide for forensic paint
coating material? analysis and comparison
55 Define binder and solvent ISO EN 4618:2015. Paints and varnishes – terms and
definitions
55 What are primary particles, agglomerates,
and aggregates? Further Reading
55 How are pigments classified?
55 List the main types of additives struction: materials and methods, 6th edn. John
55 What are architectural coating materials? Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1024 p
Dugall SK (2017) Building materials. Routledge,
London, 405 p
Malshe VC, Sikchi M (2004) Basics of paint technology,
??Long Questions
part I. 508 p
55 Explain in detail the characteristics and Soutsos M, Domone P (2017) Construction materials –
main types of inorganic pigments their nature and behaviour. Spon Press, London,
55 Explain briefly the manufacturing process 820 p
of coating materials Stoye D, Freitag W (eds) (1998) Paints, coatings, and sol-
vents. Weinheim, Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH, 431 p
Tracton AA (ed) (2006) Coatings technology handbook.
CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, LLC, 826 p
References
Useful Links
Estlander T, Kanerva L (2006) Painters, lacquerers, and AkzoNobel. www.akzonobel.com
varnishes. In: Chew AL, Maibach HI (eds) Irritant American Coatings Association. www.paint.org
dermatitis. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, pp 153–161 British Coatings Federation. www.coatings.org.uk
Goldschmidt A, Streitberger HJ (2018) Basics of coat- European Coatings. www.european-coatings.com
ing technology – BASF handbook, 3rd edn. BASF European Council of the Paint, Printing Ink and Artists‘
Coatings GmbH, Münster, 1326 p Colours Industry. www.cepe.org
Hnatiw EA (2016) Best practices for architectural coat- Global Coating Industry. www.coatingsworld.com
ings. Hoffmann Architects Journal 33(2)., 8 p PPG Industries Inc. www.ppg.com
Milanovic N, Casey BO (2017) An efficient approach to Sherwin-Williams. www.sherwin-williams.com
dispersing pigments. Evonik Industries AG, 13 p World Paint & Coatings Industry Association. www.
Pfaff G (2017) Inorganic pigments. Series De Gruyter wpcia.org
textbook, Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG, 338 p
20

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Manuel Bustillo Revuelta

More information about this series at http://www.­springer.­com/series/15201

ISSN 2510-1307 ISSN 2510-1315 (electronic)

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021

Cover illustration: Hoover Dam

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature

With all my affection, I want to dedicate this book to my mother-in-law

This is in turn supplemented by a list of selected references and links to

14 Bituminous Materials ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 401

19 Construction and Demolition Waste����������������������������������������������������� 565

1.1 Definitions and Types of Construction Materials – 2

1.3 Product Standards – 6

1.4 Sustainability in Construction Materials – 7

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021

sumption of construction materials. Since the

.. Fig. 1.1 US nonfuel material consumption, 1900–2014 (Matos 2017)

gates to manufacture concrete or mortar compares the approximate quantities of mate-

.. Fig. 1.6 Geosynthetics are essential in civil engi-

tural construction materials 15 of this book). On the other hand, since

.. Fig. 1.7 Salt crystallization in bricks

.. Fig. 1.9 Asphalt paving deterioration produced by

applicability. Thus, product standards are

Environmental impact The relation with building materials

Impact of building materials on human health

Product New scrap

Life Cycle Assessment in Construction

struction industry to understand the environ- struction industry.

Type of user Stage of the process Purpose of LCA use

Consultants advising Preliminary phases Setting targets at municipal level

Environmental impact Material life cycle

Human Air pollution √ √ √ √ √

1.5 Questions study of three houses of low environmental impact.

2.3 Aggregate Types – 20

2.4 Geological Occurrence – 22

2.5 Extraction Methods – 28

2.6 Processing Techniques – 31

2.7 Properties and Testing – 38

2.9 Environmental Considerations – 49

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021

The most important application of aggre-

.. Fig. 2.3 Aggregate quarry. (Image courtesy of

cementing medium to form hydraulic-­cement

they constitute by far the most important type

natural, manufactured, or recycled. EN 12620 specifically devoted to construction and demo-

Marine Aggregates tion and construction, neither has any signifi-

.. Fig. 2.5 Genesis of marine aggregates in UK. (Illustration courtesy of BMAPA)

dry shelf. In turn, these deposits were subse-

Typically, a dry cargo will be discharged using

hoisted grabs that place the aggregate onto a

In some countries, e.g., United Kingdom, 2.4 Geological Occurrence

2.4.1 Crushed Stone classified based on the type of rock from

.. Fig. 2.10 Aggregate limestone quarry. (Image cour-

Because ballast requires to be hard, clean, and

2.4.1.3 Metamorphic Rocks

2.4.2.4 Beach Deposits

.. Fig. 2.16 Overburden (topsoil) stockpiled (in the

.. Fig. 2.18 Pumping water to draw down the water

Where sand and gravel mining does not

.. Fig. 2.21 Loading operation of ANFO nylon bags.

.. Fig. 2.19 Dragline. (Image courtesy of Aggregates

.. Fig. 2.22 Ripping dozer

.. Fig. 2.20 Floating suction dredge. (Image courtesy

Finally, an excavator loads the rocks into

gravel deposits, where particle size distribu-

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/15201

14 Bituminous Materials �� 401

19 Construction and Demolition Waste�� 565

1.1 Definitions and Types of Construction Materials – 2

1.3 Product Standards – 6

1.4 Sustainability in Construction Materials – 7

Life Cycle Assessment in Construction

1.5 Questions study of three houses of low environmental impact.

2.3 Aggregate Types – 20

2.4 Geological Occurrence – 22

2.5 Extraction Methods – 28

2.6 Processing Techniques – 31

2.7 Properties and Testing – 38

2.9 Environmental Considerations – 49

cementing medium to form hydraulic-cement

Marine Aggregates tion and construction, neither has any signifi-

In some countries, e.g., United Kingdom, 2.4 Geological Occurrence

2.4.1 Crushed Stone classified based on the type of rock from

2.4.1.3 Metamorphic Rocks

2.4.2.4 Beach Deposits

2.6.1 Sand and Gravel

2.7 Properties and Testing

2.7.2 Geometrical Properties

3.3 Dimension Stone Types and Geology – 62

3.4 Quarrying Methods – 68

3.5 Processing Operations – 75

3.6 Properties and Testing – 80

3.3 Dimension Stone Types

but may be gneissic or porphyritic. Some dark 3.3.2 Marble