indonesia introduction - International Water Management Institute

INDONESIA 

INTRODUCTION 

by Marcel J. Silvius, Asian Wetland Bureau, Indonesia 

Area: The land area has been variously estimated at between 1,904,000 and 2,027,000 sq km; 

figures of 1.904, 1.942, 1.944 and 2.019 million sq km have been reported by various 

Indonesian government departments. Indonesian territory up to the 12 nautical mile limit is 

estimated at 5.0 million sq km, of which 2.7 million sq km are enclosed marine waters and 0.4 

million sq km are open ocean waters. The continental shelf waters are estimated at 1.5 million 

sq km and the coastline at 80,791 km. 

Population: Approximately 186,000,000 (1986). 

Indonesia is an archipelago consisting of about 13,000 islands stretched out between the two 

continental shelves of Asia and Australia. The archipelago has a great wealth of oil and 

mineral deposits, forests and fishery resources. It exhibits an enormously varied physical 

structure of high mountain chains, rows of volcanoes, vast alluvial plains, huge lake and 

swamp areas, extensive shallow coastal waters, innumerable coral islands and deep oceanic 

trenches. 

The climate ranges from humid to semi-arid tropical at sea level, up through all altitudinal 

climatic zones to the perpetual snow and glaciers of Gunung Lorenz in Irian Jaya. With its 

heavy rainfall and often fertile soils (particularly in basic volcanic regions), Indonesia is able 

to sustain a highly productive tropical agriculture and can support a high density of people at a 

moderate standard of living. 

Of the total land area, about 97% is contributed by 13 land masses. The largest are Kalimantan 

(539,460 sq km), Sumatra (473,606 sq km), Irian Jaya (421,981 sq km), Sulawesi (189,216 sq 

km) and Java and Madura (132,817 sq km). Other major islands include Halmahera, Seram, 

Sumbawa, Timor, Flores, Bali and Lombok. 

The country's vast extent, complex shape and wide range of altitudes and climates form the 

basis of a tremendous natural richness. There are more than 1,500 species of birds, 500 

mammals, 3,000 fishes, 10,000 trees and innumerable other life forms. The distribution over 

islands and isolated mountain ranges has led to a relatively high degree of endemism. 

The Indonesian archipelogo spans two major biogeographical regions divided by Wallace's 

line. West of this line lies the Indo-Malayan Realm, which includes the Greater Sunda Islands 

of Java, Borneo and Sumatra on the Sunda Shelf; to the east lies the Australasian Realm. 

During the Pleistocene period some 10,000 years ago, sea-levels were much lower than at 

present. The Greater Sunda Islands were connected by dry land to the Asian mainland, while 

New Guinea and the Aru Islands were joined to Australia. Wallacea, comprising the Lesser 

Sunda Islands (Nusa Tenggara), the Moluccas and Sulawesi, has had no recent land 

connection to either continent. The distribution of plant and animal species in Indonesia

clearly shows a pattern derived from these ancient linkages and, where no land connection 

existed, the distribution of species by island-hopping. 

Summary of Wetland Situation 

The largest wetlands in Indonesia are found in the low-lying alluvial plains and basins, 

flat-bottomed valleys and mangrove estuaries of Sumatra, Kalimantan and Irian Jaya. The 

original habitats comprise peat swamps, freshwater swamps and mangrove swamps. An 

estimated original area of 206,950 sq km of peat swamp has now been reduced to about 

169,750 sq km, 16,700 sq km of which are included in existing reserves. The freshwater 

swamps have been reduced from an original 115,600 sq km to 51,850 sq km, 10,250 sq km of 

which is included in reserves. Mangrove cover has been reduced from an original 41,850 sq 

km to 29,000 sq km, 6,700 sq km of which is included in reserves. These estimates are based 

on FAO reports; other sources give different figures. 

Indonesia's 80,790 km of coastline comprise every imaginable tropical coastal habitat ranging 

from steep sea cliffs supporting large sea-bird colonies to extensive sandy beaches, the nesting 

habitat of tens of thousands of sea-turtles, or from the diverse coasts of coral atolls to the vast 

intertidal mudflats which provide feeding areas for hundreds of thousands of resident and 

migratory water birds. 

Indonesia has a wealth of riverine and lacustrine habitats, with huge waterfalls such as the 

Siguragura falls near Lake Toba in Sumatra, vast riverine swamps and marshes in many 

lowland areas, and the unique lake depression of the Mamberambo in Irian Jaya. The many 

active volcanic regions exhibit numerous hot springs and crater lakes which provide some of 

the country's most impressive scenery. 

The estimated total extent of the natural wetland habitats in the main landmasses is shown in 

Table 1. In addition, Indonesia possesses some of the largest artificial wetlands in the world, 

including millions of hectares of rice paddies and nearly 200,000 ha of fishponds. A large 

proportion of these artificial wetlands are on the densely populated island of Java. 

Mangroves and mudflats 

Mangroves comprise a group of 60 species of salt-tolerant trees which are able to thrive in 

intertidal zones along sheltered coasts, on sediments that are saline, often anaerobic and 

sometimes acidic. Mangrove vegetation is believed to have reached its optimal development in 

the Indo-Malayan region, and here comprises an extremely diverse ecosystem. A total of 92 

plant species have been reported (Kartawinata et al, 1979) including 38 genuine mangrove tree 

species. The associated fauna of crustaceans and molluscs is particularly rich. 

Indonesia has more mangrove swamps than any other country in the world. Estimates of the 

total area vary widely, but the generally accepted figure is now about 3.8 million ha. Darsidi 

(1984) estimated the total area to be 4.25 million ha, and this figure has been repeated by 

Soemodihardjo (1987) in his recent review of the status and management of the mangrove

ecosystem in Indonesia. Over 75% of mangrove forests occur in Irian Jaya. Other large areas 

occur on the east coast of Sumatra and the southern and eastern coasts of Kalimantan. 

The mammals of the mangrove forest include endemic and rare species such as the 

Proboscis Monkey, Tiger, Otter Civet, Mentawai Macaque (Nasalis larvatus, Panthera tigris 

sumatrana, Cynogale bennettii, Macaca pagensis) and several species of otters. More than a 

hundred species of birds are associated with the Indonesian mangroves. These include large 

water birds such as Spot-billed Pelican, Milky Stork, Black-necked Stork, Lesser Adjutant, 

Royal Spoonbill and Great-billed Heron (Pelecanus philippensis, Mycteria cinerea, 

Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus, Leptoptilos javanicus, Platalea regia and Ardea sumatrana) and 

also many migratory shorebirds. These latter visit and feed on the extensive mudflats, which 

fringe the mangrove forests. They include the endangered Nordmann's Greenshank Tringa 

guttifer and the rare Asian Dowitcher Limnodrornus semipalmatus, which has its main 

wintering area on the southeast coast of Sumatra (Silvius, 1986). 

Mangrove swamps are highly productive ecosystems with a high potential for sustainable 

resource utilization. In Indonesia, as in many other countries in the world, over half of the 

commercial fishery catches consist of estuarine-dependent species. In 1978, the export value 

of Indonesian fisheries was at least US dollar 194 million, with a recorded harvest of 

mangrove-linked fisheries of 550,000 tonnes (Salm & Halim, 1984). In areas where 

clear-felling or bunding have destroyed the mangroves, this productivity has been greatly 

reduced. 

Mangroves constitute a valuable forestry resource; the principal tree species harvested on a 

commercial basis are Rhizophora apiculata, R. mucronata and Bruguiera spp. Other products 

derived directly from mangroves include foodstuffs, paper products, medicines, tannins, 

alcohol and dyes. In 1978, the combined export (principally charcoal, logs and wood-chips) 

and domestic value of mangrove forestry products was about US dollar 26 million (Salm & 

Halim, 1984). 

Mangroves also serve a valuable function in the mitigation of flooding and control of coastal 

erosion. Mangrove forests act as seaward buffer zones against coastal erosion caused by ocean 

currents and storms, and actively stabilize and extend the coast by accretion. 

The combination of diverse forest with interesting features such as stilt-roots and abundant 

wildlife (monkeys, large colonies of water birds) makes mangrove forest suitable for tourism. 

Access to such areas is easy by boat or elevated boardwalk. Fishing and boating are possible 

within the mangrove areas, sea-food restaurants can be established, and crocodile farms may 

form an additional attraction. 

Freshwater swamp forests 

The largest extent of freshwater swamp forest occurs in the lowlands of Sumatra, Kalimantan 

and Irian Jaya, comprising about 95% of the original area of this habitat within Indonesia. 

Freshwater swamp forests occur on permanently or seasonally flooded mineral soils (over 35% 

mineral content) on the vast coastal plains and in lowlands in inter-river basins, meander belts

and swales. They often occur as fringes, up to 5 km wide, along rivers; in such situations they 

are succeeded by peat swamp forests. Several types of freshwater swamp forest can be 

distinguished: (a) mixed swamp forest, (b) Melaleuca forest, (c) Terminalia forest, and (d) 

Campnosperma forest. 

Freshwater swamp forests are rich in epiphytes, rattans and palms. Common tree genera 

include Aistonia, Campnosperma, Terminalia, Shorea, Nauclea, Syzygium, Palaquium, 

Dyospyros, Barringtonia, Garcinia and Melaleuca. The forest canopy reaches heights of 40 to 

50 meters, with some trees up to 60 or 70 meters high. The forests are home to many rare and 

endangered wildlife species such as the Tiger, Tapir, Asian Elephant, Asian Two-horned 

Rhinoceros, Lesser One-horned Rhinoceros, Otter-Civet and False Gharial (Panthera tigris, 

Tapirus indicus, Elephas maximus, Dicerorhinus sumatrensis, Rhinoceros sondaicus, 

Cynogale bennettii and Tomistoma schlegelii) and hundreds of bird species, including 

casuaries, megapodes and hornbills. Large areas of relatively undisturbed habitat are needed to 

sustain viable populations of these animals. 

Freshwater swamp forests are important watershed areas. They are also important as a 

sustainable forestry resource, with many valuable timber species, such as Shorea spp, 

Dyospyros spp, Gonystylus bancanus and Melaleuca spp, and other resources, such as rattans, 

gums, resins, tannins, bark, oils, medicines and edible fruits. Theoretically, a harvesting cycle 

of 35 years is attainable, but often the quality of the regenerated forest does not come up to 

expectations. A rotation of 60 years has been suggested as being more appropriate. 

Peat swamp forests 

Peat swamp forests occur in Sumatra, Kalimantan and Irian Jaya. Estimates of the total peat 

area in Sumatra and Kalimantan vary between 16.5 million and 27 million ha (Diemont & 

Supardi, 1986; Jansen et al., 1985). The differences are partly due to applications of different 

definitions of peat in relation to depth. Estimates of the total peat area in Irian Jaya vary even 

more; Driessen and Sudewo (1977) give a figure of 100,000 ha, Euroconsult (1984) a figure of 

800,000 ha, and MacKinnon and Artha (1981b) a figure of 8,910,000 ha. Van Steenis (1957) 

notes that large areas of southern New Guinea are peat swamp. 

Peat swamp forest is a further developmental stage of freshwater swamp forest. The leaf litter 

in this type of forest has accumulated to form a layer of peat, sometimes up to 20m thick. The 

mineral content of the soils is less than 35%. The peat is acidic and often dome-shaped, so that 

the only input of water is from precipitation. The vegetation in these basin peats is 

characteristically zoned in concentration bands around the central dome; the vegetation varies 

from mixed forest with up to 100 species in the outer zone to virtually monospecies stands of 

species such as Shorea in the inner zones. 

Deep peats, more than two meters in depth, are found in Riau and Jambi Provinces of Sumatra, 

in West Kalimantan and in Central Kalimantan. The peats in South Sumatra are less than two 

meters deep. In Central Kalimantan, the peat rarely if ever exceeds five meters in depth. Little 

is known about the peats in East Kalimantan and Irian Jaya (Diemont & Supardi, 1986). The 

deepest peats in Riau and Jambi exceed 10 meters (Silvius et al., 1984; Anderson, 1976). This

peat is acidic and ombrogenous; the pH can vary from 5.0 in the top-soil to about 3.0 in the 

sub-soil (Silvius et al., 1984). 

The peat swamp forest has a relatively high diversity of tree species compared to mangrove 

forest, with an average of 30 to 55 tree species per ha (Anderson, 1976; Silvius et al., 1984). 

The wildlife remains rather poorly known; it has many similarities with freshwater swamp 

forest, but often is poorer in species or has lower population densities. 

Peat swamp forests are important as watershed areas. Extensive areas of peat swamp forest and 

Melaleuca swamp forest create natural reservoirs, which can absorb and store excess water 

and reduce flooding of adjacent areas. Peat swamp forests are also an important sustainable 

forestry resource with many commercially valuable timber species such as Gonystylus 

bancanus (Ramin), Shorea spp, Cratoxylum spp and Calophyllum spp, and locally important 

products such as rattans, resins, scented woods and fruits (e.g. durians Durio spp). Because of 

the high acidity of the peat and problems encountered in drainage, peat swamp forests are of 

only limited agricultural use. 

Swamp woodlands 

Swamp woodlands occur in Irian Jaya in the back swamps of the swamp forests. The canopy 

of mixed swamp woodland is generally open. Common trees are Campnospermain sp, 

Nauclea coadunata, Mitragyna ciliata and Timonius sp. Palms and pandans occupy much of 

the space below the trees, and a dense ground layer is formed of tall sedges and ferns. On sites, 

which are seasonally dry, the woodland is often low, thin-stemmed and as dense as forest 

(Paijmans, 1976). 

Sago swamp woodland grows in more or less permanently swampy areas. It can occur either 

as almost pure stands of the sago palm Metroxylon sagu, or, as woodland with a rather dense 

layer of trees and an open tier of sago. In shallow swamps, the sago fronds grow to a height of 

14m, and the flowering, starch-producing stems can reach 20m in height. The ground layer of 

open sago swamps consists of shrub pandans, Hanguana sp, sedges or Phragmites sp. 

Pandan swamp woodlands occupy a habitat similar to that of the sago palm but have a wider 

range. They form rather open to quite dense, pure stands up to about eight meters in height, in 

shallow, fresh to brackish, stagnant to frequently flooded swamps. 

It has been estimated that there are between six and eight million hectares of sago palm 

swamps in New Guinea. Yields of up to 25,000 kg of dry starch per ha per annum may be 

obtained in optimum conditions. At the Lowland Development Symposium in Jakarta in 1986, 

it was proposed that Indonesia should start a pilot project to gain experience in the economic 

exploitation of sago. 

Herbaceous swamps, grass swamps and savannas 

In Irian Jaya, dense stands of swamp grasses cover vast stretches of alluvial plains subject 

either to frequent severe and deep flooding or to prolong shallow flooding. Grassy swamps are

also prominent in lakes and lagoons with slow-flowing water. In shallow swamps, shrubs and 

trees appear and form various savanna and woodland communities (Paijmans, 1976). 

Herbaceous swamps consist of sedges, herbs and ferns. They root in partly floating mats of 

waterlogged peat and organic debris. There are three types of grassy swamps, their distribution 

depending mainly on the water regime. Leersia swamp occupies permanently swampy parts of 

riverine floodplains with up to three meters inundation. A Saccharum/Phragmites community 

grows in shallower swamps and may be intermittently dry. Pseudoraphis swamp occurs on 

seasonally dry floodplains, which are shallowly inundated for most of the year. 

The deep swamps are important for crocodiles, which have a high economic potential for 

leather production on a sustainable basis. The shallower and seasonally dry swamps can be 

important as grazing areas for cattle and, in parts of Irian Jaya, support large populations of 

deer, which constitute an important source of food. 

Lakes 

There are four main types of lakes in Indonesia: (a) lakes associated with river systems, such 

as the extensive oxbow lakes of the Idenburg, Mamberambo and Rouffaer Rivers in Irian Jaya 

or the Danau Sentarum complex in West Kalimantan; (b) fresh to brackish lakes in mangrove 

areas; (c) mountain lakes or ancient lakes such as Lake Lindu in Sulawesi; (d) crater lakes 

such as Danau Meninjau in Sumatra. Most lakes, except for some crater lakes with no contact 

with river systems, are important fishery resources, and the ancient lakes often have endemic 

fish species. Many are scenically very attractive and have high economic potential for outdoor 

recreation and tourism. 

Wetland Area Legislation 

Reserves were originally established on the basis of the Netherlands Indies 

"Natuurmonumenten en Wildreservaten Ordonnantie" (Staatsblad 1932, No. 17), but this was 

replaced by the Nature Protection Ordinance of 1941 (Staatsblad 1941, No. 167) and further 

supported by the basic Forestry Act of 1967. A new Act on Protection and Conservation of 

Natural Resources, which will enable the cr 

The legal status of mangroves is such that commercial harvest of mangroves is regulated and 

requires concessionnaires to leave an undisturbed protection zone 50 meters wide along the 

seaward margin and 10 meters wide along the rivers (Letter of Decision of the Minister of 

Agriculture No.60/Kpts/Dj/l978). Subsistence use of mangrove is not regulated, although 

negotiations between Forestry and Fisheries are underway to establish a protected mangrove 

green belt throughout the country. There are, however, indications that some commercial 

enterprises do not adhere to the regulations (Saim & Halim, 1984). Thirty-one protected 

mangrove areas have been declared by various Decrees of the 

Minister of Agriculture, and a further nine have been proposed (Saim & Halim, 1984). 

In Indonesia, Marine Protected Areas are divided into three categories with different 

management objectives:

1. Scientific Reserve or Strict Marine Reserve (Cagar Alam Laut): to protect nature and 

maintain natural processes in order to preserve ecologically representative examples of the 

natural environment for scientific study, environmental monitoring, education and the 

maintenance of genetic resources in a dynamic and evolutionary state. 

2. Marine Protected Park (Taman Nasional Laut): to protect natural and scenic areas of 

national or international significance for scientific, educational and recreational use. 

3. National Monument Marine Park (Taman Laut): to protect and preserve nationally 

significant natural features because of their special interest or unique characteristics, while 

enabling controlled use for recreation and education. 

Terrestrial protected areas, many of which contain wetlands, are divided into six categories: 

1. Protection Forest (Hutan Lindung). Protection Forests have the lowest level of 

protection, and can easily be de-gazetted. 

2. Wildlife Reserve or Game Reserve (Suaka Margasatwa). No activities that could 

damage the habitat and cause disturbance to wildlife are permitted. However, some traditional 

use of the natural resources is allowed, such as fishing and the cutting of timber for local use. 

3. Strict Nature Reserve (Cagar Alam). No activities that could damage the habitat and 

cause disturbance to wildlife are permitted, except scientific research. 

4. National Park (Taman Nasional). The level of protection is the same as in Strict 

Nature Reserves, except that controlled use for recreation and education is permitted. 

5. Recreation Park (Taman Wisata). 

6. Hunting Park (Taman Buru). 

The Government of Indonesia is considering joining the Ramsar Convention in the near future. 

Berbak Game Reserve in Sumatra would be one of the first areas to be nominated for 

designation as a Wetland of International Importance under the terms of the Convention. 

Wetland Area Administration 

Various Indonesian Government bodies are involved with the administration, research, 

development and conservation of wetlands. Most of these bodies come under the Ministries of 

Public Works, Agriculture, Forestry and Transmigration. The Ministry of Population and 

Environment coordinates and controls the integration of environmental policy within these and 

other ministries. In recent years, most conservation activities have come under the jurisdiction 

of the 

Directorate General of Forest Protection and Nature Conservation (PHPA) in the Department 

of Forestry. PHPA has a mandate to protect, conserve and manage a system of protected 

forests, strict nature reserves, game reserves, hunting parks and also marine protected areas

and coastal zones. It has adopted a number of laws and regulations in an effort to control and 

regulate the exploitation of natural resources (e.g. logging regulations, game laws and 

protected species laws). The Directorate of Nature Conservation (PA) is responsible for 

drafting the game laws, making proposals for protecting endangered species, controlling trade 

in animals (including the issuance of licenses), proposing the establishment and management 

of protected areas (National Parks, Nature Reserves, Game Reserves, Hunting Parks and 

Marine Protected Areas), and monitoring and analyzing impacts on natural resources within 

and surrounding nature conservation areas. 

The Department of Agriculture is involved with the National Conservation Plan (1981). 

The Centre for Oceanological Research and Development and the Centre for Biological 

Research and Development, both within the Indonesian Institute for Sciences (LIP!), are the 

scientific authorities responsible for screening and approving technical decisions relating to 

terrestrial and marine conservation. 

Within each province, there is a regional planning body (BAPPEDA) responsible to the 

Governor who must approve all plans and integrate them into the context of regional 

development. Similarly, at national level there is an overall planning body (BAPPENAS), 

which approves the budgets for all developments. 

The Directorate of Nature Conservation is mainly responsible for active conservation and has a 

programme of action depending on four different Sub-Directorates. The Sub-Directorate of 

Land Protected Areas is concerned with the proposal, processing and establishment of new 

reserves and protected forests. It also plans and manages the overall reserve system by making 

technical guidelines for reserve management, evaluating the condition of protected land and its 

development, and analyzing and solving the problems occurring in terrestrial conservation 

areas. 

The Sub-Directorate of Marine Protected Areas has been established to consolidate all marine 

conservation activities, which were formerly divided between the Sub-Directorate of National 

Parks and the Sub-Directorate of Species Conservation. The Marine Conservation Specialists 

Team was established in 1982 to coordinate the marine conservation strategy. Proposed 

developments include the following: (a) the establishment of a network of marine multiple use 

reserves, resource reserves and strict nature reserves and marine national parks, linked by 

protected corridors, whose function will be to safeguard breeding stocks of commercial 

species, examples of different reef communities and areas of value for tourism, research and 

education; (b) the extension of existing terrestrial reserves and parks to include marine areas; 

(c) the protection of Dugong habitats and increased protection of turtle nesting beaches; (d) the 

development of training programmes for staff within FAO and WWF; (e) the development of 

public education programmes. 

The Sub-Directorate of Environmental Assessment prepares plans, programmes and technical 

guidelines for environmental assessment studies, carries out environmental impact analyses, 

and subsequently makes recommendations for environment and ecosystem management.

The Sub-Directorate of Species Conservation deals with the revision of lists of protected 

species, the control of wildlife trade, ex-situ species conservation projects, wildlife breeding 

projects (e.g. with deer and crocodiles), zoos, and the implementation of the Convention on 

International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), to which Indonesia is a signatory. 

The four Sub-Directorates operate through the regional structure of the Directorate of Nature 

Conservation, which consists of eight Regional Offices (Balai Konservasi Sumber Daya Alarn 

- Nature Resource Conservation Office). These offices (BKSDA) are supported by Sub-Balai 

(SBKSDA), one per province, with additional SBKSDA for each National Park. BKSDA and 

SBKSDA are coordinated by the Regional Forest Office. Ultimately, it is hoped that each 

National Park will be administered by a BKSDA. The SBKSDA staff draws up annual 

programmes for their field activities and developments which are revised at headquarters 

before submission to BAPPENAS for budget approval. 

In addition to the four Sub-Directorates mentioned above, there is a fifth: the Sub-Directorate 

of National Parks. This falls under the Directorate of National Parks and Forest Recreation and 

deals specifically with the development of a system of national parks in Indonesia. The 

ultimate target is a total of 37 National and Provincial Parks; five parks already exist and 

another five were to be declared in 1982. 

Organizations involved with Wetlands 

a) Governmental Organizations 

- Directorate General of Forest Protection and Nature Conservation (PHPA), Ministry of 

Forestry Particularly the Directorate of Nature Conservation. 

- Indonesian Institute for Sciences (LIPI) 

The Institute includes the Centre for Oceanological Research and Development, the Centre for 

Biological Research and Development (including the Museum Zoologicum Bogoriense and 

Herbarium), the Institute of Limnology and the Institute of Biotechnology. The Deputy 

Director of LIP!, Dr Aprilani Soegiarto, is also the Chairman of the National Mangrove 

Committee. 

- Regional Physical Planning Programme for Transmigration (RePPProT) The 

Programme has produced land use and land form maps for Irian Jaya, Kalimantan and 

Sumatra. 

- Bakosurtanal, Cibinong, West Java 

The national cartographic centre. 

- Research Institute for Inland Fisheries, Department of Agriculture 

The Institute is concerned almost entirely with aquaculture. 

- Directorate of Fisheries Resources Management 

The Director, Dr Purwito Martosubroto, is also the Chairman of the National Steering 

Committee of the ASEAN/USAID Coastal Resources Management Project.

- Public Works Department The Department produces land use maps and has conducted some 

inventories of wetland resources. 

b) Non-governmental Organizations 

- World Wide Fund for Nature Indonesia Programme 

- Yayasan Indonesia Hijau (Green Indonesia Foundation) 

The Foundation is concerned primarily with conservation education. 

- Ornithological Society of Indonesia 

The Society publishes the journal "Kukila". 

- Hunting Technical Services Ltd. 

Agricultural consultants to the government. 

- Pusat Studi Lingkungan (Environmental Study Centre) 

The Centre has produced a report on coastal zone management. 

- Institut Pertanian Bogor - Environment 

- Asian Wetland Bureau Indonesia 

The Bureau (formerly Interwader) has conducted wetland surveys in Sumatra, Java, Bali, 

Timor and Sulawesi, and in 1987, launched a three-year wetland survey programme 

throughout the country. 

- Foundation for Development of Wild Animal Resources 

- ASEAN Research Institute of Tropical Biology (BIOTROP) 

- Environmental Manpower Development for Indonesia Programme 

- UNESCO/ROSTSEA 

The project has a regional programme on wetland research and management. 

- EUROCONSULT BY (Netherlands) Euroconsult 

- International Center for Living Resources Management (ICLARM) 

Particularly the ASEAN/USAID Coastal Resources Management Project. 

- Haskoning: Department of Environmental and Sanitory Engineering 

The Department has been involved in work on an ecological profile of West Java.

c) Universities 

- University of Indonesia (Jakarta & Bogor) 

Particularly the Centre for Environmental Studies (PPSML). The University undertakes a 

considerable amount of research on mangroves. 

- Padjadjaran University (Bandung) 

Particularly the Department of Ecology. 

Table 1: Area of major wetland habitats in Indonesia (in hectares) 

Original Remaining Area within 

area (I) area (II) reserves (III) 

SUMATRA 

Mangrove forest 1,365,000 748,000 61,900 Peat swamp 

Total 13,548,000 6,458,000 657,000 

JAVA and BALI 

Freshwater swamp 72,000 4,500 1,250 

Mangrove forest 47,000 7,700 2,600 

Total 119,000 12,200 3,850 

NUSA TENGGARA 

Mangrove forest 23,000 12,500 2,500 Freshwater sw 

Freshwater lakes 5,000 5,000 500 

Beach vegetation 19,000 4,500 

Total 51,000 24,000 3,000 

KALIMANTAN 

Freshwater swamp 3,895,000 1,717,000 362,000 Peat swamp 

Freshwater lakes 92,000 92,000 25,000 Total 

SULAWESI 

Freshwater swamp 282,000 66,000 2,500 Peat swamp 

Mangrove forest 118,000 90,000 6,300 Freshwater la 

MOLUCCAS 

Peat swamp 48,000 42,000 1,000 Freshwater sw 

Total 189,500 125,000 36,700 

IRIAN JAYA 

Freshwater swamp 2,336,000 2,266,000 341,000 

Seasonal freshwater 

swamp 19,000 19,000 19,000 Peat swamp 

Freshwater lakes 115,000 115,000 45,000 Beach vegeta 

Acknowledgements

The author would like to take this opportunity on behalf of PHPA and the Asian Wetland 

Bureau to thank WWF-International for their financial support, and all the individuals, 

institutes and organizations who have contributed in one way or another to the Indonesian 

Wetlands Inventory.

WETLANDS 

The site descriptions are taken from the Indonesian Wetland Inventory prepared for this 

Directory and presented in draft form at the IWRB/Interwader Conference on Wetland and 

Waterfowl Conservation in Asia held in Malacca, Malaysia, on 23-28 February 1987. The 

Inventory has subsequently been published in full by the Indonesian Directorate General of 

Forest Protection and Nature Conservation (PHPA) and Asian Wetland Bureau in conjunction 

with EDWIN (Silvius et al., 1987). The Indonesian Wetland Inventory describes no less than 

231 wetlands of national and international importance in Indonesia. The 137 sites considered 

to be of international importance are given full treatment below; other sites, possibly of only 

national importance, are listed at the end of the site descriptions. 

The compilation of the Indonesian Wetland Inventory was coordinated by PHPA, and was 

carried out by Marcel J. Silvius, Eva T. Berczy and Arnoud P.J.M. Steeman of the Asian 

Wetland Bureau and Edi Djuharsa and Agustinus W. Taufik of PHPA. Derek A. Holmes 

helped in initiating the inventory and commented on many site descriptions. Much of the 

information was taken from PHPA files and the reports of WWF, FAO, UNDP and the Asian 

Wetland Bureau (Interwader Project). Additional information on particular sites was received 

from K. David Bishop, Ian Craven, C.J. Escott, Derek A. Holmes, Agus Marhardi, Anne and 

Stephen Nash, Duncan Parish, Crawford Prentice and Alison Skene. 

Wetland name: Way Kambas 

Country: Indonesia 

Coordinates: 4°37'-5°06'S, 105°40'-105°52'E; 

Location: 80 km northeast of Telukbetung, Kabupaten Lampung Tengah, Lampung Province, 

Sumatra. 

Area: 123,500 ha. 

Altitude: 0-50m. 

Biogeographical province: 4.2 1.12. 

Wetland type: 06, 07, 11, 18 & 21. 

Description of site: A large reserve on the east coast of Lampung Province, representing one 

of the most extensive reserves in Indonesia and containing one of the largest non-peat 

freshwater swamp forests in Sumatra. Natural boundaries exist on all sides except along the 

south for about 30 km. In the past, logging activities have disturbed much of the habitat. Most 

of the dipterocarp forest within the reserve disappeared between 1968 and 1974. The area is, 

however, still of considerable conservation interest because of its great richness of wildlife 

including many endangered species and over 270 species of birds. Over 70% of the reserve has 

been selectively logged. In some areas, this has created grasslands, which are burned annually. 

There are several settlements in the coastal areas, with a total of about ten thousand 

inhabitants. The eastern boundary of the reserve is a 65 km stretch of coast along the Java Sea, 

with 1,000 ha of coastal forest vegetation, mangrove and dry beach forest. There are several 

major watercourses in the reserve. The heavy silt load of these rivers has formed extensive 

intertidal mudflats used by water birds. The swamps are flooded in the wet season from 

November to March. The tidal amplitude along the coast is about 2.0-2.5m.

Climatic conditions: Humid tropical climate with an average annual rainfall of 2,000 mm; 

there is a distinct dry season from May to October. 

Principal vegetation: The wetland vegetation includes freshwater swamp forest, mangrove 

forest with Nypa palms, and Nibung swamps with Pandanus formations.

Land tenure: The wetland is owned by PHPA; surrounding areas are owned by local farmers and 

fishermen. 

Conservation measures taken: Established as a Game Reserve by a Government Decree in 1937. 

Conservation measures proposed: There is a proposal to upgrade the reserve to a National Park. 

It has also been proposed that the reserve be divided into three management zones: (a) Sanctuary, 

(b) Wilderness Zone, and (c) Intensive Use Zone. There are plans to create facilities for tourism 

and recreation in the proposed intensive use and wilderness zones. 

Land use: Game reserve; some areas in the coastal zone have been reclaimed for agriculture and 

housing. 

Disturbances and threats: Logging; already 75% of the forest has been selectively logged. Also 

poaching, fires and agricultural encroachment. 

Economic and social values: The reserve has a high potential for the development of wildlife 

tourism. 

Fauna: The mangrove forests provide breeding and nursery grounds for marine fish and shellfish, 

many of which are important in the local fishing industry. 

Of the 270 species of birds occurring in the reserve, more than 20% are water birds, including 

many migratory species and several rare or endangered species such as Malayan Night-Heron, 

Milky Stork, Storm's Stork, Lesser Adjutant, Black-headed Ibis, White-winged Wood-Duck and 

Asian Dowitcher (Gorsachius melanolophus, Mycteria cinerea, Ciconia (episcopus) stormi, 

Leptoptilos javanicus, Threskiornis melanocephalus, Cairina scutulata and Limnodromus 

semipalmatus) (almost 500 recorded in 1985). Way Kambas is possibly one of the best areas for C. 

scutulata in Sumatra, with an estimated population of five pairs. Other waterfowl known from the 

reserve include Anhinga melanogaster, Ixobrychus cinnamomeus, I. flavicollis, Nycticorax 

nycticorax, Ardeola speciosa, Bubulcus ibis, Butorides striatus, Egretta sacra, E. garzetta, E. 

intermedia, E. alba, Ardea purpurea, A. cinerea, A. sumatrana, Dendrocygna javanica, Anas 

gibberifrons, Amaurornis phoenicurus, Gallicrex cinerea and Heliopais personata. The intertidal 

mudflats are important for a variety of migratory shorebirds during the migration seasons and 

northern winter; species recorded include Glareola maldivarum, Pluvialis squatarola, P. dominica, 

Charadrius dubius C. mongolus, Limosa limosa, Numenius phaeopus, N. arquata, Tringa totanus, 

T. glareola, Xenus cinereus, Actitis hypoleucos and Calidris ferruginea. Migratory terns include 

Chlidonias hybrida, C. leucoptera, Sterna hirundo and S. albifrons. 

Other birds associated with the wetlands include birds of prey such as Pandion haliaetus, 

Haliastur indus, Haliaeetus leucogaster, Ichthyophaga nana and I. ichthyaetus. The area is 

particularly rich in kingfishers, with no less than ten species: Alcedo atthis, A. meninting, Ceyx 

erithacus, C. rufidorsus, Pelargopsis capensis, Halcyon coromanda, H. smyrnensis, H. pileata, H. 

chloris and H. concreta. 

The reserve is very rich in mammals, including rare or vulnerable species such as Sumatran 

Rhinoceros, Asian Elephant, Tiger, Tapir and Asian Wild Dog (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis, Elephas 

maximus, Pant hera tigris, Tapirus indicus and Cuon alpinus). Other species include Lutra lutra, 

Helarctos malayanus, Felis ternminckii, F. bengalensis, Paguma larvata, Viverricula indica, 

Macaca fascicularis, M. nemestrina, Presbytis cristata, Hylobates agilis, Symphalangus 

syndactylus, Sus scrofa, Cervus unicolor, Tragulus javanicus, T. napu and Muntiacus muntjak. 

The Estuarine Crocodile Crocodylus porosus and False Gharial Tomistoma schlegelii also occur in 

the reserve. 

Special floral values: The reserve is of special interest as it contains one of the few areas of 

lowland dipterocarp forest in Sumatra under protection. It also contains one of the largest areas of 

freshwater swamp forest within a reserve. 

Research and facilities: The reserve has received a relatively large amount of attention from 

researchers and conservationists, partly because it is considered to be one of the few areas with a

potential for transmigration of part of the Javanese Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus) population 

from Ujung Kulon. 

References: FAO (1979e); Holmes (1977); IUCN (in prep); Karpowicz (1985); MacKinnon & 

Artha (1982a); Nash & Nash (1985a); Salm & Halim (1984); Wind (1979). 

Criteria for inclusion: l b. 2a, 2b, 3a. 

Source: Marcel J. Silvius. 

Wetland name: Ogan - Komering Lebaks 


Coordinates: 3°1O'-4°OO'S, 104°30'-105°OO'E: 

Location: south of Palembang, Seuth Sumatra. 

Area: 200,000 ha liable to seasonal flooding. 

Altitude: 1O-25m. 


Wetland type: 11, 13, 14, 15, 19, 20 & 21. 

Description of site: A large expanse of freshwater swamps and seasonally flooded marshes along 

the Ogan and Komering Rivers, prior to their confluence with the Musi River near Palembang. 

There are numerous, deeply flooded backswamps, some of which form permanent open-water 

lakes (e.g. Legak Semandaway and Lebak Datuk). Some of the swamps completely fill tributary 

valleys. 

Climatic conditions: Humid tropical climate with an average annual rainfall of 2,546 mm 

(Palembang). There is a dry season (100 mm/month) from June to September. 

Principal vegetation: No information. 

Land tenure: State owned (Government of Indonesia). 

Conservation measures taken: None. 

Conservation measures proposed: None 

Land use: Presumably fishing, with cultivation of swamp rice around the margins. The 

surrounding areas are densely populated. 

Possible changes in Land use: The region has been the subject of many feasibility studies for 

drainage and irrigation schemes, but the extent of plans implemented or projected is not known. 

Disturbances and threats: Possible reclamation for agricultural purposes. There has been severe 

deforestation in the water catchment area during the past two decades. 

Economic and social values: No information. 

Fauna: Little information is available. The area is thought to be rich in water birds, and may be 

important for the endangered White-winged Wood-Duck Cairina scutulata. 

Special floral values: No information. 

Research and facilities: None 

References: None 

Criteria for inclusion: 0. 

Source: Derek A. Holmes. 

Wetland name: Padang-Sugihan Wildlife Reserve 


Coordinates: 2°43'-3°00'S, 105°00'-105°l5'E; 

Location: 45km northeast of Palembang, Sumatra Selatan Province, Sumatra. 

Area: 75,000 ha. 

Altitude: 5-lOm. 

Biogeographical province: 4.2 1.12.

Wetland type: 11 & 21. 

Description of site: A large reserve containing a patchwork of peat swamp forest, swampy 

grassland, riverine swamp forest and drier Melaleuca forest. All habitats are periodically flooded 

to a maximum depth of l.0-l.5m, and the peat swamp forest is flooded for most of the year. 

Although some 35 km from the coast, the region is still under the influence of a diurnal tide with 

one high and one low water in a 24 hour period. The tidal range at the coast is about 2.6m. The 

reserve is transected by five man-made primary canals, with a sixth forming the reserve's northern 

boundary. Secondary canals some two km in length branch off at right angles, at approximately 

400m intervals. In total, there are some 92 km of primary and 670 km of secondary canals in the 

reserve. These were dug when the area was being prepared for transmigrant settlers, before the 

establishment of the reserve. The main canals are 15m wide, and the secondary canals are 2-3m 

wide. The east and west borders of the reserve are the meandering Sugihan and Padang Rivers, 

respectively; both are large blackwater rivers, very acidic and heavily stained with tannins and 

dissolved compounds. 

Climatic conditions: Humid tropical climate, with a single pronounced dry season of about three 

months centered around July, and a wet season of five or six months centered around December 

and January. 

Principal vegetation: Riverine swamp 

Alstonia, Dyera, Gonostylus and Oncosperma. The understorey is dominated by Licuala palms. 

Riverine swamp forest, peat swamp, rice paddies, other agricultural land and alang-alang scrub 

occur in surrounding areas. 

Land tenure: The reserve is state owned (PHPA). There are some small communities around the 

reserve, and additional land has been given out to transmigrant settlers, at 2.5 ha per family. 

Conservation measures taken: The entire area (75,000 ha) was designated as a Wildlife Reserve 

(Suaka Margasatwa) by the Ministry of Forestry in April 1983. In theory, the public has no 

unauthorized access, and no hunting or harvesting of forest products is allowed. 

Conservation measures proposed: Nash and Nash have proposed that all unofficial access routes 

into the reserve (particularly the main canals) be closed off to prevent illegal logging, 

wood-cutting, hunting and fishing. 

Land use: Wildlife reserve; fishing, some logging and agriculture in surrounding areas. 

Disturbances and threats: There is a considerable amount of illegal logging in the swamp forest, 

cutting of Melaleuca trees for poles, poaching of Sambar Deer and monitor lizards, and fishing 

with lines, nets and dynamite within the reserve. The reserve waterways are used as short-cuts for 

motorboat traffic between the two main rivers, and the resulting disturbance affects the distribution 

of the shy Hairy-nosed Otter Lutra sumatrana. The area around the reserve is either already 

cleared for settlement, or is categorized as conversion forest, which means that areas still forested 

will be cleared. This will isolate the reserve, forming an island of forest surrounded by cleared 

agricultural land. 

Economic and social values: The reserve is of considerable value for scientific research. It is the 

only protected peat swamp area in Sumatra Selatan Province, and one of only two in Sumatra. It 

has great potential for conservation education, as it is readily accessible from the large city of 

Palembang. 

Fauna: At least six individuals of the endangered White-winged Wood-Duck Cairina scutulata 

were present in the reserve in 1985-86, and the rare Storm's Stork Ciconia (episcopus) stormi is 

resident. Other waterfowl include Anhinga melanogaster, Ixobrychus sinensis, I. cinnaniomeus, 

Ardeola speciosa, several species of Egretta, Ardea purpurea, A. cinerea, Mycteria cinerea, 

Leptoptilos javanicus, Dendrocygna sp, Amaurornis phoenicurus, Gelochelidon nilotica and 

Sterna hirundo. Birds of prey include the raptors Haliastur indus, Haliaeetus leucogaster, 

Ichthyophaga nana and I. ichthyaetus, and the fish-owl Ketupa ketupu. Eleven species of 

kingfisher have been recorded: Alcedo atthis, A. meninting, A. euryzoua, Ceyx erithacus, C.

ufidorsus, Pelargopsis capensis, Halcyon coromanda, H. smyrnensis, H. pileata, H. chioris and 

H. concreta. The Great Hornbill Buceros bicornis is unusually common. 

The very rich mammalian fauna includes the Sumatran Tiger (11-17 individuals), Leopard Cat, 

Fishing Cat, Sumatran Elephant, Malayan Sunbear, Hairy-nosed Otter, Small-clawed Otter, 

Masked Palm Civet, Otter Civet, Dark-handed Gibbon (two groups), Pig-tailed Macaque, 

Long-tailed Macaque, Silvered Leaf Monkey, Greater Mouse Deer, Lesser Mouse Deer, Wild 

Boar, Bearded Pig, Sambar (Panthera tigris sumatrae, Felis bengalensis, F. viverrina, Elephas 

maximus sumatranus, Helarctos malayanus, Lutra sumatrana, Aonyx cinerea, Paguma larvata, 

ynogale bennettii, Hylobates agilis, Macaca nemestrima, Macaca fascicularis, Preshitys cristatus, 

Tragulus napu, T. javanicus, Sus scrofa, S. barbatus, Cervus unicolor) and many smaller species 

such as Tupara sp, Ratufa bicolor, Callosciurus notatus, C. prevosti, Nannosciurus melanotis, 

Petaurista elegans, Megaderma spasma and Pteropus vampyrus. By December 1982, 232 Asian 

Elephants had been driven into the area; an elephant translocation of this magnitude had never 

before been attempted in Indonesia. Present data suggest that the number of elephants has not 

changed much, if at all, from the original 232 individual's. This is the world's largest single herd of 

the species, and the highest density in the wild. 

Estuarine Crocodiles Crocodylus porosus were introduced into the reserve in 1983-84. 

Special floral values: The reserve contains a good example of Sumatran peat swamp forest. Ferns 

and orchids are present in abundance, and good examples of the giant orchid Grammatophyllum 

speciosum have been noted. 

Research and facilities: A study of the elephant population, other large mammals and birds of the 

reserve was carried out by Nash and Nash between September 1984 and October 1985 under 

WWF/IUCN Project 3133. A small wooden house maintained by PHPA is available for visiting 

scientists. 

References: MacKinnon & Setiono (1983); Nash & Nash (1985a, 1985b, 1985c, 1985d, 1985e, 

1985f, 1985g, 1985h & 1986b); Nash & Philp (1985). 

Criteria for inclusion: lb, 2a, 2b, 3b. 

Source: Marcel J. Silvius and Stephen and Anne Nash. 

Wetland name: Pulau Betet 


Coordinates: 2°45'S, 104°50'E; 

Location: south of Terusan Dalam and north of the Benawang River, Sumatra Selatan Province, 

Sumatra. 

Area: c.1O.000 ha. 

Altitude: O-O.5m. 

Biogeographical province: 4.2 1,12. 


Description of site: A large island with a broad fringe of mangrove forests and intertidal mudflats, 

and peat swamp forests in the interior. According to local fishermen, there are several freshwater 

lakes in the interior of the island with breeding colonies of large water birds. However, no survey 

data are available other than observations made from a boat survey in 1984. The tidal amplitude is 

about 2.0-2.5m. 

Climatic conditions: Humid tropical climate. 

Principal vegetation: Mangrove forest dominated by species of Rhizophora and Bruguiera. 


Conservation measures taken: None.

Conservation measures proposed: The area should be surveyed as soon as possible and, if 

necessary, recommendations made for its protection. As the site is an island, it should be easy to 

implement adequate protective measures. 

Land use: Fishing in the mangrove swamps and surrounding sea. Possible changes in Land use: 

There may be logging operations on the island in the future. 

Disturbances and threats: Illegal logging, and the collection of eggs of water birds for local 

consumption. 

Economic and social values: The area is important as a nursery ground for fish and shellfish of 

commercial importance. 

Fauna: An important area for both resident and migratory waterfowl. According to local people, 

the island supports breeding colonies of large water birds, including the rare Milky Stork Mycteria 

cinerea. Waterfowl recorded during a brief survey in October 1984 included Anhinga 

melanogaster, Butorides striatus, Egretta sacra, E. garzetta, E. interniedia, E. alba, Ardea 

purpurea, A. cinerea, A. sumatrana, Mycteria cinerea, Leptoptilos javanicus, Threskiornis 

melanocephalus and Anas querquedula. Over 1,500 migratory shorebirds were observed along the 

east coast of the island. These included small numbers of Nordmann's Greenshank Tringa guttifer 

and Asian Dowitcher Limnodromus semipalmatus, along with Pluvialis squatarola, Charadrius 

mongolus, C. leschenaultii, Limosa limosa, L. lapponica, Numenius phaeopus, N. arquata, N. 

madagascariensis, Tringa totanus, T. stagnatilis, T. nebularia, T. glareola, Xenus cinereus, Actitis 

hypoleucos, Arenaria interpres, Calidris canutus, C. ruficollis, C. ferruginea and Limicola 

falcinellus. The Estuarine Crocodile Crocodylus porosus is known to be present. 


Research and facilities: Silvius et al. (1986) carried out a waterfowl survey in October 1984. 

References: Silvius et al. (1986). 

Criteria for inclusion: 1b, le, 2a, 2c, 3b. 


Wetland name: Banyuasin Musi River Delta 



Location: the coastal area between the Sembilang River and Kuala Saleh, Sumatra Selatan 

Province, Sumatra. 

Area: 150,000-200,000 ha of mangrove habitat. 

Altitude: 0-0.5m. 

Biogeographical province: 4.21.12. 

Wetland type: 06, 07 & 21. 

Description of site: The very large delta system of the Banyuasin and Musi Rivers and numerous 

smaller rivers and mangrove creeks. The area comprises some of the most extensive mangrove 

forests in Sumatra, with intact transitions to freshwater and peat swamp forests. There are vast 

areas of intertidal mudflats along the coast, some of which are more than one km wide at lowest 

low tide. The area is under heavy pressure from reclamation activities, and a large part of the 

swamp forest has already been reclaimed. The peninsula between the Sembilang and Banyuasin 

Rivers is one of the most important areas for waterfowl in Indonesia, with thousands of large water 

birds and tens of thousands of migratory shorebirds. The many small villages built on poles on the 

coastal mudflats are very characteristic of this region. There are also a few larger coastal villages. 

The long term average coastal accretion rate is estimated at about lOOm per year. The soil consists 

of unripe clays (entisols) and peat; the clays often consist of potential acid sulphate soils. The tidal 

amplitude is about 2.O-2.5m.

Climatic conditons: Humid tropical climate, with an average annual rainfall of 2,300 mm. The 

region is influenced by the northwest monsoon from November to February. 

Principal vegetation: Mangrove forests. More than 30 species of mangrove are known to occur; 

the main species are Rhizophora mucronata, R. apiculata, Avicennia alba, A. marina, Sonneratia 

alba, S. acida, Ceriops tagal, C. candoleana and Xylocarpus spp. There are also some extensive 

swamps of Nypa fruticans. Inland, the mangroves and nipa swamps give way to freshwater swamp 

forests, peat swamp forests and grassy marshes where the forest has been burned or logged. 

Land tenure: The wetlands are state owned (Government of Indonesia); surrounding areas are 

owned by the local authorities and local farmers. 


Conservation measures proposed: Silvius (1986) has proposed that the area between the 

Sembilang River and Banyuasin River (the Banyuasin Peninsula) be designated as a Nature 

Reserve. The administrative procedure to designate the area as reserve was initiated in late 1986. 

The reserve would cover an area of about 70,000 ha. 

Land use: Fisheries and small-scale logging of mangrove poles; fisheries and agriculture in 

surrounding areas. 

Possible changes in Land use: Several areas have been proposed for transmigration projects, 

including part of the Banyuasin Peninsula. If these plans are carried out, most of the mangrove 

forest will be lost, including important breeding areas for the Milky Stork Mycteria cinerea and 

many other large water birds. Hardjowigeno and Situmorang (1987) have recently reviewed the 

impact of the transmigration programme on the mangrove ecosystem in the Banyuasin Musi Delta. 

Most of the freshwater swamp forests and peat swamp forests in the water catchment area have 

been or are being reclaimed or logged. 

Disturbances and threats: The major threats to the area are reclamation for official 

transmigration projects, reclamation by spontaneous transmigrants, logging of the mangrove forest, 

human disturbance at the breeding colonies of large water birds, and forest fires. The population of 

Estuarine Crocodiles Crocodylus porosus has already been almost exterminated by hunting. 

Economic and social values: The mangrove forest is extremely important for the local fishing 

industry which thrives largely on the shrimps and prawns which use the mangrove as nursery and 

breeding areas. The fishery industry is rapidly increasing in the area. The fishing villages are 

constructed mainly of timber taken from the mangrove forest and freshwater swamp forest. Tree 

species commonly used in the construction include Meranti (Shorea), Nibung (Oncosperma) and 

Bakau (Rhizophora). The mudflats may have a high potential for the cockle industry. 

Fauna: The mangrove forests are important breeding and nursery grounds for many species of 

marine fishes, prawns and shrimps. 

The area is one of the most important sites for waterfowl in Indonesia. Eighteen species of large 

water birds and 20 species of migratory shorebirds have been recorded. The area is presumed to 

contain the largest breeding colony of the Milky Stork Mycteria cinerea in the world. It is the only 

area in Southeast Asia with a population of Spot-billed Pelicans Pelecanus philippensis; an 

immature observed in 1986 suggests that the birds are breeding in the area. It has the highest 

population of Lesser Adjutants Leptoptilos javanicus known in Indonesia. The endangered 

White-winged Wood-Duck Cairina scutulata occurs in the swamp forests behind the mangroves. 

The Grey Heron Ardea cinerea is known to breed in the area; the Great Egret Egretta alba 

probably breeds along with several other large water birds such as the Black-headed This 

Threskiornis melanocephalus. Because of the difficulties of access, much of the area is still 

relatively untouched. A few fishermen collected some eggs and young of large water birds in 

1982-1984, but the main breeding colonies of herons, egrets, storks and ibises have not as yet been 

located by biologists. The highest counts of large water birds obtained during surveys of the 

Banyuasin Peninsula in October 1984, July 1985 and March 1986 were as follows: 

Pelecanus philippensis 9

Anhinga melanogaster 7 

Egretta garzetta 48 

E. sacra 12 

E. intermedia 12 

E. alba 2,414 

Ardea cinerea 90 

A.sumatrana 3 

Mvcteria cinerea 1,550 

Leptoptilos javanicus 620 

Threskiornis melanocephalus 607 

Dendrocygna javanica 1,000 

Counts of shorebirds on the Banyuasin Peninsula in October 1984, July 1985 and March1986 gave 

totals of 37,900, 35,500 and 14,500, respectively. The highest numbers of each species recorded 

were as follows: 

Pluvialis squatarola 100 

P. dominica 6 

Charadrius mongolus 9,460 

C. leschenaultii 145 

Limosa limosa 30,000 

L. lapponica 7,000 

Numenius phaeopus 700 

N. arquata 1,965 

N. madagascariensis 372 

Tringa totanus 6,000 

T. stagnatilis 100 

T. nebularia 106 

Xenus cinereus 3,500 

Actitis hypoleucos 50 

Arenaria interpres 500 

Limnodromus semipalmatus 1,760-2,260 

Calidris canutus 5 

C. tenuirostris 66 

C. ruficollis 100 

C. ferruginea 700 

Birds of prey recorded during the survey in July 1985 included 113 Haliastur indus, 12 Haliaeetus 

leucogaster and three Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus. Mammals known to occur include Tiger, Leopard 

Cat, Common Otter, Wild Boar, Bearded Pig, Sambar, Long-tailed Macaque, Pig-tailed Macaque, 

Silvered Leaf Monkey and Otter-Civet (Panthera tigris, Felis bengalensis, Lutra lutra, Sus scrofa, 

S. barbatus, Cervus unicolor, Macaca fascicularis, M. nemestrina, Presbytis cristata and Cynogale 

bennettii). The Estuarine Crocodile Crocodylus porosus is still present, although now in greatly 

reduced numbers as a result of intensive hunting pressure. The turtle Chitra indica is known to 

occur, and several other species such as Pelochelys bibronii may occur. The delta is one of the 

richest areas for crustaceans in Indonesia. 

Special floral values: The mangrove forest is very rich in species. The freshwater swamp and peat 

swamp forests contain many commercially valuable tree species. 

Research and facilities: The vegetation has been surveyed by Sukristiyono Sukardjo and others 

(1979 & 1984), and several waterbird surveys have been carried out by ICBP and Interwader since 

1983. 

References: Danielson & Skov (1986 & 1987); Hardjowigeno & Situmorang (1987); Karpowicz 

(1985); Silvius (1986); Silvius et al. (1986); Sukardjo (1979); Sukardjo et al. (1984).



Wetland name: Sungai Lalan 


Coordinates: 2°00'-2°22'S, l03°50'-104°35'E; 

Location: 100 km northwest of Palembang, Musi-Banyuasin District, Sumatra Selatan Province, 

Sumatra. 

Area: 586,417 ha, including 80,000 ha of swamp forest. 



Wetland type: 02, 06, 07 & 21. 

Description of site: The extensive mangrove swamps and intertidal mudflats in the estuary of the 

Sungai Lalan, and a large, low-lying area of freshwater swamp forest and peat swamp forest along 

the Sungai Lalan and many other smaller rivers. The swamp forests are under heavy pressure from 

logging and reclamation projects, and several areas are currently being developed for 

transmigration schemes. 

Climatic conditions: Humid tropical climate with an annual rainfall of 1,250-1,550 mm. 

Temperatures range from 24-32°C. 

Principal vegetation: Mangrove forest with species of Sonneratia, Rhizophora and Bruguiera 

near the coast; freshwater swamp forest and peat swamp forest with species such as Oncosperma 

filamentosa, Pandanus tectorius, Gluta renghas, Melaleuca sp and Fagraea fragrans. Lowland 

rain forest further inland. 

Land tenure: State owned (Local Government of Sumatra Selatan Province). 


Conservation measures proposed: The Lalan River has been proposed as a Crocodile 

Conservation Area. 

Land use: Fishing. Part of the area has been reclaimed for agriculture. 

Possible changes in Land use: Part of the area will be reclaimed for transmigration schemes, and 

some other parts have been set aside for logging activities. 

Disturbances and threats: Logging, forest clearance for transmigration schemes, crocodile 

hunting, pollution and disturbance from boat traffic. 

Economic and social values: The mangrove forests and swamp forests support an important 

fishery. 

Fauna: Fishes include Ophiocephalus micropheltes, 0. striatus, Notopterus sp, Mastacembelus sp, 

Anus crassochejius, Pluta sp, Macrones baramensis, Clarias sp, Opronemus sp, Apogon sp, 

Trichogaster trichopterus and Anabas testudineus. 

Very little information is available on the waterfowl. Species known to be present include 

Pelecanus sp, Anhinga melanogaster, Egretta intermedia, E. alba and a variety of kingfishers 

(Alcedinidae). Mammals include Tragulus napu, Manis javanica, Macaca sp, Cervus unicolor and 

Sus barbatus. 

Both the Estuarine Crocodile Crocodylus porosus and False Gharial Tomistoma schlegelii occur in 

the area, along with Varanus salvator, Python reticulatus and Erynix triungis. 



References: Direktorat Jendral Kehutanan (1976). 

Criteria for inclusion: lb. 2a, 2b. 

Source: Agustinus W. Taufik and Marcel J. Silvius.

Wetland name: Muara Bulian 


Coordinates: l°45S, 103°15'E; 

Location: 40 km WSW of Jambi, close to the Batang Han River, Jambi Province, Sumatra. 

Area: c.50 ha. 

Altitude: c.25m. 



Description of site: A swamp used for the cultivation of low quality rice each year if water levels 

permit. The swamp supports a variety of marsh grasses and sedges, and some floating vegetation. 

There are small areas of open water and some exposed mud. Scattered trees remain, some of them 

dead. A grove of open woodland and secondary growth covers one part of the swamp. 


Principal vegetation: No details available. 

Land tenure: No information. 



Land use: Rice cultivation, fishing, and grazing by domestic buffalo. 

Disturbances and threats: Agricultural encroachment. 


Fauna: A pair of the endangered White-winged Wood-Duck Cairina scutulata was observed at 

the site in 1976. No more recent information is available. 



References: Holmes (1976). 

Criteria for inclusion: lb. 2a. 


Wetland name: Berbak Game Reserve 


Coordinates:1°08'-1°40'S, 104°05'-104°28'E; 

Location: 60 km ENE of Jambi, on the east coast of Jambi Province, Sumatra. 

Area: c.175,000 ha. 

Altitude: O-20m. 


Wetland type: 05, 06, 07, 11, 18 & 21. 

Description of site: One of the largest swamp forest reserves in Indonesia, forming part of the vast 

alluvial plain of eastern Sumatra. The reserve is unique for its vast area of hitherto undisturbed 

peat swamp forest (110,000 ha), and has the largest expanse of freshwater swamp forest within any 

reserve in Sumatra (c.60,000 ha). At its eastern boundary, the reserve is bordered by five villages 

and a muddy coast with a narrow fringe of mangrove forest (c.1,500 ha). The Air Hitam Laut 

River flows through the reserve, and the Benu River forms its southern boundary. Along these 

rivers, there is a fringe of Nypa fruticans, 5-50m wide, which gives way to a zone of Pandanus 

tectorius at about eight or ten km upstream from the coast. Behind these palm and pandanus 

fringes, there is a zone of riverine forest, 50-500m wide, dominated by Mammea sp. The maximum 

tidal range at the coast is 2.O-2.5m; at 10km upstream, the range is still one meter. The forest is 

inundated for a large part of the year. The peat soil is typically dome-shaped. The rivers are up to

20m deep and contain acidic, peaty water. In the dry season, brackish water penetrates up to 10 km 

inland. 

Climatic conditions: Humid tropical climate with an average annual rainfall of 2,300 mm. There 

are five or six months with about 200 mm of rainfall, and two months with as little as 100 mm. 

Principal vegetation: Peat swamp forest with trees over 40m in height; freshwater swamp forest 

with a canopy at 50m and emergent up to 70m in height; riverine forest with trees up to 50m in 

height and many palms, and riverine fringes of Nypa fruticans and Pandanus tectorius. Over 150 

species of trees have been recorded. Species characteristic of the peat swamp forest include 

Tetramerista glabra, Gluta sp, Dyospyros bantamensis and Durio carinatus; species characteristic 

of the freshwater swamp forest include Aistonia pneumatophora, Antidesma montanum, 

Baccaurea bracteata and Blumeodendron tokbrai; species typical of the riverine forest include 

Oncosperma tiggilarium, Callophyllum sp, Mammea sp, Theysmanniodendron sp, Polyalthya sp 

and Licuala valida. The aquatic flora includes Susum anthelminticum, a floating riverine species 

which grows up to two meters in height and blocks the rivers about 15 km upstream from the 

coast. 

The principal plant communities in adjacent areas are peat swamp forest, freshwater swamp forest, 

rice paddies and other agricultural land. 

Land tenure: The wetland is state owned (PHPA), and is still inhabited by a Kubu tribe which has 

no contact at all with the outside world. Surrounding areas are privately owned by local people and 

spontaneous transmigrants from Sulawesi. 

Conservation measures taken: Protected as a Game Reserve since October 1935; the boundaries 

have been revised several times since then. The last revision occurred in 1985, when the coastal 

villages were excluded from the reserve. The area is regularly patrolled by PHPA (BKSDA 

Sub-section Nipah Panjang). 

Conservation measures proposed: It has been proposed that the sandy beach area excluded from 

the reserve in 1985 should be re-gazetted as Game Reserve, and that the northwestern boundary of 

the reserve should be realigned to follow the Air Hitam Dalam River. 

Land use: Game reserve. The area is inhabited by about 150 Kubu, an indigenous tribe of 

hunter-gatherers who may not even know the use of fire. 

Possible changes In Land use: There is a possibility that the coastal villages will encroach further 

into the protected area, unless adequate patrolling measures are taken. Major logging concessions 

are located to the west of the reserve and partly overlap with the southwestern portion of the 

reserve (67,500 ha). 

Disturbances and threats: The principal threats are drainage of the peat swamp by drainage 

canals from the coastal villages, illegal logging, human disturbance at the roosts of migratory 

shorebirds on the sandy beach at Desa Cemara, illegal capture of False Garials Tomistoma 

schlegelii, and capture of freshwater turtles (often accidental). The area fringing the eastern 

boundary is highly susceptible to forest fires. A fire in 1982 lasted for three months and destroyed 

at least 3,000 ha of primary forest. The fire was probably caused by uncontrolled burning on 

nearby cultivated land. 

Economic and social values: The Kubu tribe of hunter-gatherers is unique, especially as the tribe 

exists without any contact with the outside world apart from very occasional long distance 

approaches. The peat swamp serves as an important natural water storage reservoir in the dry 

season, providing the coastal villages and reclaimed land with water. 

Fauna: At least 34 species of freshwater fishes and brackish water fishes are known from the 

rivers. 

The reserve includes several important sites for water birds, the most important being the sandy 

beach near the mouth of the River Cemara. At least 24 species of shorebirds have been recorded, 

including the Asian Dowitcher Limnodromus semipalmatus and Nordmann's Greenshank Tringa 

guttifer.

The area is very rich in mammals; species known to occur in the reserve include Tiger, Leopard 

Cat, Common Porcupine, Yellow-throated Marten, Malay Sunbear, Common Otter, Wild Boar, 

Bearded Pig, Tapir, Sambar, Lesser Mouse Deer, Greater Mouse Deer, Long-tailed Macaque, 

Pig-tailed Macaque, Silvered Leaf Monkey, Dark-handed Gibbon, Scaly Anteater, Siamang, 

Flying Lemur and Binturong (Panthera tigris, Felis bengalensis, Hystrix brachyura, Martes 

flavigula, Lutra lutra, Helarctos malayanus, Sus scrofa, S. barbatus, Tapirus indicus, Cervus 

unicolor, Tragulus javanicus, T. napu, Macaca fascicularis, M. nemestrina, Presbytis cristata, 

Hylobates agilis, Manis javanica, Symphalangus syndactylus, Cynocephalus variegatus and 

Arctitis binturong). A species of rhinoceros may still be present; footprints were reported in the 

mid 1970s, possibly of the Javan Rhinoceros Rhinoceros sondaicus. 

Both the Estuarine Crocodile Crocodylus porosus and False Gharial Tomistoma schlegelii still 

occur in the area. Other reptiles include the turtles Orlitia borneensis, Cyclemys dent ata, 

Pelochelys bibronii and Chitra indica, the snakes Python reticulatus, Bungarius fasciatus, Beiga 

dendrophila, Cerberus rhynchops and Dendrophis pictus, and the lizards Draco sp, Varanus 

salvator, Tachydromus sexlineatus and Mabouya rudis. Amphibians include the toad Bufo 

subasper. 


Research and facilities: Various faunal and floral surveys have been carried out in the reserve. 

References: IPB (1976b); IUCN (in prep); Karpowicz (1985); Nash & Nash (1985a); Silvius 

(1986); Silvius et al. (1984 & 1986). 

Criteria for inclusion: 1b, le, 2a, 2b, 3b. 


Wetland name: Tanjung Jabung 



Location: between the mouth of the Batang Han River and Sungai Jambat, just northeast of the 

Berbak Game Reserve, Jambi Province, Sumatra. 

Area: c.3,000 ha. 


Biogeographical province: None 


Description of site: A coastal fringe of mangrove forest, approximately 200-500m wide, with 

some soft mudflats. The site lies to the east of the mouth of the Batang Han River. The tidal range 

is about 2m. 


Principal vegetation: Mangrove forest; Avicennia marina dominates where the mangrove fringe 

is narrowest, and Rhizophora sp where the fringe is wide. Coconut plantations and rice paddies in 

adjacent areas. 

Land tenure: The wetland is state owned; surrounding areas are owned by the local villages. 

Conservation measures taken: The area was protected until the late 1970s when the boundaries 

of the Berbak Game Reserve were relocated following large-scale reclamation of land behind the 

mangrove fringe. 

Conservation measures proposed: Silvius (1986) has recommended that the area be protected as 

a Nature Reserve (Cagar Alam), to link up with the Hutan Bakau Pantai Timor Nature Reserve. 

Land use: Some cutting of mangrove poles and inshore fisheries. There are large coconut 

plantations behind the mangrove fringe. 

Disturbances and threats: Illegal logging and spontaneous reclamation schemes.

Economic and social values: The mangrove is an important nursery and breeding area for species 

of prawns and marine fishes which are important for the inshore fisheries of the region. 

Fauna: Many species of prawns and marine fishes use the mangrove swamps as a nursery and 

breeding area. 

The mudflats are used by many thousands of migratory shorebirds of at least 24 species. Some 

12,000 shorebirds were present in autumn 1984, 7,500 in summer 1985, and 5,300 in spring 1986. 

The area is particularly important for the rare Asian Dowitcher Limnodromus sernipalmatus; 100 

were present in autumn 1984, and 474 in spring 1986. The shorebird counts in April 1986 also 

included: 

370 Charadrius mongolus 

105 C. leschenaultii 

2,760 Limosa limosa 

140 Numenius phaeopus 

110 N. madagascariensis 

475 Tringa totanus 

130 T. stagnatilis 

115 Xenus cinereus 

50 Arenaria interpres 

44 Calidris canutus 

130 C. ferruginea 

Other water birds present at the same time included 245 Mycteria cinerea Milky Storks, thirty-five 

Ardea cinerea, two A. sumatrana, twenty-six Leptoptilos javanicus and sixty Anas querquedula. 


Research and facilities: The area has been surveyed three times: in 1984, 1985 and 1986. The 

area is readily accessible by speed-boat from the village of Nipa Panjang. 

References: Danielson & Skov (1986 & 1987); Silvius (1986); Silvius et al. (1986). 

Criteria for inclusion: lb. 2a, 2c, 3a. 


Wetland name: Hutan Bakau Pantai Timor 


Coordinates: 0°50'S, 103°30'E to 1°02'S, 104°07'E; 

Location: on the coast between Desa Pemusiran and Kuala Tungkal, 70 km north of Jambi, Jambi 


Area: c.6,700 ha. 




Description of site: An extensive fringe of mangrove forest 20-500m wide, and adjacent large 

area of intertidal mudflats, stretching for 70 km along the northeast coast of Jambi Province. The 

forest contains several breeding colonies of large water birds. It is bisected by nine major 

mangrove creeks and rivers and numerous small creeks. There are six coastal fishing villages 

situated at the mouths of creeks. The tidal range is about 2.0-2.5m. 


Principal vegetation: Mangrove forest containing up to 30 species of trees; agricultural land in 


Land tenure: The wetland is state owned (PHPA); adjacent areas are privately owned farmland.

Conservation measures taken: The area has been protected as a Nature Reserve (Cagar Alam) 

since 1976. The boundaries are currently being marked in the field and are supposed to follow the 

present division of mangrove forest and arable land. 

Conservation measures proposed: The mangrove fringe near Desa Pemusiran, at present 

unprotected, should be included in the reserve as it contains important breeding colonies of the 

Grey Heron Ardea cinerea. 

Land use: Some illegal cutting for firewood and poles for construction purposes. There are rice 

paddies and coconut plantations inland from the mangroves, and inshore fisheries (with standing 

nets and small boats) along the coast. 

Disturbances and threats: Further encroachment of the coastal villages into the mangrove fringe, 

illegal logging, and collection of eggs in the breeding colonies of storks, herons and egrets. 

Economic and social values: The mangrove forest is a very important nursery and breeding area 

for many species of prawns and fishes of commercial value. 

Fauna: A very important breeding, feeding and roosting area for a wide variety of 

water birds. The area is particularly important for the rare Milky Stork Mycteria cinerea, 

supporting the largest known breeding colony of this species in the world. At least 74 active nests 

were located at Kuala Betara in 1985. (The colony at the Banyuasin Musi River Delta may be 

larger, but has never been adequately surveyed). Other breeding species include several species of 

Egretta, Ardea cinerea (one of the few colonies in Sumatra) and possibly Threskiornis 

melanocephalus. Other waterfowl recorded in the area include Anhinga melanogaster, Ardea 

sumatrana, Leptoptilos javanicus and Anas querquedula. 

Up to 19,000 shorebirds of 21 species have been recorded, including over 1,500 Asian Dowitchers 

Limnodromus semipalmatus and two Nordmann's Greenshank Tringa guttifer. Other species 

include Pluvialis squatarola, Charadrius mongolus, C. leschenaultii, Lirnosa limosa, L. lapponica, 

Numenius phaeopus, N. arquata, N. madagascariensis, Tringa totanus, T. stagnatilis, T. nebularia, 

T. glareola, Xenus cinereus, Actitis hypoleucos, Arenaria interpres, Calidris canutus, C. ruficollis, 

C. ferruginea and Limicola falcinellus. 

Reptiles include the monitor lizard Varanus salvator. 


Research and facilities: Waterfowl surveys have been carried out by Danielson and Skov (1986 

& 1987) and Silvius et al. (1986). 

References: Danielson & Skov (1986 & 1987); Karpowicz (1985); Silvius (1986); Silvius et al. 

(1986). 

Criteria for inclusion: lb. 2a, 2b, 2c, 3a. 


Wetland name: Tanjung Bakung 



Location: on Pulau Baso, Riau Province, Sumatra. 

Area: The proposed reserve covers c.40.000 ha of mangrove forest. 




Description of site: Tanjung Bakung, a promontory of Baso Island, has extensive mudflats and 

primary mangrove forests. Several small lakes are present. The outermost tip of the promontory is 

accreting extremely rapidly. The tidal mudflats comprise very unripe clay sediments over 1.5m 

deep in places. 

Climatic conditions: Humid tropical climate.

Principal vegetation: Primary mangrove forest and Nypa fruticans swamp. 



Conservation measures proposed: Silvius et al. (1986) have recommended that the area be 

protected as a Nature Reserve (Cagar Alam). 

Land use: No information. 

Disturbances and threats: Small-scale logging and reclamation; possible disturbance of breeding 

colonies of water birds by egg collectors (for consumption). 

Economic and social values: The mangrove forest is important as a nursery and breeding area for 

commercially important species of fish and shellfish. 

Fauna: An important area for migratory shorebirds and resident large water birds; 10,000 

shorebirds were present in November 1984, along with 190 Egretta alba, over 360 Mycteria 

cinerea and over 60 Threskiornis melanocephalus. According to local villagers, there may still be 

some breeding colonies of egrets and storks around the small lakes in the mangrove forests. 

The Estuarine Crocodile Crocodylus porosus may still occur in the area. 

Special floral values: None known. 

Research and facilities: Silvius et al. carried out a preliminary waterfowl survey in November 

1984. 

References: Karpowicz (1985); Silvius et al. (1986). 

Criteria for inclusion: lb, 2a, 2c, 3a. 


Wetland name: Tanjung Datuk 


Coordinates: 0°00'N/S, 103°45'E; 

Location: on the equator, 15 km east of Desa Bekawan and 50 km south of Sungai Guntung, Riau 


Area: The proposed reserve covers c.25,000 ha of mangrove forest. 

Altitude: O-O.5m. 



Description of site: A rich mangrove area consisting of almost untouched Rhizophora forest, 

extensive mudflats and several unspoiled tidal creeks. There are several brackish lakes in the 

interior of the mangrove forest. The tidal range is about 2.0-2.5m. 


Principal vegetation: Mangrove forest with Avicennia as the accreting species and Rhizophora 

dominating further inland. 



Conservation measures proposed: Silvius et al. (1986) have recommended that the entire area be 

protected as a Nature Reserve (Cagar Alam). Salm and Halim (1984) have proposed the 

establishment of a Marine Sanctuary of 5,000 ha. 

Land use: Fisheries, crocodile hunting and small-scale logging; fisheries and some agriculture in 


Possible changes in Land use: There is a possibility that some of the mangrove forest, especially 

around the small lakes, will be reclaimed for agriculture by spontaneous transmigrants from local 

villages. Further reclamation of mangrove forest is likely in adjacent areas. 

Disturbances and threats: Crocodile hunting, illegal logging and spontaneous reclamation 

projects.

Economic and social values: The mangrove forest is very important as a nursery and breeding 

area for commercially important species of fish and shellfish. 

Fauna: An important area for both resident and migratory waterfowl, notably Mycteria cinerea 

and shorebirds. Over 10,000 migratory shorebirds were present on the mudflats in November 

1984, along with over 190 Mycteria cinerea and smaller numbers of Egretta sacra, E. alba and 

Leptoptilos javanicus. The lakes within the mangrove forest may support breeding 

colonies of large water birds including M. cinerea. 

The creeks are still inhabited by the Estuarine Crocodile Crocodylus porosus, making this area one 

of the last refuges for this endangered species in Riau Province. 


Research and facilities: The area has been surveyed only once, in November 1984. 

References: Karpowicz (1985); Saim & Halim (1984); Silvius et al. (1986). 



Wetland name: Pulau Burung 


Coordinates: 0°25'N, 103°34'E; 

Location: east of the mouth of the Kampar River, 12 km NNW of the village of Sungai Guntung, 

Riau Province, Sumatra. 


Altitude: Sea level. 



Description of site: A small mangrove island, surrounded by intertidal mudflats and with a 

shallow, brackish lake in the centre. There are extensive sandy mudflats on the north and southeast 

coasts of the island, which is separated from the mainland by a channel several hundred meters 

wide. The lake is probably not more than 50cm deep. Its salinity appears to be dependent on 

precipitation and varies with the seasons. The lake is linked with the sea at very high tides. The 

average tidal variation is about 2m. 

Climatic conditions: Humid tropical climate. There are five or six months with over 200 mm of 

rainfall, and two or three months with less than 100 mm. 

Principal vegetation: Mangrove forest dominated by Rhizophora mucronata and R. apiculata, 

with some Bruguiera parviflora, B. gymnorhiza, B. cylindrica and Avicennia sp. 

Land tenure: State owned (PHPA). 

Conservation measures taken: The area is protected as a Nature Reserve (Cagar Alam), 

established in 1968. 

Conservation measures proposed: There is a need for regular patrols in the area. 

Land use: Nature reserve. 

Disturbances and threats: Some illegal logging of mangrove poles was reported in April 1984. 

Economic and social values: The mangrove swamps are important in maintaining the local 

fishery. The lake is very rich in fish and is likely to be a breeding and nursery area for marine 

fishes and crustaceans. 

Fauna: According to local people, the mangrove forest around the lake is used as a breeding site 

by large water birds, including the Milky Stork Mycteria cinerea. Small numbers of migratory 

shorebirds were observed on the mudflats in April 1984. 

Special floral values: The Rhizophora forest is very tall and healthy, and is one of the best 

examples of primary mangrove forest in the region. 

Research and facilities: M.J. Silvius et al. carried out a brief survey of the island in April 1984.

References: Silvius et al. (1986). 

Criteria for inclusion: lb. 2a, 2c. 


Wetland name: Bakau Muara Kapuas 



Location: north of the Sungai Kampar, Kabupaten Bengkalis and Kampar, Riau Province, 

Sumatra. 

Area: c.70,000 ha. 




Description of site: An excellent complex of mangrove formations backed by peat swamp forests, 

still in a relatively undisturbed condition. 


Principal vegetation: 20,000 ha of mangrove forest and 50,000 ha of peat swamp forest. 



Conservation measures proposed: The area has been proposed as a Wildlife Reserve (Suaka 

Margasatwa). 


Disturbances and threats: There are plans to log the area. 


Fauna: The wetland is an important breeding area for the Estuarine Crocodile Crocodylus 

porosus. The forests support a rich bird life and some primates. 



References: MacKinnon & Artha (l982a). 

Criteria for inclusion: 1b, 2a. 


Wetland name: Kerumutan Baru 


Coordinates: 0°15'-0°25'S, 102°25'-l02°38'E; 

Location: near Rengat, Kabupaten Kampar, Riau Province, Sumatra. 

Area: 120,000 ha. 

Altitude: 20-lOOm. 



Description of site: A large reserve incorporating extensive peat swamp forests with a small area 

of dry-land forest. The southern tip of the reserve has been cleared for rice cultivation, but 

otherwise the area is fairly undisturbed. The eastern part is permanently flooded. The reserve 

represents the best example of inland lowland swamp forests in Riau Province, and is the richest in 

wildlife due to its proximity to extensive dry-land forests. The area has many rivers such as the 

Kerumutan, Bengkinang, Batang Rengat, Mangkuang and Merbau.

Climatic conditions: Humid tropical climate with an average annual rainfall of 2,009 mm. The 

mean temperature is 26.1°C (minimum 24.1°C, maximum 31.6°C); the average relative humidity 

is 84.1%. 

Principal vegetation: Peat swamp forest (100,000 ha), with wet lowland forest on alluvium in 

adjacent areas (5,000 ha). 


Conservation measures taken: The entire area is protected as a Nature Reserve (Cagar Alam). 

Conservation measures proposed: It is proposed to extend the boundaries in the northwest to 

include the 30,000 ha of forest remaining in the old Kerumutan Reserve (Kerumutan Lama). 

Land use: Nature reserve with some cultivation; cultivation in surrounding areas. 

Disturbances and threats: Agricultural encroachment and illegal hunting in the reserve. There is 

a possibility that the area will be opened up to logging. 


Fauna: The area is rich in mammals including Elephas maximus, Panthera tigris, Tapirus indicus, 

Helarctos malayanus, Symphalangus syndactylus, Manis javanica and Histryx brachyura. Little is 

known of the waterfowl except that Bubulcus ibis and species of Egretta are present. 



References: Direktorat P.P.A. (1977c & 1982a); MacKinnon & Artha (1982a). 

Criteria for inclusion: 1b, 2a, 2b. 

Source: Marcel J. Silvius and Agustinus W. Taufik. 

Wetland name: Danau Bawah and Puiau Besar 



Location: 90 km SSE of Bengkalis, Kabupaten Bengkalis, Riau Province, Sumatra. 

Area: 23,750 ha. 




Description of site: An area of peat swamp forests with two freshwater lakes and an island (Pulau 

Besar) in one of the lakes. 

Climatic conditions: Humid tropical climate with an average annual rainfall of 2,400 mm. 

Principal vegetation: Peat swamp forest (16,000 ha) and freshwater swamp forest (4,000 ha), 

dominated by Shorea sp and Gonystylus bancanus. Forests in adjacent areas are dominated by 

species of Shorea and Gonystilus, Terminalia gigantea and Melaleuca leucodendron. 


Conservation measures taken: The area has been protected as a Nature Reserve (Cagar Alam) 

since 1979. 


Land use: Nature reserve; logging and transmigration settlements in surrounding areas. 

Disturbances and threats: Land clearance for transmigration, logging, oil exploration and the 

construction of roads. 

Economic and social values: The area has high aesthetic values, and is important as a genetic 

resource. 

Fauna: The area is rich in wildlife, including many rare or endangered species such as Elephas 

maximus, Panthera tigris, Tapirus indicus and several primates. The False Gharial Tomistoma 

schlegelii is present. Waterfowl include species of Egretta and various kingfishers (Alcedinidae).

Special floral values: The reserve includes an excellent example of extensive Shorea and 

Gonystylus bancanus (Ramin) swamp forests in an attractive setting. 


References: Direktorat P.P.A. (1980e); MacKinnon & Artha (1982a). 


Source: Marcel J. Silvius and Edi Djuharsa. 

Wetland name: Danau Belat, Besar Sekak and Sarang Burung 


Coordinates: 0°20'-0°40'N, 102°00'E; 

Location: 90 km south of Bengkalis, Kabupaten Kampar, Riau Province, Sumatra. 

Area: c.10,000 ha. 




Description of site: Three neighbouring areas of peat swamp forest with several rivers and small 

lakes. 


Principal vegetation: Peat swamp forest. 

Land tenure: State owned (Indonesian Government). 


Conservation measures proposed: All three areas have been proposed as Wildlife Reserves 

(Suaka Margasatwa), but since each is rather small and vulnerable, it has been suggested that they 

be incorporated in a single, much larger reserve, or linked with the existing Danau Bawah-Danau 

Pulau Besar Reserve. 


Disturbances and threats: Logging and reclamation of land for agriculture. 


Fauna: Very little information is available. The area is reported to be rich in water birds, and one 

of the lakes is used as a breeding area by large numbers of birds. The False Gharial Tomistoma 

schlegelii occurs in the area. 



References: MacKinnin & Artha (1982a). 



Wetland name: Siak Kecil 


Coordinates: 0°59'-1°23'N, 101°26'-101°52'E; 

Location: 60 km WSW of Bengkalis, Kabupaten Bengkalis, Riau Province, Sumatra. 

Area: c.100,000 ha. 




Description of site: A very interesting system of small freshwater lakes in a large area of peat 

swamp forest (30,000 ha) and freshwater swamp forest (2,000 ha). 


Principal vegetation: Peat swamp forest with up to 30 tree species, and freshwater swamp forest. 



Conservation measures proposed: The area has been proposed as a Hunting Reserve. FAO 

(1976) has subsequently recommended that the proposed reserve be enlarged from an original 

40,000 ha to 100,000 ha, and that it be given the status of Wildlife Reserve(Suaka Margasatwa). 

Hunting should be forbidden. 


Disturbances and threats: Logging and disturbance from oil exploitation. 


Fauna: The area is known to support many waterfowl, but no details are available. The forests are 

important for a variety of rare or endangered mammals such as Asian Elephant Elephas maximus, 

Tiger Panthera tigris and Tapir Tapirus indicus. The site is also very important as a breeding area 

for the False Gharial Tomistoma schlegelii. 



References: FAO (1986); MacKinnon & Artha (l982a). 



Wetland name: Bakau Selat Dumai 


Coordinates: l°35'N, l0l°25'E; 

Location: on the mainland coast near Pulau Rupat, Kabupaten Bengkalis, Riau Province, Sumatra. 

Area: 60,000 ha. 




Description of site: A large area of rich and almost undisturbed mangrove forest (20,000 ha) and 

peat swamp forest (40,000 ha) on the mainland coast of Sumatra, opposite the island of Pulau 

Rupat. 


Principal vegetation: Mangrove forest and peat swamp forest. 




Margasatwa). 

Land use: Fisheries and coastal protection. 

Disturbances and threats: There are some new coastal settlements in the area, and plans have 

been made to exploit the forestry resources. 

Economic and social values: The mangroves provide breeding and nursery grounds for 

economically important marine fishes and crustaceans. 

Fauna: The area is known to be rich in water birds and other wildlife, including the Estuarine 

Crocodile Crocodylus porosus, but no details are available. 





Source: Marcel J. Silvius.

Wetland name: Danau Toba 


Coordinates: 2°20'-2°55'N, 98°3l'-99°09'E; 

Location: 80 km south of Medan, North Sumatra. 

Area: c.135,000 ha. 

Altitude: 900m. 


Wetland type: 14. 

Description of site: A very large volcanic caldera lake in northern Sumatra, about 90 km long and 

up to 30 km wide; the largest and deepest lake in Southeast Asia. The lake is surrounded by steep 

slopes (the old crater walls) and peaks rising to 2,150m. There is a large island, Pulau Samosir 

(63,000 ha), rising to 1,685m in the centre of the lake. The maximum depth is about 450m. The 

lake is fed by local run-off; its outlet at the southeast corner flows into the Asahan River which 

drains northeast into the Strait of Malacca. A 200m high waterfall on the Asahan River, upriver 

from Balige, is the largest waterfall in Southeast Asia. 

Climatic condition: No information 

Principal vegetation: No information is available on the aquatic vegetation. The alluvial plain at 

the edge of the lake is under cultivation for rice, cloves and coconuts. Surrounding slopes are 

covered in grassland with some coniferous plantations. 

Land tenure: State owned. 



Land use: Outdoor recreation and tourism, particularly around the town of Prapat on the east 

shore and on Pulau Samosir, and fishing on a very small scale; agriculture and forestry in 


Disturbances and threats: All mountain slopes around the lake have been cleared by burning, and 

soil erosion may be a problem. There is some pollution and littering near the main towns such as 

Prapat. 

Economic and social values: A very important area for tourism, and the home of the Taba Batak 

tribe (about one million people). The Taba Batak are possibly the descendants of the first Batak 

people, a group of wandering neolithic mountain-dwellers from northern Thailand and Burma who 

settled in the region about 1,500 years ago. Their former animist religion (now Christian), 

cannibalistic tendencies and interesting artefacts make the Bataks of great interest to 

anthropologists and the general public alike. 

Fauna: Very little information is available. The isolated nature of the lake would suggest that 

there may be some endemism in the fish fauna. Very few water birds were observed during a brief 

survey of Pulau Samosir in December 1986. However, the marshes along the southwestern shore 

of the lake could be of considerable importance for waterfowl. 




Criteria for inclusion: lb, le. 

Source: Duncan Parish. 

Wetland name: Belawan (Timur Laut) 


Coordinates: 3°45'N, 98°45'E;

Location: north of Medan, Kabupaten Langkat, on the east coast of Sumatra Utara Province, 

Sumatra. 

Area: 15,765 ha. 




Description of site: A large area of mangrove forest (9,000 ha), with adjacent sandy beaches and 

remnants of dry beach forest. The terrestrial forests inland from the site have now been cleared for 

agriculture. 


Principal vegetation: Mangrove forest; some Casuarina equisetifolia forest in sandy areas. 


Conservation measures taken: The area has been protected as a Wildlife Reserve since 1980. 

Conservation measures proposed: It has been recommended that the wardening of the reserve be 

improved, and that degraded portions of the reserve be reafforested. 

Land use: Fishing for prawns in surrounding areas. 

Disturbances and threats: Clearance of mangroves for agriculture. 

Economic and social values: The mangrove is important in maintaining the local prawn fishery. 

Fauna: No information is available on the waterfowl. Sea-turtles are reported to nest on the sandy 

beaches. 

Special floral values: One of the few surviving large stands of mangrove forest on the east coast 

of Sumatra Utara Province. 


References: MacKinnon & Artha (l982a); Salm & Halim (1984). 



Wetland name: Pulau Simeulue 



Location: 120 km off the mainland coast, Kabupaten Aceh Barat, Aceh Province, Sumatra. 

Area: 25,000 ha. 

Altitude: Sea level to 332m. 



Description of site: An island with lowland forests, hill forests and about 1,000 ha of mangrove 

forests. The site includes a small freshwater lake, Danau Laut Tawar. 


Principal vegetation: Mangrove forest. 



Conservation measures proposed: Wind (1980) and Mitchell (1981) have proposed that the 

island be designated as a Wildlife Reserve (Suaka Margasatwa). 


Disturbances and threats: Land conversion and hunting. The possible introduction of animals 

from the mainland is a permanent threat. 

Economic and social values: No information.

Fauna: The island fauna is very distinct, showing a high degree of endemism at the subspecies 

level and possessing some endemic species. Endemic mammals include a curious macaque 

monkey Macaca sp and a dwarf pig Sus celebensis mimus. 


Research and facilities: Preliminary surveys have been carried out by Wind (1980) and Mitchell 

(1981). 

References: MacKinnon & Artha (1982a); Mitchell (1981); Wind (1980). 

Criteria for inclusion: lb, 2d. 


Wetland name: Singkil Barat 


Coordinates: 2°l5'-2°50'N, 97°40'-97°52'E; 

Location: near the town of Singkil, Kabupaten Aceh Selatan, Aceh Province, Sumatra. 

Area: 65,000 ha. 




Description of site: An excellent, relatively undisturbed area of beach forest communities and 

freshwater swamp forests on soils of low agricultural potential. 


Principal vegetation: Beach vegetation (4,000 ha) and fresh water swamp forest (55,000 ha). 



Conservation measures proposed: The area has been proposed as a Nature Reserve (Cagar 

Alam). 


Disturbances and threats: Land conversion. 


Fauna: No information. 

Special floral values: The site contains the best surviving examples of beach vegetation and 

freshwater swamp forest in Aceh Province. 

Research and facilities: Binnie and Partners (Overseas) Ltd and Hunting Technical Services Ltd 

have carried out a study of the region's water resources and potentially irrigable land. 

References: MacKinnon & Artha (1982a). 

Criteria for inclusion: lb. 


Wetland name: Taitai Batti and Pulau Siberut 


Coordinates: 0°55'- 1°50'S, 98°34'-99°20'E; 

Location: Kabupaten Padang Pariaman (Pulau Siberut), Sumatra Barat Province, Sumatra. 

Area: Area of wetlands unknown; Wildlife Reserve 96,500 ha. 




Description of site: Pulau Siberut is a sedimentary island of relatively recent origin. The east coast 

is slowly subsiding, and this is resulting in a very irregular coastline of bays, capes, islets and coral

eefs. By contrast, the west coast is rather straight and is lined with broad sandy beaches and steep 

cliffs. The vegetation consists of well formed lowland forests including Dipterocarpus forest, 

swampy sago forest (3,000 ha) and freshwater swamp forest. There is some mangrove forest on the 

east coast, and some Barringtonia forest on the west coast. 

Climatic conditions: Wet equatorial climate with no pronounced dry season; the average annual 

rainfall is 3,320 mm. 

Principal vegetation: Mangrove forest on the east coast of the island is dominated by Rhizophora 

sp, Bruguiera sp and Nypa fruticans. The freshwater swamp forest is dominated by Terminalia 

phellocarpa. Barringtonia forest on the west coast is dominated by species of Barringtonia, 

Casuarina, Callophyllum, Shorea, Dialium, Dipterocarpus and Oncosperma. 


Conservation measures taken: Some 96,500 ha of the island have been protected as a Wildlife 

Reserve (Suaka Margasatwa) since 1976. 

Conservation measures proposed: It has been proposed to extend the reserve. The extra areas 

would include the adjacent coastal waters as a Marine Park. 

Land use: Wildlife management. 

Disturbances and threats: Land conversion, logging activities, transmigration, introduction of 

exotic species, collection of forest products such as rattans, and the cutting of mangroves. 

Economic and social values: The island has high potential for tourism. 

Fauna: Many species of reef fish are known to occur in the surrounding waters. A wide variety of 

sea-birds and waterfowl have been recorded including Sula sula, Fregata ariel, Egretta sacra, E. 

alba, Ardea sumatrana, Ciconia episcopus, Dendrocygna javanica, Esacus magnirostris, Limosa 

lapponica, Tringa totanus, Xenus cinereus, Actitis hypoleucos and Sterna bergii. Other birds 

associated with the wetlands include the sea-eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster, the kingfishers Alcedo 

atthis, Halcyon chloris, and the whistler Pachycephala cinerea. 

About 60% of the land mammals are endemic at some level. They include Hylobates klossii, 

Presbytis potensiani, Simias concolor, Macaca pagensis, Aeromys sp, Aonyx sp and Paradoxurus 

hermaphroditus. Marine mammals in the adjacent seas include Dugong dugon, Delphinus sp, 

Stenella sp and Grampus sp. 

Reptiles and amphibians include the Estuarine Crocodile Crocodylus porosus, the sea turtles 

Chelonia mydas, Eretmochelys imbricata and Dermochelys coriaceae, and species of Gekko, 

Hemidactylus, Mabuya, Rana, Spinella, Philantus, Python, Geomyda and Draco. 


Research and facilities: Some faunal and floral surveys have been carried out. 

References: Direktorat P.P.A. (1981b); IUCN (in prep); MacKinnon & Artha (l982a); WWF 

(1980 & 1982). 

Criteria for inclusion: lb. 2a, 2b, 2d, 3b. 


Wetland name: Muara Siberut 


Coordinates: l°l3'-1°38'S, 99°02'-99°15'E; 

Location: on the east coast of Pulau Siberut, Kabupaten Padang Pariaman, Sumatra Barat 


Area: 7,500 ha of mangrove swamp, beach vegetation and coral gardens. 



Wetland type: 01, 02, 05 & 07.

Description of site: An area of mangrove swamps, beach vegetation and 2,000 ha of shallow 

inshore waters with extensive coral reefs on the east coast of Siberut Island. The site includes the 

large estuarine system of the Sarabua River, with its bays, capes and small islands, some with and 

some without mangrove swamp, patches of coral reef and large tracts of submarine limestone 

terraces. There are few rivers in the area, the main one being Sungai Sarabua which flows into 

Teluk Sarabua. There is a high rate of erosion and accretion in the area. 

Climatic conditions: Rather wet tropical climate with no pronounced dry season. The annual 

rainfall exceeds 3,000 mm. 

Principal vegetation: Mangrove communities with Rhizopliora mucronala, R. apiculata, R. 

conjugata, Avicennia sp, Bruguiera sp, Sonneratia alba, Nypa fruticans and Callophyllum 

urophyllum. The dominant vegetation in adjacent areas includes Baringtonia asiatica, Hibiscus 

tiliaceus, Pandanus tectorius, Casuarina equisetifolia, Pemphis acidula, Vitex trifolia, Spirifex 

littoreus and Pometia pinnata. 

Land tenure: State owned (Local Government of Siberut). 



Alam). Specific sites within the Sarabua estuary (Teluk Sarabua) have been proposed as Marine 

Conservation Areas. 

Land use: Fisheries, especially traditional fisheries; agriculture and forestry in surrounding areas. 

Disturbances and threats: Cutting of mangroves, destruction of coral reefs, logging operations 

and hunting. 

Economic and social values: An important area for its fisheries and for tourism and other outdoor 

recreation. The site has considerable potential for conservation education and scientific research. 

Fauna: The inshore waters and coral reefs support a very rich fish fauna including parrot fish 

(Scaridae), wrass (Labridae), damsel fish (Paracentridae), butterfly angel fish (Chaetodontidae), 

snake eel (Ophichthyidae), shark (Carcharihinidae), Platax sp (Ephipidae), Acanthurus sp 

(Acanthuridae), Lutjanus spilurus (Lutjanidae), Dasyatis sp (Dasyatidae), and Caranx sp 

(Carangidae). 

Sea-birds and waterfowl include Phalacrororax sp, Sula sula, Fregata arid, Egretta sacra, Ardea 

sumatrana, Ciconia episcopus, Plegadis falcinellus, Actitis hypoleucos and Sterna spp. The coastal 

waters are very heavily utlized by cetaceans. Other mammals include the Dugong Dugong dugon, 

Presbytis potenzianni, Macaca pagensis, Sus sp, Cervus sp and Muntiacus muntjak. Reptiles 

include the Estuarine Crocodile Crocodylus porosus, the sea-turtles Chelonia mydas, Dermochelys 

coriaceae, Maticora sp and Cerberus rhynchops. Invertebrates include Tridacna sp, Holothuria sp, 

Rynchia laevigata, Anthipates sp, Hipocampus sp and Nautilus sp. 


Research and facilities: Some faunal and floral surveys have been carried out. 

References: Direktorat P.P.A. (undated); MacKinnon & Artha (l982a). 

Criteria for inclusion: 1b, 2a, 2b, 3b. 


Wetland name: Lunang 


Coordinates: 2°l5'S, l0l°00'E; 

Location: Kabupaten Pesisir Selatan, Sumatra Barat Province, approximately 7 km from the 

border with the Jambi Province, Sumatra. 

Area: 17,700 ha. 

Altitude: Near sea level. 

Biogeographical province: 4.2 1.12.


Description of site: A flat, swampy area with extensive peat swamp forests, near the coast of 

Tanjung Batu. The evergreen vegetation grows to a height of about 30m. The soils consist of 

organosolen and glei-humus. 


Principal vegetation: Peat swamp forests dominated by Litsea sp, Shorea javanica, Santeria 

oblongifolia and Gluta renghas. 


Conservation measures taken: The area was established as protection forest by Government 

Besluit in April 1921. 


Alam). 

Land use: Preservation of threatened habitats and their associated fauna and flora. 

Disturbances and threats: Drainage of swamps for agriculture, logging and illegal cutting, 

cultivation and ladang encroachment, and poaching. 

Economic and social values: A valuable genetic resource, important for scientific research. 

Fauna: The area supports a rich fauna with many protected species. Mammals include Macaca sp, 

Hylobates sp, Sus sp, Panthera tigris, Aonyx sp, Manis javanica and Cuon javanicus. Little 

information is available on the waterfowl, but Egretta garzetta, Ciconia episcopus and 

Dendrocygna sp are known to occur. 



References: Direktorat P.P.A. (1979d). 



Wetland name: Wetlands in Kerinci-Sablat Nature Reserve 


Coordinates: 1°3O'-2°4O'S, 101°00'-lO1°5O'E; 

Location: part of the Bukit Barisan mountain chain, Sumatra Barat, Jambi, Bengkulu and Sumatra 

Selatan Provinces, Sumatra. 

Area: Area of wetlands unknown; Nature Reserve 1,484,600 ha. 

Altitude: 50-3,000m (including the highest peak in Sumatra). 


Wetland type: 11, 12, 14 & 22. 

Description of site: The Kerinci-Sablat Nature Reserve is situated in the Bukit Barisan mountain 

range between Bengkulu and Padang. It incorporates the undisturbed forests in the main water 

catchment areas for the extensive settled region of southern Sumatra. The reserve includes some of 

the most outstanding scenery in Sumatra, including a 3,000m high volcano (Indrapura), numerous 

rivers, many lakes and extensive montane and lowland forests. It is characterized by alternating 

high massifs and alluvial plains, producing steep slopes with broad alluvial fans at their base. 

Many large rivers, including the Batang, Musi and Teba, have their headwaters in this region. The 

largest lake in the reserve is Kerinci Lake. This lies in a flat-bottomed valley at an elevation of 

783m; it is about 9.5 km long by 6 km wide, and 110m deep. The lake lies within the Kerinci 

Enclave, a cultivated area of 140,000 ha inside the reserve. Gunung Tujuh Lake, a crater lake at 

1,996m elevation, is one of the last undisturbed mountain lakes in Sumatra. It is approximately 

1,000 ha in area, and 8-40m deep. Other lakes include Danau Lamkat, Danau Sati, Danau Ladeh 

Panjang, Danau Dua, Danau Kecil, Danau Pauh and Danau Dipatjampat. Danau Bentu (Sangir 

Hulu), a high altitude forested bog, is of considerable botanical interest.

Climatic conditions: Humid tropical to temperate climate, depending on altitude. In the western 

part of the reserve, the rainfall reaches a peak in April and again in November. The average 

temperature in the lowlands is 28°C. 

Principal vegetation: The main vegetation types within the reserve are lowland rain forest, 

sub-montane rain forest, montane rain forest, cloud forest, riverine forest, swamp forest and 

highland bog forest. 

Land tenure: The site is state owned (PHPA); surrounding areas are owned by the local people 

and the Indonesian Government. 

Conservation measures taken: The site has been afforded some protection since 1929, and was 

designated as a Nature Reserve (Cagar Alam) in 1980. 

Conservation measures proposed: A proposal has been made to upgrade the reserve to the status 

of National Park (Taman Nasional). A buffer zone management plan will be developed for the 

Kerinci Enclave. 

Land use: Nature reserve; rice is cultivated in the Kerinci Enclave. There are numerous small 

settlements around the perimeter of the reserve. 

Disturbances and threats: The most serious threat is continuing expansion of the Kerinci 

Enclave, as agricultural land encroaches further and further into the forest. There are seven other 

settlements with a total population of over 1,100 people within the area of the proposed National 

Park. Logging is a problem in the west coast lowlands, and the present levels of wardening and law 

enforcement are inadequate. The introduced aquatic weed Eichhornia crassipes has become a pest 

in Kerinci Lake. 

Economic and social values: The reserve is of considerable geological, botanical and zoological 

interest, and has considerable potential for outdoor recreation and tourism. It is extremely 

important for watershed protection, and constitutes an important gene pool, particularly for 

commercial timber species and rattans. 

Fauna: No information is available on the fishes. The reserve supports an extremely rich avifauna, 

including six species of kingfishers (Alcedinidae), five species of hornbills (Bucerotidae), and 

several very rare species such as Salvadori's Pheasant Lophura inornata and the scops owl Otus 

stresemanni (known from only one specimen collected in this area). The reserve is, however, of 

only limited importance for waterfowl; species known to occur include Egretta intermedia, 

Gallinula chloropus and Gallinago gallinago. 

The mammalian fauna is also very rich. The reserve contains probably the world's largest 

contiguous population of the Asian Two-horned Rhinoceros Dicerorhinus sumatrensis, estimated 

at between 250 and 500 individuals. Other vulnerable or rare mammals include Tiger, 

Asian Elephant, Tapir, Clouded Leopard, Siamang, Dark-handed Gibbon and Serow (Panthera 

tigris, Elephas maximus, Tapirus indicus, Neofelis nebulosa, Symphalangus syndactylus, 

Hylobates agilis and Capricornis sumatrensis). The Sumatran Hare Nesolagus netscheri (endemic 

to Sumatra) may have its last refuge in the reserve. 

Reptiles include Varanus salvator, Python reticulatus and Dryophis prasinnus. Frogs are common 

everywhere in the reserve. 

Special floral values: The forested bog at Danau Bentu (Sangir Hulu) is claimed to be the highest 

forested marsh in western Indonesia. Unfortunately, much of the bog has been destroyed for rice 

cultivation during the last decade. The exceptionally rich flora of the Nature Reserve includes the 

world's largest flower, Rafflesia arnoldi, and the world's tallest flower, Amorphophallus titanum. 

Research and facilities: Various brief faunal and floral surveys have been carried out in the 

Nature Reserve, e.g. by Frey-Wyssling in 1933, Jacobs in 1958, Borner in 1973, Meyer in 1977, 

and Ohsawa and Suharto in 1979. The reserve has been selected as a study area for a long term 

research programme under the "Tropenbos-programme", a joint effort between several Dutch 

research institutes and universities. The programme was scheduled to begin in 1987. 

References: Blouch (1985); IUCN (in prep); MacKinnon & Artha (1982a).

Criteria for inclusion: la, 1b, le, 2a, 2b. 


Wetland name: Dusun Besar 


Coordinates: c.3°55'S, 102°20'E; 

Location: near Bengkulu, Kabupaten Bengkulu Utara, Bengkulu Province, Sumatra. 

Area: 441.5 ha. 

Altitude: 1.5m. 



Description of site: A small freshwater lake surrounded by Vanda hookeriana and Rafflesia 

flowers. 


Principal vegetation: Vanda hookeriana and Rafflesia spp. 


Conservation measures taken: The lake was designated as a Nature Reserve (Cagar Alam) in 

June 1936 and renotified in 1981. 



Disturbances and threats: Encroachment of ladangs and the stealing of timber. 



Special floral values: The wetland supports a variety of rare flowering plants such as Vanda 

hookeriana and Rafflesia spp. 



Criteria for inclusion: lb, 2a, 2b. 


Wetland name: Krakatau 



Location: in the Sunda Strait, 40 km off the southern tip of mainland Sumatra, South Lampung 

District, Lampung Province, Sumatra. 

Area: 13,735 ha. 




Description of site: The Krakatau Islands are situated in the Sunda Strait. The islands (three in 

total) are geologically unique, and offer a unique possibility for ecological research on 

colonization by animal and plant species. The vegetation consists of grasslands, beach 

communities and lowland rain forest with some small patches of mangrove swamp. 

Climatic conditions: Humid tropical climate with an annual rainfall of 1,000-2,000 mm. Average 

temperatures range from 29.9°C to 34.1°C; the relative humidity varies from 70-81%. 

Principal vegetation: Mangrove vegetation consisting of species of Rhizophora, Bruguiera and 

Avicennia. Other plant communities include grasslands dominated by Imperata cylindrica and

Ischaemum sp, dry beach vegetation dominated by Casuarina equisetifolia with Spirifex littoreus, 

Ipomoea pescaprae, Pandanus tectorius and Hibiscus tiliaceus, and lowland rain forest. 


Conservation measures taken: A Nature Reserve of 2,500 ha was established in 1919. The 

islands are managed as part of Ujung Kulon National Park. Conservation measure proposed: It has 

been proposed to extend the protected area seaward. 


Land use: Protected area; fishing in the surrounding seas. 

Disturbances and threats: Harvesting of turtle eggs, use of explosives for fishing, pollution and 

illegal visitors. 

Economic and social values: The islands have high aesthetic, geological and historial values, and 

are of outstanding importance for scientific research. 

Fauna: Many species of reef fish occur in the waters around the islands. The avifauna includes a 

variety of sea-birds and waterfowl such as Fregata ariel, Egretta sacra, Amaurornis phoenicurus, 

Esacus magnirostris and Actitis hypoleucos. Birds of prey include Haliastur indus and Jctinaetus 

malayanus. Dolphins are common in the surrounding seas and a species of rat Rattus is present on 

the islands. Reptiles include the monitor lizard Varanus salvator and the sea-turtles Chelonia 

mydas and Eretmochelys imbricata. Invertebrates include Panulirus spp and Lambis lambis. 



References: BKSDA 11(1983); Direktorat P.P.A. (l983a); Thorton (1986). 

Criteria for inclusion: 1b, 2a, 2c. 


Wetland name: Pulau Panaitan 


Coordinates: 6°32'-6°40'S, 10504'-105°14'E; 

Location: off the extreme western tip of Java, north of Ujung Kulon National Park, West Java. 

Area: 17,500 ha, including 1,700 ha of mangrove swamp. 



Wetland type: 01, 05, 07 & 21. 

Description of site: Panaitan is a relatively large offshore island, some 10 km northwest of Ujung 

Kulon. It has sandy beaches, a large shallow bay with mangrove swamps, and hills rising to 320m. 

The terrestrial vegetation consists of dry beach forest and lowland rain forest. 

Climatic conditions: Humid tropical maritime climate with an average annual rainfall of 3,140 

mm. 

Principal vegetation: Mangrove forest with Sonneratia spp, Avicennia sp and Nypa fruticans. Dry 

beach forest on the coastal sand dunes is dominated by Pandanus tectorius, Barringlonia asiatica, 

Hibiscus tiliaceus and Terminalia catappa. The shoreline is often fringed with Calophyllum 

inophyllum. The rain forest is characterized by an abundance of palms, notably species of Arenga 

and Oncosperma. 

Land tenure: State owned; managed by PHPA. 

Conservation measures taken: The island has been protected as a Nature Reserve since 1921, 

and was declared a National Park in March 1980. 

Conservation measures proposed: It has been proposed that the inshore waters surrounding the 

National Park be designated as a Marine Park. 

Land use: Nature conservation and wilderness zone; fishing in the adjacent seas.

Disturbances and threats: Fishing within the park boundaries, oil pollution from passing tankers, 

the collection of seaweed, and the illegal collection of firewood. 

Economic and social values: The island has high scenic values and has considerable potential for 

outdoor recreation, conservation education and scientific research. 

Fauna: Fishes include Chaetodon spp, Balistoides niger, Pomaeanthus spp, Platax firmaetus, 

Asiochus sp, Acanthurus spp, Seorus spp and Ctenochaitus strigonis. 

The island is important for a variety of waterfowl and sea-birds including Phalacrocorax 

sulcirostris, Anhinga melanogaster, Fregata ariel, Nycticorax nycticorax, Ardeola speciosa, 

Egretta sacra, Ardea cinerea, A. sumatrana, Mycteria cinerea, Charadrius mongolus, Numenius 

phaeopus, Actitis hypoleucos and Sterna spp. Other birds include birds of prey such as Pandion 

haliaetus, Haliastur indus, Haliaeetus leucogaster, Jchthyophaga ichthyaetus and Falco 

peregrinus, and the kingfisher Halcyon coromanda. 

Mammals known to occur on the island include Sus scrofa, Tragulus javanicus, Muntiacus 

munijak, Callosciurus notatis, Paradoxurus herrnaphroditus, Macaca fascicularis, Ratula bicolor, 

Cuon alpinus and Panthera pardus. Reptiles and amphibians include Varanus salvator and species 

of Mabouya, Python, Rana. 



References: Blower & van der Zon (1978); Hoogerwerf (1953). 


Source: Marcel J. Silvius, Edi Djuharsa and Agustinus W. Taufik. 

Wetland name: Rawa Danau 



Location: 20 km WSW of Serang, West Java. 

Area: 2,500 ha. 




Description of site: A freshwater lake, about 10 km long, and surrounding freshwater swamp 

forests; one of the few such areas in Java which has not been converted into wet rice cultivation. 

Fifteen small rivers drain into the lake from the surrounding hills (up to 200m in altitude). There is 

only one outlet, the Cidana River, which leaves the lake via a 12m waterfall at Curuk Betung, and 

flows into the Cimanuk. The lake has a maximum depth of about 5m. 

Climatic conditions: Humid tropical climate with a dry season between April and October. 

Temperatures range from 26-33°C. 

Principal vegetation: Freshwater swamp forests with a variety of unusual species such as Alstonia 

spatulata and Ficus retusa. Eichhornia crassipes is common in the lake. 


Conservation measures taken: The wetland has been protected as a Nature Reserve (Cagar 

Alarn) since 1921. 


Land use: Agriculture and housing in surrounding areas. 

Disturbances and threats: Agricultural encroachment. Various development projects, such as the 

construction of hydro-electric dams, the enlarging of the lake's outlet for rice irrigation, and the 

piping of water to the steel mills at Cilegon, are likely to have an impact on the wetland in the 

future.

Economic and social values: The lake constitutes an important water supply for the local steel 

industry. 

Fauna: An important area for a variety of waterfowl including Phalacrocorax spp, Anhinga 

melanogaster, Ixobrychus sinensis, I. cinnamomeus, Nycticorax nycticorax, Bubulcus ibis, Egretta 

spp, Ardea purpurea, A. cinerea, Gallinula chloropus and Porphyrio porphyrio. Mammals include 

the leaf monkeys Presbytis aygula and P. cristatus, and reptiles, the monitor lizard Varanus 

salvator. 

Special floral values: The freshwater swamp forest, particularly that found in the southeastern 

portion of the Nature Reserve, is of great botanical interest in that it includes several tree species, 

such as Aistonia spatulata and Ficus retusa, which are rare elsewhere in Java. Other notable 

species include Alocasia bantamnensis and a subspecies of Coix lachryma-jobi. 


References: Endert (1932); Hoogerwerf (1935); IUCN (in prep); Milton (1984). 

Criteria for inclusion: lb. 2b, 3b. 


Wetland name: Pulau Dua 


Coordinates: 6°01'S, l06°12'E; 

Location: in Banten Bay on the north coast of Java, 70 km west of Jakarta, West Java. 

Area: 30 ha. 



Wetland type: 03, 04, 05, 06 & 07. 

Description of site: Pulau Dua is a low-lying island of about eight ha, the northern part of which 

consists mainly of mangrove forest. Parts of the island which were once cultivated are now 

covered in secondary scrub. Pulau Dua and a small coral island (Pulau Satu) lying approximately 

600m to the east are included in a Nature Reserve which also includes a 200m wide buffer zone 

extending southward into the area of fishponds on the adjacent coast. 

Climatic conditions: Humid tropical maritime climate with an annual rainfall of 1,000-2,500 mm, 

the rain falling throughout the year. Average temperatures range from 18-22°C. 

Principal vegetation: Mangrove communities: Avicennia marina is dominant in the younger 

stands of forest; older stands include Rhizophora spp, Lumnitzera racemosa, Aegiceras 

corniculatum, Sonneratia alba, Bruguiera cylindrica and Avicennia marina. Secondary growth in 

areas of abandoned cultivation is dominated by Hibiscus tiliaceus, with Sterculia foetida, 

Allophylus cobbe, Ixora timorensis, Tamarindus indicus and Erythrina sp. 


Conservation measures taken: Pulau Dua (8 ha) has been protected as a Nature Reserve since 

1937. In December 1984, the protected area was extended to 30 ha by including the Avicennia 

marina forest. 


Land use: Nature conservation; aquaculture, fisheries and recreation in surrounding areas. 

Disturbances and threats: Disturbance from fishing activities close to the island, collection of 

birds' eggs for human consumption, the cutting of firewood, and the conversion of mangrove areas 

to fishponds. Visiting tourists, scientists and students cause a considerable amount of disturbance 

to the breeding birds. 

Economic and social values: The island has great potential for tourism because of its large 

waterfowl populations. The area has high scientific value as one of the major waterbird colonies in 

Java, and has a long history of scientific research.

Fauna: Pulau Dua is one of the two most important breeding sites for colonially nesting 

cormorants, herons, egrets, storks and ibises in Java. In 1985, there were at least 7,500 nests of 11 

species: Phalacrocorax niger, Ixobrychus cinnamomeus, Nycticorax nycticorax, Butorides striatus, 

Ardeola speciosa, Bubulcus ibis, Egretta sacra, E. garzetta, E. alba, Ardea sumatrana and 

Plegadis falcinellus. Five species which formerly bred on the island, Anhinga melanogaster, Ardea 

purpurea, Mycteria cinerea, Threskiornis melanocephalus and Platalea leucorodia, have ceased to 

do so, probably because of excessive disturbance. A sixth species, E. garzetta has also ceased to 

breed in recent years. Other water birds which have been recorded in the reserve include Fregata 

andrewsi, Anas gibberifrons, Pandion haliaetus, Haliastur indus, Redlus striatus, Pluvialis 

dominica, Charadrius mongolus, Numenius phaeopus, Tringa nebularia, T. glareola, Actitis 

hypoleucos and Calidris ruficollis. 

Reptiles include Varanus salvator and Mabouya multifasciata. 


Research and facilities: Ailport and Wilson (1986) carried out a waterfowl survey in 1985. 

References: Allport & Wilson (1986); Direktorat P.P.A. (1978a & 1980f); Milton & Marhardi 

(1985 & 1986). 

Criteria for inclusion: lb. 2b, 2c, 3a. 


Wetland name: Pulau Rambut 



Location: in the Seribu Islands (Kepulauan Seribu) in Jakarta Bay, 25 km northwest of Jakarta, 

West Java. 

Area: 56 ha island with 18 ha of mangroves. 




Description of site: A small low-lying coral atoll with mangrove forests, dense primary forest and 

large areas of secondary shrub produced by old shifting cultivation in the centre of the island. Most 

of the island is subject to tidal inundation. 

Climatic conditions: Tropical monsoonal climate. 



Conservation measures taken: The island is protected as a Nature Reserve (Cagar Alam), and 

wardened by a PHPA guard. 

Conservation measures proposed: It is recommended that the presence of the PHPA guard on 

the island be increased, and that all fish wires be removed from within the boundaries of the 

Nature Reserve. A research programme should be initiated to monitor the levels of heavy metals 

and organo-chlorines in the eggs of nesting water birds. 

Land use: Nature reserve. 

Disturbances and threats: Visitors to the island, including fishermen, cause disturbance to the 

nesting birds. There are still some ten feral house cats of both sexes present on the island. There 

are high levels of heavy metal and organic pollution in Jakarta Bay. 


Fauna: The island supports one of the two largest breeding colonies of large water birds in Java. 

Breeding species include Phalacrocorax niger, Anhinga melanogaster, Nycticorax nycticorax, 

Bubulcus ibis, Egretta sacra, E. garzetta, E. intermedia, E. alba, Ardea purpurea, A. cinerea and 

Mycteria cinerea. Other species which have been recorded on the island include Fregata andrewsi,

F. ariel, Butorides striatus, Ardeola speciosa, Ardea sumatrana, Leptoptilos javanicus, 

Threskiornis melanocephalus, Plegadis falcinellus, Haliastur indus, Haliaeetus leucogaster, 

Heliopais personata, Pluvialis dominica, Numenius phaeopus, N. arquata and Actitis hypoleucos. 

There is a roost of about 20,000 flying foxes Pteropus vampyrus in Sterculia trees, and the monitor 

lizard Varanus salvator is very common throughout the island. 


Research and facilities: Several waterfowl surveys have been carried out. 

References: Allport & Wilson (1986); Karpowicz (1985); Milton & Marhardi (1984). 

Criteria for inclusion: 1b, 2a, 2b, 2c, 3b. 

Source: Marcel J. Silvius and Eva T. Berczy. 

Wetland name: Muara Gembong 



Location: 25 km northeast of Jakarta, Kabupaten Bekasi, West Java. 

Area: 10,481 ha (undisturbed area c.l,000 ha). 



Wetland type: 02, 07, 10, 11 & 21. 

Description of site: A large estuarine zone of tidal mudflats, fishponds and degraded mangrove 

scrub, with a patch of relatively undisturbed mangrove forest and freshwater swamp on the 

northern shore. 

Climatic conditions: Tropical monsoonal climate with the annual rainfall varying from 1,500 to 

6,000 mm. The winds are westerly from December to February, and easterly in June and July. The 

temperature ranges from 23-32°C, the relative humidity from 77-99%. 

Principal vegetation: Mangrove communities with species of Rhizophora, Avicennia, Sonneratia, 

Bruguiera, and Nypa fruticans; freshwater swamp with Acanthus sp, Fimbristylis dichotoma and 

Phragmites karka. 

Land tenure: State owned (Forest Management Unit III, West Java). 


Conservation measures proposed: The area has been proposed as a Nature Reserve. 

Land use: Aquaculture (fishponds) in adjacent areas. 

Disturbances and threats: Coastal erosion and pollution by waste from nearby settlements. 

Economic and social values: The mangrove forest plays a valuable role in protecting the coastline 

against erosion. 

Fauna: Waterfowl include Phalocrocorax sp, Nycticorax nycticorax, Bubulcus ibis, Egretta spp, 

Ardea sp, Mycteria cinerea, Leptoptilos javanicus, Plegadis falcinellus and many migratory 

shorebirds. Mammals include Macaca fascicularis, Presbytis cristata, Panthera pardus and Sus sp. 

Reptiles include Varanus salvator and Mabouya multifasciata. Invertebrates include Terebralia sp, 

Telescopium telescopium, Coluta sp, Cerithium sp, Neritunis violacea and Castidule sp. 



References: Allport & Wilson (1986). 



Wetland name: Tanjung Sedan 

Country: Indonesia


Location: 30 km northeast of Jakarta, Kabupaten Bakasi, West Java. 

Area: 8,200 ha. 



Wetland type: 02, 05, 06 & 07. 

Description of site: A mangrove area in the northern part of West Java, influenced by the Citarum 

River. In recent years, most of the mangrove swamp has been converted to aquaculture ponds. 

Only one small area (1,000 ha) of healthy mangrove forest remains, near Ujung Karawang in the 

Litarum Delta. 

Climatic conditions: Humid tropical climate with an annual rainfall varying from 1,500 mm to as 

much as 6,000 mm. The temperature ranges from 23-32°C, the relative humidity from 77-99%. 

Principal vegetation: Mangrove communities with species of Rhizophora, Avicennia, Sonneratia, 

Excoecaria, Aegiceras, Bruguiera, Acanthus and Cerops, Nypa fruticans, Derris trifoliata, Carex 

sp and Hibiscus tiliaceus. 

Land tenure: State owned (Bekasi Government). 



Alam). 

Land use: Fishing and aquaculture; agriculture in adjacent areas. 

Disturbances and threats: Felling of mangroves, encroachment by aquaculture ponds, and 

disposal of waste. 

Economic and social values: The mangrove swamp is an important breeding and nursery area for 

marine fishes and shrimps, including the fry used in the aquaculture schemes. The mangrove forest 

also serves a valuable function in controlling coastal erosion. 

Fauna: Economically important fishes include Panchax panchax, Dermagenys sp, Anabas sp, 

Trichogaster sp, Prisopthalmus sp, Chanos channos and Tilapia mossambica. 

The area is rich in water birds, particularly cormorants, herons, egrets and storks. Species known to 

occur include Phalacrocorax niger, P. sulcirostris, Anhinga melanogaster, Ixobrychus sinensis, 

Nycticorax nycticorax, Bubulcus ibis, Butorides striatus, Egretta sacra, E. garzetta, E. alba, Ardea 

purpurea, A. cinerea, A. sumatrana, Mycteria cinerea (20-25 individuals), Leptoptilos javanicus, 

Plegadis falcinellus, Dendrocygna javanica, Anas gibberifrons, Amaurornis phoenicurus and 

Himantopus himantopus. 

Mammals include Macaca fascicularis, Presbytis cristata, Fe/is marmorata and Sus sp. Reptile 

include Varanus salvator, Boiga dendrophila and Mabouya multifasciata. 



References: BKSDA III (1983). 


Source: Marcel J. Silvius, Agus Marhardi and Edi Djuharsa. 

Wetland name: Muara Bobos 



Location: 100 km east of Jakarta, Kabupaten Subang and Karawang, West Java. 

Area: 1,000 ha. 



Wetland type: 02, 05, 07, 10 & 11.

Description of site: A coastal area of swamps, fishponds, canals and rivers, with some good 

patches of mangrove forest. Part of the coastline is eroding, in particular near the mouths of the 

Cilamayu, Poponcol and Bobos Rivers. 


temperatures range from 26°C to 32°C; the average relative humidity is 80%. 

Principal vegetation: Mangrove swamps with Avicennia alba, A. officinalis, Bruguiera 

gymnorhiza, B. sexangula, B. parviflora, Rhizophora apiculata, R. mucronata, Excoecaria 

agallocha, Sonneratia acida, Lumnitzera littorea, Ceriops tagal and Acanthus illicifolius; fresh to 

brackish swamps and marshes with Pluchea indica, Derris heterophylla, Portulaca aleracea, 

Scirpus littoralis, S. grossus, Paspalum vaginatum, Fibristylis spathacea, F. polyfrichoides, 

Dolichandrone spathacea, Acrostichum aureum, Sesuvium portulacastrum and Suaeda maritina. 

Hibiscus tiliacea, Melaleuca sp and Pluchea indica in adjacent areas. 

Land tenure: State owned (Indonesian Government); managed by BKPH-Pamanukan, Forest 

Department Unit II, West Java. 

Conservation measures taken: The area was established as protection forest by the former 

Government of the Netherlands in 1915. 

Conservation measures proposed: The wetland has been proposed as a Nature Reserve (Cagar 

Alain). 

Land use: Aquaculture and fisheries; aquaculture, agriculture and fisheries in adjacent areas. 

Disturbances and threats: Cutting of trees for firewood. 

Economic and social values: The estuarine ecosystem is important as a breeding and nursery area 

for many marine fishes and crustaceans. 

Fauna: The wetland supports a wide variety of fishes and crustaceans of economic importance 

including Mugil cephalus, Anabas sp, Amblyrochotus sp, Periopthalmus sp, Ophiocephalus 

melanopterus, Therapen jarbus, Stolephorus sp, Mermogenys sp, Ostracion tuberculatus, 

Epinephalus sp, Panchax panchax, Lactoria cornuta, Siganus verniculator, Chanos chanos, 

Tilapia mossambica, Macrobrachium sp, Penaeus brevicornis, P. orientalis, Scylla serrata, Lates 

calcariforus and Neptunus pelagicus. 

The site is important for a wide variety of water birds including Phalacrocorax sp, Nycticorax 

nyclicorax, Ardeola speciosa, Butorides striatus, Egretta spp, Ardea purpurea, A. cinerea, 

Mycteria cinerea, Leptoptilos javanicus, Plegadis falcinellus, Threskiornis melanocephalus, 

Dendrocygna arcuata, D. javanica, Numenius phaeopus, Actitis hypoleucos and Sterna spp. The 

sea-eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster and the kingfishers Alcedo caerulescens and Halcyon chloris also 

occur in the area. 

Mammals include Felis sp, Sus sp, Macaca fascicularis and Ambyonix cinerea. Reptiles and 

amphibians include Testudo sp, Varanus sp, Boiga dendrophila, Mabouya multifasciata, Bufo 

melanostrictus and Rana limnocharis. 


Research and facilities: Several faunal and floral surveys have been carried out. Naamin (1987) 

has studied the impact of shrimp aquaculture on the mangrove ecosystem in Ciasem Bay. 

References: BKSDA III (1982a & l982b); Naamin (1987). 

Criteria for inclusion: 1b, 2a, 2b, 2c, 3b. 

Source: Marcel J. Silvius, Agus Marhardi and Edi Djuharsa. 

Wetland name: Muara Cimanuk 


Coordinates: 6°13'-6°20'S, lO8°O9'-lO8°l9'E; 

Location: 60 km NNW of Cirebon, Kabupaten Indramayu, West Java. 

Area: 7,127 ha.



Wetland type: 02, 05, 07, 10, 1 1 & 21. 

Description of site: An estuarine system with extensive mangrove forests, sandy beaches and 

some adjacent swamp forest. The area represents one of the largest remaining examples of 

mangrove swamp habitat on the north coast of Java. Large areas have, however, been reclaimed 

for fishponds and agricultural land, and only 1,000 ha of mangrove forest near the Cimanuk River 

remain in a healthy condition. The tidal range is O.5-lm. 

Climatic conditions: Humid tropical climate with an annual rainfall of 1,000-1,500 mm. The 

mean temperature is 27°C; the relative humidity varies from 65-78%. 

Principal vegetation: Mangrove forest with Rhizophora mucronata, R. conjugata, Avicennia sp, 

Bruguiera parviflora, B. gymnorhiza, Sonneratia alba, S. acida, Aegiceras corniculatum, Ceriops 

candoleana, Oncosperma filamentosa and Excoecaria agallocha. Plant communities in adjacent 

areas include Hibiscus tiliaceus, Xylocarpus granatum, Acrostichum aureum, Pandanus sp, Ficus 

retusa, Heritiera littoralis, Pluchea indica, Sesuvium portulacastrum, Pararnignya littoralis and 

Acanthus ilicifolius. 

Land tenure: State owned (Forestry Department). 


Conservation measures proposed: The site has been proposed as a mangrove conservation area. 

Land use: Some illegal exploitation of forest products; wet rice cultivation, fisheries, livestock 

grazing and forestry in surrounding areas. The hunting of waterfowl for human consumption is 

widespread in the area. 

Disturbances and threats: Illegal felling of mangrove for timber and firewood, high rates of 

siltation, enhanced natural flooding, expansion of fishponds, and pollution from waste disposal, 

rubbish tips and sewage. The hunting pressure on water birds is extremely heavy. In a recent study 

of waterbird hunting in northern Java, it was estimated that about 300,000 birds are trapped for 

food each year in the Cirebon-Indramayo region alone. Mobile teams of trappers use whistles and 

horns to attract the birds, which are then trapped in mist-nets. About 100,000 of these are 

shorebirds, particularly Oriental Pratincoles Glareola maldivarum. 

Economic and social values: The mangrove forest supports an important fishery resource. 

Fauna: The rich fish fauna includes Mugil cephalus, Ostracion tuberculatus, Chanos chanos, 

Ephinephalus sp, Tilapia mossambica, Lactoria cernuta, Siganus verniculator, Pletasus anguilaris 

and Periophthalamus sp. 

Water birds include Phalacrocorax sulcirostris, P. niger, Nycticorax nycticorax, N. caledonicus, 

Ardeola bacchus, A. speciosa, Egretta sacra, E. garzetta, Ardea purpurea, A. cinerea, Mycteria 

cinerea, Leptoptilos javanicus, Plegadis falcinellus, Threskiornis melanocephalus, Dendrocygna 

sp, Rostratula benghalensis, Numenius phaeopus, Tringa stagnatilis, Actitis hypoleucos and the 

kingfishers Alcedo caerulescens and Halcyon chioris. 

Mammals include Sus sp, Felis sp, Panthera pardus and Macaca fascicularis. Reptiles include 

Mabouya multifasciata, Varanus salvator, Python sp, Vipera russeli, Boiga dendrophylla and 

Trimeresurus albolabris. 


Research and facilities: Basic faunal and floral surveys have been carried out, and WWF, PHPA 

and the Asian Wetland Bureau have conducted a joint study of waterfowl hunting in the area. 

References: BKSDA III (l982c); Direktorat P.P.A. (1982/83); MacKinnon & Artha (l982b). 


Source: Agustinus W. Taufik, Edi Djuharsa and Agus Marhardi. 

Wetland name: Karimun Jawa Archipelago



Location: 70 km off the north coast of Central Java, Kabupaten Jepara, Central Java. 

Area: 7,026 ha. 



Wetland type: 03, 04, 05, 06 & 07. 

Description of site: The Karimun Jawa Islands comprise an archipelago of 27 small islets, of 

which Karimun Jawa is the largest. Only seven of the islands are inhabited. The vegetation consists 

mainly of mangrove and beach forest, although there is some lowland rain forest on Karimun 

Jawa. Most of the islands are surrounded by sandy beaches and fringing coral reefs. Fresh water is 

confined to a few small wells and forest streams on Karimun Jawa. The average tidal range is 92 

cm. 

Climatic conditions: Humid tropical maritime climate with an average annual rainfall of 2,632 

mm. Average temperatures range from 20-30°C. 

Principal vegetation: Mangrove forest with species of Rhizophora, Avicennia and Bruguiera; dry 

beach forest with Casuarina fistula, Barringtonia asiatica and Hibiscus tiliaceus. 


Conservation measures taken: The islands have been designated as a Marine Nature Reserve 

(Cagar Alam Laut). 


Land use: Wildlife conservation; there is some agriculture on the inhabited islands and fishing in 

the surrounding waters. 

Possible changes in Land use: There is a project to develop rice cultivation and aquaculture 

(fishponds) on the islands. 

Disturbances and threats: Cutting of mangroves for firewood; the collection of shells, 

particularly clams; the killing of sea-turtles and harvesting of their eggs; development of 

fishponds; dynamite fishing on the coral reefs. 

Economic and social values: The archipelago has considerable potential for scientific research. 

Fauna: The rich fish fauna includes many edible species and a great variety of ornamental fishes. 

Many water birds and sea-birds have been recorded including Phalacrocorax niger, Ixobrychus 

sinensis, I. eurhythmus, Ardeola speciosa, Egretta sacra, Pandion haliaetus, Esacus magnirostris, 

Glareola maldivarum, Numenius phaeopus, Gallinago stenura, Actitis hypoleucos, Sterna bergii, 

Anous stolidus and the kingfishers Halcyon sancta and H. chloris. 

Mammals include Felis bengalensis, Cervus timorensis, Muntiacus muntjak, Sus sp, Macaca sp 

and small cetaceans. 

The sandy beaches are important nesting sites for the sea-turtles Chelonia mydas and Eretmochelys 

imbricata. Other reptiles include Varanus salvator and Python sp. 

Invertebrates include Tridacna gigas. 


Research and facilities: Basic faunal and floral surveys have been carried out. 

References: Direktorat P.P.A. (1980g & 1986c). 

Criteria for inclusion: lb. 2a, 2c, 3b. 


Wetland name: Pulau Bawean 


Coordinates: 5°43'-5°52'S, 112°34'-112°48'E;

Location: in the Java Sea, 110 km north of mainland Java (150 km north of Surabaya) and about 

250 km south of Kalimantan, East Java. 

Area: Island 20,000 ha; Wildlife Reserve 1,220 ha; Telaga Kastoba Lake c.24 ha. 



Wetland type: 05, 07, 14 & 19. 

Description of site: The island of Bawean is the remains of an old volcano; it is roughly circular 

in shape with an average diameter of about 15 km and an area of about 20,000 ha. The oldest, 

outermost crater is no longer easily distinguishable, but a more recent crater containing the lake 

Telaga Kastoba is readily identifiable. This lake is about 600m long and 400m wide, and has a 

maximum depth of 140m. There are many streams and also hot springs in limestone areas at four 

different elevations on the island. In coastal areas, the soils consist of alluvial river deposits of grey 

clay; these are used for the cultivation of rice. There are many small patches of mangrove swamp 

around the coast. Most of the human population is concentrated near the coast and on the south 

side of the island. 

Climatic conditions: A rather dry tropical monsoonal climate. The heaviest rains and strongest 

winds occur during the northwest monsoon, from December to March (1,000 mm of precipitation). 

The driest months are July (50 mm) and August (23 mm). The average daily maximum 

temperature is about 30°C, the average daily minimum 24.5°C. 

Principal vegetation: Mangrove forest characterized by species such as Sonneratia alba, 

Rhizophora mucronata and Bruguiera cylindrica. Common plants elsewhere on the island include 

Barringtonia asiatica, Calophyllum inophyllum, Hibiscus tiliaceus, Vitex sp, Canarium asperum 

Pternandra coerulescens, Ixora sp, Ficus sp, Symplocos adenophylla and Eugenia lepidocarpa. 



Conservation measures proposed: An area of 1,220 ha has been proposed as a Wildlife Reserve, 

and a managment plan has been prepared (WWF, 1979). 

Land use: Fishing, agriculture and teak plantations. 

Disturbances and threats: Illegal wood-cutting, deliberate burning of vegetation, shifting 

cultivation and hunting. 


Fauna: The island is especially important as the home of the threatened Bawean Deer. Other 

mammals include Sus verrucusus, Viverricula malaccensis, Paradoxurus hermaphroditus, Hystrix 

javanica, Macaca fascicularis, Pteropus sp, Cynopterus brachyotis and Megaderma spasma. 

Waterfowl and sea-birds include Fregata minor, Nycticorax nycticorax, Ardea purpurea, 

Gelochelidon nilotica, Sterna sumatrana and S. anaethetus. Reptiles and amphibians include the 

Estuarine Crocodile Crocodylus porosus, Varanus sp, Python reticulatus, Bungarus candidus and 

Bufo sp. 


Research and facilities: Blouch and Sumaryoto (1978) carried out a preliminary survey of the 

status of the Bawean Deer. 

References: Blouch & Sumaryoto (1978); Blower (1975); WWF (1979). 


Source: Agustinus W. Taufik. 

Wetland name: Sedayu Mangroves 


Coordinates: 7°0O'S, 112°38'E; 

Location: near Sedayu, about 30 km NNW of Surabaya, East Java.

Area: c. 10 ha. 




Description of site: A small patch of mangrove forest, once part of an extensive belt of coastal 

mangroves. The mangrove forest is backed by a belt of Nypa palms about one km wide, but this is 

now much degraded. There are extensive intertidal mudflats along the seaward edge of the 

mangroves, and numerous brackish water and freshwater fishponds in adjacent areas. 


Principal vegetation: Mangrove forest consisting of Avicennia sp and Rhizophora, and Nypa 

fruticans. 


Conservation measures taken: The mangrove forest is protected by the local people. There is one 

guard to patrol the area. 


Land use: Forest protection; aquaculture in adjacent areas. 

Disturbances and threats: The mangrove forest at the site and in adjacent areas has been heavily 

disturbed by logging, reclamation and pollution. This has led to a reduction in income from the 

inshore fishery. 


Fauna: The mangrove forest supports a mixed breeding colony of large water birds containing 

several hundred nests. Breeding species include Phalacrocorax spp, Anhinga melanogaster, 

Bubulcus ibis, Egrelta spp, Ardea purpurea, A. cinerea and Threskiornis mekinocephalus. The 

Milky Stork Mycteria cinerea is present throughout the year but does not breed at the site. 

Porphyrio porphyrio is common. Flocks of up to 100 migratory shorebirds have been recorded in 

the immediate vicinity of the site during the migration periods. 


Research and facilities: A preliminary survey has been carried out by PHPA. 


Criteria for inclusion: 1b, 2a, 2c, 3b. 


Wetland name: Sukolilo 



Location: in the Brantas Delta, southeast of Surabaya near Kecamatan Sukolilo, East Java. 

Area: c.1 ha. 




Description of site: A small patch of protected mangrove forest (one ha) situated in a large area of 

aquaculture ponds. There are extensive intertidal mudflats along the adjacent coast, but other 

mangrove forest in the area has been heavily disturbed. 




Conservation measures taken: The one hectare patch of forest is protected by the local people, 

and there has been some replanting of mangroves.

Conservation measures proposed: The site has been proposed as a Strict Nature Reserve (Cagar 

Alam). 

Land use: Protected forest; aquaculture in surrounding areas. 

Disturbances and threats: The site lies only three km from the town of Surabaya and is seriously 

threatened by reclamation for real estate development. Intensive logging has greatly depleted the 

mangrove zone in adjacent areas, and some of the surrounding mangrove areas have been filled in 

with stones and boulders to provide a recreational site. Local youths often shoot at the breeding 

birds when they fly away from the protected forest over the unprotected aquaculture ponds. 

Economic and social values: The mangroves formerly supported a major fishery. However, the 

inshore fishery has declined drastically with the depletion of the mangrove forests, and fishing 

vessels now have to go much further out to sea. 

Fauna: The protected mangrove forest supports a mixed breeding colony of large water birds 

containing several hundred nests. The breeding species include Phalacrocorax sulcirostris, P. 

niger, Anhinga melanogaster, Egretta sacra, E. garzetta, E. intermedia and E. alba. Other species 

which occasionally visit the colony include Bubulcus ibis, Ardea purpurea, A. cinerea and 

Threskiornis melanocephalus. Flocks of up to several hundred migratory shorebirds have been 

recorded on the nearby mudflats. 


Research and facilities: The area has never been adequately surveyed, and information is very 

incomplete. 


Criteria for inclusion: lb., 2c, 3b. 


Wetland name: Ijen Merapi Ungup (Ungup Crater) 


Coordinates: 8°04'S, 114°l5'E; 

Location: on the west slope of Merapi Volcano, 50 km ESE of Bondowoso, Bondowoso and 

Banyawangi Districts, East Java. 

Area: Lake c.50 ha; Nature Reserve 2,560 ha. 

Altitude: Lake 2,560m; Nature Reserve 1,000-2,800m. 



Description of site: A small crater lake (Ijen Lake) with many sulphur fumeroles, on the Ijen 

Massif in the Ijen Merapi Ungup Nature Reserve. The lake measures approximately 910m from 

east to west and 600m from north to south. Most of the reserve is hilly with sharp relief (over 30%) 

except in the eastern and southern parts, which are relatively flat. Much of the area retains climax 

forest, but the western slope of Ijen Crater is frequently burned and has lost most of its forest. The 

Ijen Massif is the source of many rivers, which are used to irrigate large areas of rice paddy in the 

densely populated lowlands. 

Climatic conditions: Humid tropical to subtropical climate, depending on altitude, with an 

average annual rainfall of 1,997 mm. Temperatures on the plateau average about 20°C. There is a 

pronounced dry season during the southeast monsoon, particularly in northern areas, which lie in 

the rain shadow of the high mountains. Most of the rain falls during the west monsoon, the rain 

commencing in the south and moving northwards. 

Principal vegetation: The aquatic vegetation includes Ficus spp, Schleichera oleosa and Pternis 

wallichiana. Forests at lower elevations are dominated by Casuarina sp; the higher, montane 

forest is dominated by Albizzia montana. Grasslands in the highlands are dominated by Themida 

sp, Saccharum spontaneum and Cymbopogon vardus.


Conservation measures taken: The crater lake is protected in a Nature Reserve (2,560 ha) 

established in October 1920. 

Conservation measures proposed: There has been a proposal to link the Nature Reserve with the 

existing Maelang Reserve and proposed Raung Mountain Reserve for possible future development 

as a National Park. 

Land use: The lake acts as a natural water storage reservoir. The Nature Reserve was established 

to protect the forested water catchment areas of several rivers. Sulphur is mined in the area, and the 

surrounding lowlands are under intensive cultivation. 

Possible changes in Land use: The sulphur industry may be expanded. 

Disturbances and threats: Man-made fires, erosion in sulphur mining areas, shifting cultivation, 

and illegal logging and wood-cutting. 

Economic and social values: The area is of considerable geological and botanical interest, and has 

high scenic values. The reserve performs a valuable function in protecting forested watersheds and 

preserving water supplies to the surrounding lowlands. 

Fauna: Little information is available. The only water birds known to occur are Ardeola speciosa, 

Bubulcus ibis and several species of kingfishers. Mammals known to occur in the 

Nature Reserve include Sus sp, Muntiacus muntjak, Macaca sp, Cuon javanicus, Paradoxurus 

herrnaphroditus and Panthera pardus. 



References: Direktorat P.P.A. (l976b); FAO (1979b & l982a). 

Criteria for inclusion: la. 


Wetland name: Wetlands in Bali Barat National Park 


Coordinates: 8°05'-8°l5'S, 114°26'-l14°35'E; 

Location: at the extreme western tip of the island of Bali, Kabupaten Bulaleng, Bali. 

Area: Area of wetlands unknown; Bali Barat National Park 19,600 ha. 




Description of site: A rather dry area at the western tip of the island of Bali. The main wetland 

habitat consists of about 35 km of beach, 300 ha of mangrove forest and scrub, and 40 ha of 

sea-grass beds. Most of the beaches are sandy. The mangrove has been extensively cut over and is 

in a rather degraded state. This exploitation still continues in the Cilimanuk area. 

Climatic conditions: Tropical climate with an average annual rainfall of about 1,671 mm. 

Average temperatures range from 22-24°C. 

Principal vegetation: Mangrove communities with Rhizophora stylosa, R. apiculata, Sonneratia 

alba, Avicennia marina, Bruguiera gymnorhiza, Ceriops tagal, Aegiceras corniculatum, 

Excoecaria agallocha, Lumnilzera sp and Nypa fruticans. Dry beach vegetation in adjacent areas. 


Conservation measures taken: The area was first protected as a Wildlife Reserve in 1947. In 

1978, four islands totaling 175 ha and three islets totaling 18 ha were added to the Reserve. In 

1980, the Reserve was given the status of National Park. 


Land use: Nature conservation; fishing and brackish water aquaculture in adjacent areas.

Disturbances and threats: Illegal construction of roads within the Park, cutting of mangroves, 

mining of coral reefs, occasional hunting of sea-turtles, illegal fishing with dynamite and poisons, 

poaching and illegal settlement. Poaching for the Indonesian domestic pet market is the key factor 

in the decline of the endemic Bali Starling Leucopsar rothschildi. 

Economic and social values: The mangroves support a locally important fishery. The National 

Park has great scenic values and considerable potential for tourism and scientific research. 

Fauna: The coral reefs support a very diverse fish fauna. The National Park supports the largest 

surviving population of the endemic Bali Starling Leucopsar rothschildi. The total population of 

this highly endangered species was estimated at 104 individuals in August 1984 and only 48 

individuals in August 1987. Nest-boxes introduced in 1984 and 1986 have so far proved 

unattractive to the birds, and it is now thought that the population in the wild is no longer viable. 

Water birds include sea-birds such as Fregata minor, Sterna dougallii, S. sumatrana, S. bergii and 

S. hirundo, and a variety of migratory shorebirds such as Charadrius dubius, Limosa limosa, 

Numenius phaeopus, N. arquata, Tringa totanus, T. nebularia, Actitis hypoleucos and Calidris 

alba. 

The National Park supports a variety of mammals including Sus vittatus, Felis bengalensis, 

Paradoxurus hermaphroditus, Macaca fascicularis, Cervus sp, Muntiacus muntjak, Manis 

javanica, Hystrix brachyura, Ratufa bicolor, Pteropus edulis and Bos javanicus (wild herds of 

30-40 individuals). Reptiles include the sea-turtle Eretmochelys imbricata, monitor lizard Varanus 

salvator, Python sp and Mabouya sp. 

Special floral values: There is a small stand of the uncommon Manilkara kauri, much valued for 

wood-carving. 

Research and facilities: A considerable amount of research has been carried out on the Bali 

Starling. 

References: Direktorat P.P.A. (l980i & l982c); IUCN (in prep); Kvalvagnaes et al. (1984). 

Criteria for inclusion: 1b, 2b, 3b. 

Source: Agustinus W. Taufik and Marcel J. Silvius. 

Wetland name: Kangean Archipelago Country: Indonesia 


Location: in the Bali Sea, 120 km east of Madura Island and 120 km north of Bali, Kabupaten 

Sumenep, East Java. 

Area: 25,252 ha, including 12,910 ha of mangrove swamp. 




Description of site: The Kangean Islands are a group of about 30 islands situated 120 km north of 

Bali and east of Madura. The largest island is Kangean, with a length of 40 km and width of 25 

km. The island group consists of coral-lime heaved up by volcanic action. The greater part of 

Kangean is hilly, although there are some lowland areas at the southern end. A large part of the 

western half of the north coast is bordered by sandy beaches, while the eastern half and a part of 

the southern plain are fringed with coral reefs and overgrown with mangroves. A tropical 

sub-montane forest covers the hill ridge in the central and northern parts of the main island. There 

are still large areas of undisturbed mangrove forest in the archipelago, mainly at the southern end 

of Kangean and on some of the smaller islands such as Saubi. 

Climatic conditions: Tropical monsoonal climate. The wet monsoon lasts from October to March, 

and the dry season begins in late April or May. During the dry season, the average daily 

temperature reaches 31-32°C, while during the wet monsoon, the average daily temperature is 

28°C.

Principal vegetation: Mangrove forest with Rhizophora sp, Bruguiera sp, Sonneratia acida and 

Calophyllum inophyllum. The vegetation in the interior of the islands includes Terrninalia 

catappa, Aistonia sp, Mangifera indica, Lantana sp and Tectonia grandis. 

Land tenure: State owned (Local Government of East Java). 


Conservation measures proposed: The islands have been proposed as a Nature Reserve and 

Marine Conservation Area. 

Land use: Fishing and agriculture. 

Disturbances and threats: Dynamite fishing, over-exploitation of the forestry resources, hunting 

of dugong and sea-turtles, and increased human settlement. 

Economic and social values: The islands have considerable potential for conservation education 

and scientific research. 

Fauna: Fishes include Decapterus spp, Clupea biogaster, Heriramphus sp, Eutlzymus sp, 

Scomberomorus commersoni and Chanos chanos. 

The islands are important for a wide variety of waterfowl and sea-birds including Phalacrocorax 

sulcirostis, Fregata ariel, Nycticorax nycticorax, Ardeola speciosa, Bubulcus ibis, Butorides 

striatus, Egretta sacra, E. garzetta, Ardea purpurea, A. cinerea, Dendrocygna javanica, Anas 

superciliosa, Numenius phaeopus, Tringa glareola, Actitis hypoleucos, Sterna sumatrana, S. bergii 

and S. albifrons. Other birth of note include the raptors Pandion haliaetus, Haliastur indus, 

Haliaeetus leucogaster; the pigeons Ducula biccior, Caloenas nicobarica; and the kingfishers 

Alcedo meninting, Ceyx rufidorsus and Halcyon sancta. The endangered Dugong Dugong dugon 

still occurs in the shallow seas around the islands. Terrestrial wildlife includes Felis temmincki, 

Panthera pardus, Macaca fascicularis, Presbytis cristata, Muntiacus muntjak, Cervus timorensis, 

Paradoxurus hermaphroditus, Viverricula malaccensis, Rattus rattus, Cynopterus brachyotis, 

Myotis adversus, Hipposideros lar vatus, Rinolophus madurensis and Neofelis nebulosa. 

Reptiles include the Green Sea Turtle Chelonia mydas, Hawksbill Turtle Eretmochelys imbricata 

and monitor lizard Varanus salvator. 



References: Direktorat P.P.A. (1986d); de Iongh et al. (1982). 

Criteria for inclusion: lb. 2a, 2b, 2c, 3b. 


Wetland name: Gunung Jagatamu 


Coordinates: c.8°34'S, 1 l4°00'E; 

Location: near the southeast tip of Java, 60 km southwest of Banyuwangi, Kabupaten 

Banyuwangi, East Java. 

Area: 1,860 ha. 



Wetland type: 04, 05, 07 & 21. 

Description of site: A hilly coastal area with mangrove swamps, beach forest and lowland rain 

forest. 

Climatic conditions: Humid tropical climate with an average annual rainfall of 1,962 mm, 

Principal vegetation: Mangrove swamps with Rhizophora sp, Bruguiera sp, Avicennia marina, 

Sonneratia sp and Nypa fruticans. 

Land tenure: State owned; managed by BKPH Unit II, Jawa Timur.

Conservation measures taken: The area has been designated as a Protection Forest (Hutan 

Lindung). 


Land use: Forest protection and nature conservation. 

Disturbances and threats: Cutting of wood and hunting. 


Fauna: An important area for several protected animals, including the Banteng Bos sonaaicus. 

Other mammals include Muntiacus muntjak and Felis rnarmorata. No information is available on 

the avifauna. 



References: Direktorat P.P.A. (1980h). 

Criteria for inclusion: lb. 2b. 

Source: Edi Djuharsa. 

Wetland name: Nusa Barung 



Location: 5 km off the southeast coast of Java, 45 km southwest of Jember, Jember District, East 

Java. 

Area: 6,100 ha. 


Biogeographical province: 422.12. 


Description of site: Nusa Barung is a limestone island with spectacular cliffs rising to 325m and 

some coastal mangrove swamps. The island is about six km from north to south, and 16 km from 

east to west. Most of the island is hilly; there are several deeply indented bays on the northeast 

coast, which provide sheltered anchorages for visiting fishermen. Because of its limestone 

substrate, the island is almost completely dry with no rivers and only a few natural ponds where 

animals may find standing water. 

Climatic conditions: Rather dry tropical climate with an average annual rainfall of 1,600 mm. 

There is only a short rainy season, and the southern shores are often exposed to strong winds. 

Average temperatures range from 20-32°C. 

Principal vegetation: Mangrove swamps with Rhizophora sp, Avicennia sp, Sonneratia alba, 

Lurnnitzera sp and Xylocarpus sp. Swamp vegetation around the small ponds includes Aistonia 

spanthulatus, Vatica walichii, Pleiornium sp and Dillenia sp. The coastal scrub is dominated by 

Barringtonia sp, Terminalia catappa, Calophyllum inophyllum and Sterculia foetida, and the 

lowland forest by Vitex pubescens, Ficus amplas and Tamarindus sp. The northeastern side of the 

island is covered with Supatorium sp and alang-alang. Botanically, the island is rather poor with 

Sterculia foetida and other drought resistant species predominating. 


Conservation measures taken: The island has been protected as a Nature Reserve since July 

1920. 



Disturbances and threats: The hunting of sea-turtles and collection of their eggs for human 

consumption. 

Economic and social values: No information.

Fauna: Little information is available. Water birds known to occur on the island include Sula 

leucogaster, Bubulcus ibis, Egretta sacra, E. alba, Esacus magnirostris and the kingfishers 

Pelargopsis capensis and Halcyon chioris. Mammals include Ratufa bicolor, Cervus sp, Macaca 

sp, Callosciurus notatus, Viverricula malaccensis and Sus sp. Reptiles include the Green Sea 

Turtle Chelonia mydas, which nests on the beaches, and also Varanus sp, Mabouya sp, Python 

molurus and P. reticulatus. 



References: Direktorat P.P.A. (l981a); IUCN (in prep); Karpowicz (1985); MacKinnon & Artha 

(1982b). 

Criteria for inclusion: lb, 2a, 2c. 


Wetland name: Cilacap and Segara Anakan 



Location: on the south coast of West Java, close to the frontier with Central Java. 

Area: 24,000 ha. 



Wetland type: 02, 03, 05, 06, 07, 08 & 11. 

Description of site: A large, shallow sea bay with two connections to the open sea, one at the 

southern end of a sandy barrier island and the other to the west of the rocky island of Nusa 

Kambangan. Fresh water and silt enter the bay via the Citanduy, Cibeureum and Kawunganten 

Rivers and several smaller streams. The bay contains extensive mangrove swamps dissected by a 

network of tidal creeks, and there are marshes and mudflats around Segara Anakan. The coastal 

plain of Cilacap consists of low-lying swampy areas and rice paddies, and higher old dunes and 

beach ridges, usually occupied by human settlements. There are several oxbow lakes formed as 

abandoned meanders of the Serayu River. The site contains at least 18,500 ha of mangrove swamp 

and 200 ha of tidal marsh. Some 8,200 ha of the surrounding swamps have already been converted 

into rice paddies. 

Climatic conditions: Humid tropical maritime climate with a maximum rainfall of 3,720 mm per 

year. The average temperature is 27°C. 

Principal vegetation: Mangrove swamps with a very diverse flora. Tree species 

include Rhizophora mucronata, R. conjugata, Bruguiera gymnorhiza, B. parviflora, Ceriops 

candoleana, C. roxburghiana, Xylocarpus granatum, X. molluccensis, Avicennia officinalis, A. 

marina, Sonneratia alba, S. ovata, S. acida, Aegiceras corniculatum, A. floridum, LumnItzera 

racemosa, L. littorea, Scyphiphora hydrophyllaceae, Cynometra ramiflora, Pit hecellobium 

umbellatum, Heritiera littoralis, Cerbera manghas and Nypa fruticans. Other plants associated 

with the mangroves include Acrostichum aureum, Acanthus ilicifolius and Derris heterophylla. 


Conservation measures taken: The number of trawlers permitted to fish in the Cilacap area is 

limited to 90. This regulation came into effect in July 1978. Trawlers are not allowed to fish in the 

traditional fishing grounds, which extend three nautical miles offshore. 

Conservation measures proposed: Various scientists and conservationists have proposed that the 

site be given special protection. The Citanduy River Basin Management Project made several 

proposals to stabilize the lagoon by diverting the Citanduy River, dredging and churning up 

sediment to facilitate transportation.

Land use: Fishing, cultivation of rice and cutting of mangrove poles; fishing, forestry, agriculture 

and recreation in adjacent areas. 

Disturbances and threats: The rate of sedimentation has increased to such an extent that the 

surface area of the lagoon will decrease from the current 1,400 ha to about 550 ha by the year 2000 

(Guarin & White, 1988). There are not enough patrols to check the implementation of the fishing 

regulations, and over-fishing has become a problem. Illegal cutting of the mangrove forest has led 

to severe degradation of the forest, especially in the Karang Anyar area. Reclamation and 

polderization of the swamps for agricultural purposes continue. At present, there is no serious 

chemical pollution in the lagoon, although some domestic wastes and increasing pesticide residues 

may be problems. 

Economic and social values: Cilacap is a very important region for its marine fishery resources, 

and most of the 8,000 people dependent on Segara Anakan are fishermen. The fishery resources 

have been exploited by traditional methods for a very long time. Modern technology has been used 

since 1971, mainly for shrimp fishing (trawling). The number of trawling units has been limited to 

90 since 1976, to curb over-fishing. In 1977, the production of demersal fish was 18,300 metric 

tonnes, but by 1979, production was down to 13,500 metric tonnes. The present catch of offshore 

fisheries is estimated at only 9,050 metric tonnes (7,150 tonnes of finfish and the rest, penaeid 

shrimps). The lagoon itself produces about 400 metric tonnes of finfish, shrimps and crabs per 

year. The mangrove forest is of great value to the local people. It provides firewood, timber for 

construction purposes, and the materials for making fish traps and racks for drying fish and 

shrimps. 

Fauna: The bay supports a very rich fish fauna. Species of commercial importance include 

Lutjanus spp, Formio niger, Pampus spp, Anus spp, Trichiurus spp, Pniacanthus spp, Chorinemus 

sp, Epinephalus spp, Pomadacys spp, Nemipterus spp, Saurida spp, Johnius sp, Eutherapon sp, 

Upeneus spp, Gerres kapas, Leognathus spp, Anguilla spp, Psettodes sp, Cygnoglossus sp, 

Himantura spp and Carcharinus spp. Some of the many species of no commercial importance 

include Peniophthalmus koereuteri, Mugil sp, Peniophthalmodon scholosseni and Acentrogobius 

virdipunctatus. 

Waterfowl known to occur at the site include Anhinga melanogaster, Bubulcus ibis, Egretta alba, 

Ardea purpurea, A. cinerea, Mycteria cinerea, Ciconia episcopus, Dendrocygna arcuata, 

Amaurornis phoenicurus and Porphyrio porphynio. Small cetaceans occur in the bay, and Cervus 

sp, Muntiacus muntjak, Macaca sp and Hystrix brachyura occur in the forests. Reptiles include the 

Green Sea Turtle Chelonia mydas and the monitor lizard Varanus salvator. 

The rich invertebrate fauna includes the economically important crab Scylla serrata, other crabs 

such as Macrophthalmus bosci, Uca sp, Neopisesarma taeniolata, Grapsus sp and Pagurus sp, and 

a wide variety of molluscs (bivalves, Luciniidae, Anomia corugata, Pedalion isogunum and 

eighteen species of Gastropods). 

Special floral values: The site contains a particularly large and diverse stand of mangrove forest. 

Research and facilities: The area has been the subject of a considerable amount of research by 

Indonesian scientists, and is currently being investigated under the ASEAN-US Coastal Resources 

Management Project. 

References: Bird et al. (1982); Direktorat P.P.A. (1980g. 1986a & 1986b); FAO (1979a); Guarin 

& White (1987); Sukardjo (1984). 

Criteria for inclusion: lb, le, 2a, 2c, 3b. 


Wetland name: Penanjung Pangandaran 


Coordinates: 7°43'S, lO8°4O'E;

Location: approximately 40 km west of Cilacap, Ciamis District (Kabupaten), West Java. 

Area: 530 ha. 



Wetland type: 04, 05, 06 & 12. 

Description of site: Penanjung Pangandaran is a small peninsula on the south coast of Java, 

roughly rectangular in shape, with its highest axis lying in a northwest-southeast direction. It is 

approximately three km long and up to two km wide. The coastline is rugged, with precipitous 

cliffs and steep, narrow gullies skirting a wooded plateau. Only in the north does the land slope 

more gently to sandy coves and beaches. The plateau has river valleys radiating outward from the 

centre, with the largest draining towards the south and northwest. The valleys are separated by 

narrow, steep-sided ridges, which slope gently towards the coast and then drop steeply to the 

shoreline, ending abruptly in a cliff. Extensive coral formations are found along the northeast 

coast. There are also limestone cliffs on the southeast coast. There are some swampy areas in the 

valleys and several small isolated remnants of primary forest around holy places. 

Climatic conditions: Tropical monsoonal climate with an average annual rainfall of 3,196 mm. 

Average temperatures range from 25-30°C. The northwest monsoon occurs between October and 

March, and the dry season from July to September. 

Principal vegetation: Swampy areas with Calamus sp, and Barringtonia formations with 

Barringtonia asiatica, Terminalia catappa and Calophyllum inophyllum; primary and secondary 

forest with Vitex pinnata, Dillenia exelca, Cratoxylum formosum, Psychotaria malayana, Ficus 

variegata and Tetrastigma lanceolarium. 

Land tenure: State owned (Indonesian Government); managed by PHPA. 

Conservation measures taken: The entire peninsula has been designated as a Nature Reserve. 

Conservation measures proposed: The boundary of the reserve should be extended 800m 

seaward from the low tide mark, and this area should be designated as a Marine Park. 

Land use: Fishing, grazing of livestock, recreation and agriculture. 

Disturbances and threats: Human settlement, extensive planting of coconut palms, felling of 

timber,, collection of firewood, excessive disturbance from recreation, and illegal hunting. 

Economic and social values: The site has high aesthetic, cultural, historical and scientific values, 

and has considerable potential for outdoor recreation. The surrounding coral reefs support a rich 

fishery resource. 

Fauna: Ornamental fish species occurring around the coral reefs include Ballistoides niger, 

Diodon sp, Heniochus sp, Amphiprion sp, Acanthurus sp, Docyllus trimaculatus, Ephiadus sp, 

Centropyge bicolor and many others. 

The avifauna includes waterfowl and sea-birds such as Phalacrocorax niger, Fregata ariel, 

Egretta sacra, E. intermedia, Actitis hypoleucos and Sterna sumatrana, the fish-eagle Haliaeetus 

leucogaster, and the kingfisher Halcyon chloris. 

The reserve is rich in mammals including Muntiacus muntjak, Bos sondaicus, Hystrix javanica, 

Viverricula malaccensis, Ratufa bicolor, Sus sp, Manis javanica, Presbytis cristata, Macaca 

fascicularis, Felis bengalensis and Herpestes javanicus. Small cetaceans are common in the 

adjacent seas. 

Reptiles include the sea-turtle Chelonia mydas and the monitor lizard Varanus salvator. 

Special floral values: The swampy areas support a rare species of Rafflesia. 


References: Direktorat P.P.A. (1977a & 1979a); FAO (1976); Kvalvagnaes & Halim (l979a). 


Source: Agustinus W. Taufik.

Wetland name: Rawa Lakbok 



Location: near Banjar, Ciamis, West Java. 

Area: 3,000 ha. 

Altitude: 6.5-lOm. 



Description of site: A large area of peat swamp and grassland in the interior of West Java; 

probably the largest area of peat swamp in Java and possibly the largest topogenous peat marsh in 

Indonesia. Peat depths of up to six meters have been recorded. The peat deposits originated in a 

basin bounded to the south, west and northwest by hill ranges. The swamp drains southeast into the 

Rawa Biuk through a gap in the ridge between the Lakbok and Biuk basins. Reclamation of the 

swamp was begun as early as 1924. Clearing of the original vegetation has been so drastic that the 

former impenetrable swamp has been reshaped into an almost treeless plain with cultivated areas 

and swampy fallow lands. 

Climatic conditions: Humid tropical climate with an annual rainfall of 2,940-3,600mm. There is 

no pronounced dry season, the driest month being July with a rainfall of 72-98 mm. 

Principal vegetation: Marsh grasses. The area formerly supported extensive swamp forests with 

many species that are now rare in Java, such as Ficus retusa, Elaeocarpus littoralis, Nephralepis 

radicans, Scirpodendron ghaeri, Flascopa scandens, Stenochlaena palustris and Licuala sp. 

Whether or not any of this forest remains is uncertain. 



Conservation measures proposed: A survey should be conducted as soon as possible to 

determine the conservation importance of this wetland, which is of a type now rare in Java. 


Disturbances and threats: Agricultural encroachment, hunting and bird-netting. 


Fauna: The area is thought to be of importance for water birds, but no information is available. 

Special floral values: Natural swampy grasslands of this type are now rare in Java. 

Research and facilities: No surveys have as yet been carried out in the area. 



Source: Marcel J. Silvius, Agus Marhardi and Eva T. Berczy. 

Wetland name: Leuwang Sancang 



Location: 55 km south of Garut, Kabupaten Garut, in the southeast part of West Java. 

Area: 2,157 ha. 



Wetland type: 02, 04, 05, 07, 11 & 21. 

Description of site: The estuaries of the Cikaengan and Ciporeang Rivers with extensive coral 

reefs, mangrove swamps and sandy beaches, and the adjacent undulating lowlands with brackish 

swamp forest, dry beach forest, freshwater swamp forest and lowland rain forest. Peripheral areas 

of the site have been severely damaged by illegal tree-felling.


Average temperatures range from 22.4-30.8°C; the average relative humidity is 84.6%. 

Principal vegetation: Mangrove swamps with Rhizophora spp, Sonneratia acida, Aegiceras 

corniculatum and Avicennia sp; beds of the sea-grasses Sargassum sp, Gelidium sp and Halimeda 

sp; swamp forests with Crinum asiaticum, Nypa fruticans, Pandanus tectorius, Terminalia 

catappa, Calophyllum inophylum and Calotropis gigantea. 


Conservation measures taken: The site was first protected as a Nature Reserve in 1959, and 

renotified as a Cagar Alam in 1961 and again in 1978. 

Conservation measures proposed: A proposal has been made to extend the Nature Reserve 

towards the sea. 

Land use: Nature conservation; agriculture and fisheries in surrounding areas. 

Disturbances and threats: Illegal agricultural encroachment, the cutting of timber, poaching, and 

the collection of sea-grasses, turtle eggs and ornamental fishes. 

Economic and social values: The area is of some importance as a source of commercially 

valuable seaweeds. 

Fauna: An important area for a variety of ornamental fishes, birds, large mammals and sea-turtles, 

with several rare and endangered species. The ornamental fishes include Amphiprion perideraion, 

Chaetodon meyeri, Balistoides sp, Pomacentrus sp, Heniochus sp, Lutjanus sp, Caranx sp and 

Acanthurus lineatus. The avifauna includes waterfowl such as Egretta spp, Ardea spp, Leptoptilos 

javanicus and Plegadis falcinellus, and several uncommon land birds such as Buceros rhinoceros, 

B. sylvestris and Pavo muticus. The larger mammals include Sus vittatus, Macaca iris, Panthera 

pardus, Bos javanicus and Muntiacus muntjak. Three species of sea-turtle have been recorded: 

Chelonia mydas, Eretmochelys imbricata and Caretta caretta. Other reptiles include Varanus 

salvator, Python sp and Tryonix sp. 

Special floral values: The flora includes several rare and endangered species. 


References: Direktorat P.P.A. (1976a, l979b & l982b); IUCN (in prep); UNAS (1976). 



Wetland name: Cikepuh 


Coordinates: 7°ll'-7°20'S, 106°23'-106°30'E; 

Location: between Pelabuhan Ratu and the Ujung Genting Peninsula, Kabupaten Sukabumi, West 

Java. 

Area: 8,127 ha. 



Wetland type: 04, 05, 07 & 21. 

Description of site: A partly flat and partly hilly area with lowland tropical rain forest, mangrove 

forest, dry beach forest, freshwater swamp forest and some secondary forest. The site contains one 

of the few remaining areas of lowland forest on Java, and incorporates an important turtle-nesting 

beach. 

Climatic conditions: Humid tropical maritime climate with an average annual rainfall of about 

2,500 mm (range 1,000-3,500 mm). The average temperature ranges from 25-27°C. 

Principal vegetation: Freshwater swamp forest; mangrove communities with Rhizophora sp, 

Bruguiera sp, Sonneratia alba, Avicennia sp, Callophyllum inophyllum and Nypa fruticans; dry

each formations with Pandanus sp, Barringtonia asiatica, Bambusa sp, Sterculia foetida and 

Terminalia catappa. Lowland tropical rain forest and secondary forest in adjacent areas. 


Conservation measures taken: Established as a Wildlife Reserve (Suaka Margasatwa) in 1973 by 

Agriculture Ministerial Decree. 

Conservation measures proposed: There is a proposal to manage the area in conjunction with the 

Cibanteng Nature Reserve and turtle nesting beach at Pangambalan. 

Land use: Fisheries; agricultural settlements in surrounding areas. 

Disturbances and threats: Agricultural encroachment, the cutting of trees for timber, poaching, 

the collection of turtle eggs for human consumption, and lack of effective management. 

Economic and social values: Fisheries production. 

Fauna: Many ornamental species of fishes occur in the area. Waterfowl include Phalacrocorax 

niger, Nycticorax nycticorax, Ardeola speciosa and Dendrocygna javanica. The kite Haliastur 

indus and the kingfishers Alcedo atihis and Halcyon chloris are also present. The area supports a 

variety of large mammals including Bos javanicus, Muntiacus muntjak, Panthera pardus, Sus sp, 

Hylobates moloch, Hystrix javanica, Viverricula malaccensis, Ratufa bicolor, Pteropus vampyrus 

and Macaca fascicularis. Reptiles include the sea-turtles Chelonia mydas, Eretmochelys imbricata, 

Dermochelys coriaceae, as well as Mabouya multifasciata and Varanus salvator. 



References: Direktorat P.P.A. (l979b & 1985); IPB (1975); IUCN (in prep). 

Criteria for inclusion: lb, 2a. 


Wetland name: Rawa Gajonggong 



Location: between Cibodas and Cibeureum, in Gede-Pangrango National Park, 60 km SSE of 

Jakarta, West Java. 

Area: Unknown. 

Altitude: c. 1,500m. 



Description of site: A small, high altitude swamp with extensive Phragmites reed-beds, areas of 

open water and floating peat. The peat is about two meters thick. 

Climatic condition: None 

Principal vegetation: The aquatic vegetation includes Juncus effusus, Xyris melanocephala, 

Phragmites karka, Scirpus mucronata, Gunnera macrophylla and Eupatorium sp. 


Conservation measures taken: Protected within the Gede-Pangrango National Park (15,196 ha) 

established in 1980. 



Disturbances and threats: No information. 



Special floral values: A good example of a very rare habitat in Java. The swamp is the 

westernmost locality for Juncus effusus and Xyris melanocephala in Java. The very large herb 

Gunnera macrophylla occurs at the site.

Research and facilities: The site does not appear to have been surveyed since 1941. 

References: Steenis (1941). 

Criteria for inclusion: la, 2b. 


Wetland name: Pulau Satonda 


Coordinates: 8°06'S, 1 l7°45'E; 

Location: off the north coast of Sumbawa Island, Dompu District, Sumbawa, Nusa Tenggara. 

Area: 985 ha. 




Description of site: Satonda Island is a small circular island some two km in diameter, about two 

km off the north-central coast of Sumbawa. The entire island consists of the top of an emerging 

volcano. About half of the island is occupied by a large salt-water lake in the crater of the old 

volcano. The island has steep slopes, emerging abruptly from the sea and falling steeply again into 

the lake. 

Climatic conditions: Tropical monsoonal climate with the annual rainfall varying from 500 mm to 

2,000 mm. The seasonal rainfall pattern is determined by the northwest monsoon. 

Principal vegetation: No information is available on the aquatic vegetation. The terrestrial 

vegetation includes Duabanga molluccana, Ziziphus mauritania, Murrimia sp, Daeryodes costata 

and Casuarina sp. The south shore of the lake is covered with alang-alang; the slopes of the 

volcano are mostly covered with dry monsoon forest. 

Land tenure: State owned (Sumbawa Local Government). 


Conservation measures proposed: The island has been proposed as a Wildlife Reserve. 

Land use: Nature conservation; fishing in surrounding areas. 

Disturbances and threats: Hunting, accidental or intentional burning, ladang encroachment and 

cultivation. 

Economic and social values: The island has great scenic beauty, and is of considerable geological 

interest. The surrounding waters support an important fishery. 

Fauna: The lake is reported to contain a considerable population of fishes, but no details are 

available. 

The avifauna includes Anhinga melanogaster, Fregata minor, Egretta sacra, Ardea cinerea, 

Ciconia episcopus, Haliastur indus, Haliaeetus leucogaster, Falco moluccensis, Megapodius 

reinwardt, Himantopus leucocephalus, Charadrius peronii, Numenius phaeopus, Actitis 

hypoleucos, Sterna albifrons, Caloenas nicobarica, Alcedo atthis, Pelargopsis capensis and 

Halcyon chloris. 

Mammals include Sus scrofa, Cervus timorensis, Macaca fascicularis, Pteropus vampyrus and 

various large and small cetaceans. Skulls of the Estuarine Crocodile Crocodylus porosus have been 

found as recently as 1973. Reptiles still present include Varanus sp and Natrix sp. 



References: FAO (1981a). 


Source: Agustinus W. Taufik and Edi Djuharsa.

Wetland name: Wetlands in Komodo National Park 



Location: about 30 km off the west coast of Flores in the Sape Straits, between Flores and 

Sumbawa, West Flores, Nusa Tenggara. 

Area: Area of wetlands unknown; islands and surrounding waters 55,579 ha. 



Wetland type: 01, 04, 05 & 07. 

Description of site: The National Park comprises the two substantial islands of Komodo and 

Rinca, together with numerous small offshore islands and surrounding marine waters. The islands 

are generally rugged with sheer cliffs, numerous small bays and inlets, numerous coral reefs and 

powerful offshore currents which isolate and protect the islands. Komodo has a chain of hills along 

the north-south axis averaging 500-600m in height. Rinca comprises mainly rolling hills but the 

south is dominated by the sprawling Doro Ora (667m), and the north has the low but steep peaks of 

Gunung Tumbah (187m) and Doro Raja (351m). Wetland habitats include mangrove swamps, 

sandy beaches and shallow inshore waters with coral reefs. 

Climatic conditions: Rather dry tropical monsoonal climate. The Park is in one of the driest parts 

of Indonesia, with an annual rainfall of only 800-1,000 mm. In only one month of the year does the 

precipitation exceed 200 mm. The northwest monsoon occurs from January to March; the 

southeast monsoon reaches a peak in August, when the winds are consistently strong and sea 

conditions rough. The weather is hot and dry from September to December, with temperatures 

rising as high as 49°C. 

Principal vegetation: The dominant plant communities are tropical tall grassland (70%) and 

tropical dry deciduous forest (25%). Mangrove and beach vegetation comprise 5% of the area, and 

include species such as Avicennia marina, Ipomoea pescaprae, Spinifex littoreus, Cassutha 

filiformis, Rhizophora spp, Ceriops candoleana, Sonneratia spp, Capplaris seplaria, Calophyllum 

inophyllum, Terminalia catappa, Hypoestes populifolia, Sterculia foetida, Cassia javanica, 

Tamarindus indica, Borrassus flabillifer and Gleichenia oleosa. 


Conservation measures taken: The islands were first designated as a Game Reserve (Suaka 

Maragasatwa) in 1965. In 1980, the reserve was gazetted as a National Park. In 1977, 30,000 ha on 

Komodo Island were accepted as a Biosphere Reserve. The fauna and flora of the islands are 

totally protected. 

Conservation measures proposed: The waters surrounding the Komodo Islands have been 

proposed as a Marine Conservation Area. 

Land use: Fishing and harvesting of other marine products. There are some human settlements 

and agricultural activities on the islands. 

Disturbances and threats: Expansion of the human settlements, the cutting of trees for timber and 

firewood, and dynamite fishing. There is also some illegal hunting of Timor Deer (the prey of the 

Komodo Dragon). The hunting dogs are often abandoned and live wild, competing with the 

dragons for food. 

Economic and social values: The islands are of considerable scientific interest, and have great 

potential for tourism. 

Fauna: No information is available on the fishes. 

Seventy-two species of birds have been recorded in the National Park, including Fregata ariel, 

Butorides striatus, Egretta sacra, Ardea sumatrana, Haliastur indus, Megapodius freycinet, 

Esacus magnirostris, Glareola isabella, Pluvialis dominica, Charadrius peronii, Numenius 

arquata, Tringa totanus, Actitis hypoleucos, Sterna albifrons, Caloenas nicobarica, Ducula 

bicolor and Halcyon chloris.

Mammals include the Timor Deer Cervus timorensis, Macaca fascicularis, Sus scrofa, Muntiacus 

muntjac, Rattus rintjanus, Pteropus eleta, Paradoxurus hermaphroditus, Herpestes javanicus, 

Dopsonia peroni and a variety of large and small cetaceans. 

The National Park is the only locality in the world for the spectacular Komodo Dragon Varanus 

komodoensis. Other reptiles include the Estuarine Crocodile Crocodylus porosus and Green Sea 

Turtle Chelonia mydas, as well as Naja naja, Emoja sivilis, Draco volans, Peropus mutilatus, 

Mabouya multifasciata, Oreophryne sp and Cerberus rhynchops. 


Research and facilities: Various ecological surveys have been conducted, and a considerable 

amount of research has been carried out on the Komodo Dragon (e.g. by Auffenberg in 

1969-1970). 

References: Auffenberg (1975); Faculty of Forestry of UGM (1976); FAO (1977b & 1979c); 

Hoogerwerf (1954 & 1955); IUCN (in prep); Voogd (undated). 

Criteria for inclusion: lb, 2a, 2b. 


Wetland name: Wetlands of Sumba Island 



Location: East and West Sumba Districts, Sumba, East Nusa Tenggara. The main freshwater lakes 

are on the north coast of the island, 30 km east of Waingapu (9°39'S, 120°23'E). 

Area: Area of wetlands unknown; island 1,100,000 ha. 

Altitude: Sea level to 1,000m. 


Wetland type: 05, 07, 08 & 14. 

Description of site: Much the most extensive wetlands on Sumba Island are mangrove swamps, 

which cover almost 5% of the land area. Several mangrove areas have been identified as being of 

conservation interest and of importance to the local coastal fisheries. The southern part of the 

island is hilly, with a number of small fast-flowing rivers. Much of the north coast is low-lying, 

and there are several small lakes in natural depressions, particularly in the northeast. The most 

important of these is at Kadumbal, at the edge of a coralline plateau 30 km east of Waingapu. This 

is a complex of shallow, freshwater lakes and extensive reed-beds covering an area of 25-35 ha, 

and surrounded by overgrazed pasture, rice paddies and arable land. The lakes are fed by local 

run-off, and apparently dry out during the middle of the dry season (from June or July onwards). 

Climatic condition: Dry tropical climate, with most rain falling in January-March. The highest 

hills are moist, but the rest of the island is rather dry. 

Principal vegetation: Mangrove forest with species of Avicennia, Sonneratia and Bruguiera; 

reed-beds and sedge marshes around freshwater lakes in the north. Dominant plant genera 

elsewhere on the island include Asplenium, Platycerium, Bulbophyllum, Dendrobium, Vomda, 

Selaginella, Begonia, Palaquium, Podocarpus and Amorphophallus. 

Land tenure:Mainly state owned; the Indonesian Government owns all land not proven to belong 

to a given individual or group. 


Conservation measures proposed:The Mount Wanggameti and Laiwanga area has been 

proposed as a Game Reserve (5,000 ha). This would include some coastal mangrove areas. 

Land use: The mangrove forests are quite heavily exploited by the local people for firewood and 

timber for boat-building. There is some fishing, hunting and livestock grazing at the freshwater 

lakes and marshes in the north, and rice-growing and other agriculture in adjacent areas.

Disturbances and threats: Illegal grazing, shifting cultivation and excessive wood-cutting. 

Hunting may cause a considerable amount of disturbance at the lakes. 

Economic and social values: The mangroves are of considerable importance in maintaining the 

local fishery, and also provide firewood, charcoal and timber. The freshwater marshes are an 

important dry season refuge for domestic livestock. Freshwater wetlands of the type found on the 

north coast of Sumba are rare in Wallacea; consequently the Sumba wetlands, although small, are 

of considerable scientific interest and conservation value. 

Fauna: No information is available on the birds of the mangrove areas. Water birds observed by 

Bishop (in prep) during a brief survey of Kadumbal Lake included: 

10 Tachybaptus ruficollis 

10 Ardea purpurea (breeding) 

300 Dendrocygna arcuata 

10 Porphyrio porphyrio 

25 Chlidonias hybrida 

along with smaller numbers of Phalacrocorax sulcirostris, P. melanoleucos, Pelecanus cons 

picillatus, Ixobrychus cinnamomeus, Ardeola speciosa, Egretta garzetta, E. intermedia, E. alba, 

Ardea novaehollandiae, Plegadis falcinellus, Pandion haliaetus, Anas gibberifrons, A. 

superciliosa, Himantopus leucocephalus, Pluvialis dominica and Calidris ferruginea. The 

observations of I. cinnamomeus, P. falcinellus, H. leucocephalus and C. hybrida were the first 

records of these species on Sumba. Stiltia isabella was found to be common and widespread 

throughout the grasslands. Other birds recorded from the island include Megapodus reinwardt, 

Actitis hypoleucos and the kingfishers Halcyon chloris and H. sancta. 

Mammals known to occur on the island include Macaca fascicularis, Cervus timorensis and Sus 

scrofa. 

Special floral values: Two rare species of plant, Mamilkara kauki and Santalum album, occur on 

the island, but are now virtually extinct. Two plants with edible tubers, Dischorea sp and 

Amorphophallus companulatus, are of local importance. 

Research and facilities: K.D. Bishop has conducted a preliminary avifaunal survey of Kadumbal 

Lake. 

References: Bishop (in prep); FAO (1982b); MacKinnon & Artha (1982c); White & Bruce 

(1986). 

Criteria for inclusion: lb. 2b, 3b. 

Source: K. David Bishop, Agustinus W. Taufik and Edi Djuharsa. 

Wetland name: Kelimutu Lakes 



Location: 20 km northeast of Ende, Kabupaten Ende, East Flores, Nusa Tenggara. 

Area: c.5,000 ha. 

Altitude: 800-1,690m (Mount Kelimutu). 



Description of site: A number of crater lakes, each with its own specific water color. The lakes are 

relatively small, and lie within disturbed and mostly secondary forest, which, however, still 

provides a very scenic backdrop to the lakes. The color of the lakes is caused by the high content 

of minerals and gases. 

Climatic conditions: Relatively dry, tropical, monsoonal climate with an annual rainfall of less 

than 1,000 mm.

Principal vegetation: No information is available on the aquatic vegetation. The vegetation in 

surrounding areas includes Eucalyptus urophylla, Spinifex littoreus, Cassia javanica and Cassutha 

filiformis. 

Land tenure: Under the responsibility of the Forestry Service of Ende. 


Conservation measures proposed: An area of 500 ha has been proposed as a Recreation Park. 

Three of the lakes are included within the proposed Kelimutu Lake Nature Reserve. 

Land use: Management of forest and wildlife; forestry and cultivation in surrounding areas. 

Disturbances and threats: Shifting cultivation, road construction and wood-cutting. 

Economic and social values: The lakes have outstanding scenic values and great potential for 

outdoor recreation and tourism. They are also of great hydrological value. 

Fauna: Little information is available. Water birds known to occur at the lakes include Butorides 

striatus, Egretta sacra, Ardea sumatrana and Pluvialis dominica. Mammals include Cervus 

timorensis, Macaca fascicularis, Sus scrofa, Pteropus sp and Herpestes javanicus. Reptiles include 

Oteophryne sp, Mabouya multifasciata and Emoia similis. 



References: Direktorat P.P.A. (1980a); MacKinnon & Artha (l982c). 


Source: Agustinus W. Taufik and Edi Djuharsa. 

Wetland name: Maumere Bay 


Coordinates: 8°11'-8°38'S, l22°l2'-122°32'E; 

Location: on the northeast coast of Flores at Maumere, Kabupaten Sikka, East Flores, Nusa 

Tengarra. 

Area: Bay 66,400 ha; islands 7,000 ha. 



Wetland type: 01, 03, 05 & 07. 

Description of site: A large, shallow sea bay with eight islands, fringed with mangrove forests, 

sandy beaches and coral reefs. The main island is Pulau Babi (3,000 ha). 

Climatic conditions: Tropical monsoonal climate with the annual rainfall varying from 1,092 mm 

to 1,766 mm. The average temperature ranges from 25 to 28.4°C, and the relative humidity, from 

70 to 92%. 

Principal vegetation: Mangrove forest with Rhizophora sp, Sonneratia alba, Avicennia sp and 

Bruguiera sp. There is also some dry beach forest with Barringtonia asiatica, Terminalla catappa, 

Hibiscus tiliaceus, Pandanus tectorius and Borossus sp. 



Conservation measures proposed: The site has been proposed as a Recreation Park (Taman 

Wisata) and Marine Park (Taman Laut). 

Land use: Outdoor recreation; agriculture and forestry in adjacent areas. 

Disturbances and threats: Illegal felling of trees, dynamite fishing, and encroachment of 

agriculture and human settlements. 

Economic and social values: The area has great scenic beauty and high potential for outdoor 


Fauna: The coral reefs are very rich in fish species. Little information is available on the water 

birds; the few species reported include Nycticorax caledonicus, Butorides striatus, Ciconia

episcopus and Actitis hypoleucos. Dugong dugon, Delphinus delphis and Eubalsema glacialis 

occur in the bay. Land mammals include Cervus timorensis, Paradoxurus hermaphroditus and Sus 

sp. Reptiles include species of Varanus, Python and Mabouya. 



References: Departemen Kehutanan (1986); FAO (1981b). 


Source: Edi Djuharsa and Agustinus W. Taufik. 

Wetland name: Kupang Bay 



Location: on the south shore of Timor, 20 km east of Kupang, West Timor Province, East Nusa 

Tenggara. 

Area: 6,800 ha. 



Wetland type: 01, 04, 06, 07, 10 & 15. 

Description of site: A large west-facing bay, with coral reefs fringing the northern and southern 

shores west of l23°42'E. There are approximately 4,000 ha of intertidal mudflats at the head of the 

bay, at the northwest corner of Oesau Plain; this is the only large area of mudflats on the island of 

Timor. Some 1,400 ha of the mudflats lie seaward of the fringing mangroves; the mud is very soft, 

with mixed mud and rock along the northern edge, and sand flats and raised beaches along the 

southern edge near a raised coral headland. The remaining 2,600 ha of mudflats lie inland of the 

mangroves; they are devoid of vegetation and are inundated only on the higher spring tides. The 

area is crossed by five tidal creeks lined with mangroves and with extensive stands of mangroves 

at their mouths. Pulau Kera is a small sandy island in the mouth of the bay, with fringing coral 

reefs and sea-grass beds. During the wet season (November to March), freshwater pools form on 

the inland mudflats. At the height of the wet season, these pools cover about 260 ha, but most have 

dried out by the end of April. The maximum tidal amplitude at Kupang is 2.2m. 

Climatic conditions: Tropical monsoonal climate, regulated by the ESE monsoon from May to 

October, and the WNW monsoon from November to April. Cyclones are rare, but there are periods 

of very heavy rainfall and prolonged droughts, particularly in the west. 

Principal vegetation: Mangrove forest dominated by species of Avicennia and Rhizophora. One 

species of Avicennia dominates at the edge of the coastal mudflats and along tidal creeks. 

Rhizophora stylosa occurs on scrub-covered embankments behind the Oebelo Flat and at Pasir 

Putih. R. apiculata occurs in monotypic stands at the mouths of the Beno, Nunkurus and Mulutupi 

creeks. There is some mixed tropical monsoon forest northeast of the head of the bay near Bipolo. 

Rice paddies extend to the edge of the mudflats in some areas; in drier or slightly higher areas, the 

vegetation adjacent to the inner flats is more typical of the plains and salt flats of the north coast. 



Conservation measures proposed: Sections of Kupang Bay should be declared nature reserves. 

Detailed proposals need to be developed. 

Land use: Commercial exploitation of the mangrove forest is limited to operations at Tambak 

Oebelo (initiated in 1974) and at Tambak Merdeka (initiated in 1985). Ponds are used for 

aquaculture in the wet season (November to March) and salt production during the rest of the year. 

Fish traps are in operation at the mouths of the creeks, and shellfish and crabs are harvested on 

suitable tides. The adjacent Oesau Plain is largely under cultivation for rice from December to

March. The southern shore of the bay is densely populated, particularly around the town of 

Kupang. 

Possible changes in Land use: Various drainage and irrigation schemes are being implemented on 

the Oesau Plain, with funding from Canadian aid. 

Disturbances and threats: The mangroves near three small fishing villages are heavily cut for 

poles for making fish traps. There is a little hunting of birds on the mudflats, but no large-scale 

trapping for food. The monsoon forest near Bipolo is severely threatened by local farmers who 

view the land as more productive under rice paddy. 

Economic and social values: The mangroves and mudflats support an important fishery (finfish, 

shellfish and crabs). The area is also important for salt production. 

Fauna: A very important staging area for migratory shorebirds, thirty-two species of which have 

been recorded. The most abundant are as follows: Stiltia isabella (flocks of 5,000-10,000 in 

autumn), Pluvialis squatarola, Charadrius ruficapillus (over 400 in March and September 1985), 

C. leschenaultii, C. veredus, Numenius phaeopus, N. madagascariensis (over 250 in March and 

October 1985), Calidris ruficollis, C. acuminata, C. ferruginea and Limicola falcinellus. Other 

species recorded in autumn 1985 included up to four Asian Dowitchers Limnodromus 

semipalmatus, the first record of this species in Wallacea. Up to 150 Australian Pelicans Pelecanus 

conspicillatus have been recorded. Dugons Dugong dugon feed on sea-grass in the vicinity of 

Pulau Kera. The Estuarine Crocodile Crocodylus porosus still occurs regularly in Nunkurus Creek. 

Two individuals, two meters and five meters in length respectively, were observed there in 1985. 


Research and facilities: P. Andrew carried out shorebird surveys in March 1985 and 

August-October 1985. The recently established Environmental Study Centre at Chendara 

University in Kupang, Timor Barat, is conducting some studies in the area. 

References: Andrew (in prep-a & in prep-b); Beudels (1981); Karpowicz (1985). 


Source: Crawford Prentice. 

Wetland name: Pulau Menipo 



Location: on the south coast of Timor, 85 km east of Kupang, West Timor Province, East Nusa 

Tenggara. 

Area: 2,499.5 ha. 




Description of site: Menipo Island is a small, sandy island in the estuary of the Noilmira River. 

The island supports mangrove forest, beach vegetation with Pandanus trees, and a line of Spinifex 

grass just above the beach. The estuary contains some good mangrove forest, but most areas 

outside the Game Reserve have been degraded by the inhabitants of three nearby villages. 

Climatic conditions: Rather dry, tropical monsoonal climate with an annual rainfall of less than 

1,200 mm. The average temperature is 28°C. 

Principal vegetation: Mangrove forest with Rhizophora sp, Bruguiera sp, Xylocarpus 

moluccensis and Sonneratia acida; beach vegetation with Pandanus sp, Spinifex sp, Barringtonia 

asiatiea, Hibiscus tiliaceus, Terminalia catappa and Crotalaria retusa. 


Conservation measures taken: The area was designated as a Game Reserve in 1977. 

Conservation measures proposed: None

Land use: Fishing. 

Disturbances and threats: Shifting cultivation, illegal settlement, and cutting of mangroves for 

firewood. 


Fauna: Little information is available. Water birds known to occur in the area 

include Phalacrocorax sulcirostris, Nycticorax caledonicus, Egretta sacra, Dendrocygna guttata, 

Esacus magnirostris, Actitis hypoleucos and Halcyon sancta. Mammals include Pteropus sp, 

Macaca fascicularis, Sus scrofa and Paradoxurus hermaphroditus. Reptiles include Chelonia 

mydas, Vipera russeli and Draco volans. 

Special floral values: The island is noted for its Sandalwood Santalum albium. 


References: FAO (l981c); Planologi Kehutanan (1980). 



Wetland name: Maubesi Mangrove Swamp 



Location: Kabupaten Bulu, West Timor, East Nusa Tenggara. 

Area: 1,830 ha. 




Description of site: A coastal area with sandy beaches, about 1,100 ha of undisturbed mangrove 

swamp and, further inland, some curious cold mud volcanoes. 

Climatic conditions: Tropical monsoonal climate. The average temperature is 33.1°C, and the 

average relative humidity, 82.4%. 

Principal vegetation: Mangrove forest with species of Rhizophora, Sonneratia, Bruguiera and 

Avicennia, still in good condition; also dry beach forest with Hibiscus tiliaceus, Terminalia 

catappa, Casuarina sp and Zizyphus horsfieldii. 

Land tenure: State owned (Forest Service of Nusa Tenggara Timur). 




Possible changes in Land use: A project to develop the water resources of the Besiham plain for 

agriculture would drastically alter the water regime and cause substantial changes to the mangrove 

forest. 

Disturbances and threats: Cutting of mangroves for firewood, illegal hunting and illegal fishing. 

Human population pressure is increasing rapidly in the area. 

Economic and social values: The cold mud volcanoes are of considerable geological interest, and 

could provide a novel attraction for tourists. 

Fauna: The mangrove swamps are important for a wide variety of water birds including 

Nycticorax nycticorax, Bubulcus ibis, Egretta intermedia, Ciconia episcopus, Plegadis faicinellus, 

Threskiornis sp, Dendrocygna sp, Anas sp, Pandion haliaetus, Numenius arquata and Actitis 

hypoleucos. 

Mammals include a species of Macaca and a species of Cervus. The Estuarine Crocodile 

Crocodylus porosus occurs in the mangroves, and Hawksbill Turtles Eretmochelys imbricata have 

been recorded. Other reptiles include Varanus salvator, Cerberus rhynchops and Mabouya 

multifasciata.



References: Crippen International (1978); Direktorat P.P.A. (1980b); FAO (1981c). 



Wetland name: Muara Sebuku 


Coordinates: 3°50'-4°05'N, 117°20'-117°40'E; 

Location: 70 km north of Tarakan, Kabupaten Bulungan, East Kalimantan. 

Area: 110,000 ha. 




Description of site: A large area of coastal mangroves, swamp forests and lowland forest 

including about 55,000 ha of mangrove forest and 10,000 ha of peat swamp forest, along the 

Sebuku and Sembakung Rivers, north of the Sungai Sesajab. The mangrove forest is now the least 

disturbed area of mangroves remaining in East Kalimantan Province. 


Principal vegetation: Mangrove forest and peat swamp forest. 




Alam), and the proposal is receiving high priority. 


Disturbance and threats: There are plans to log the area. 

Economic and social values: The mangrove swamps and peat swamp forest are very important 

for fisheries production. 

Fauna: The Proboscis Monkey Nasalis larvatus is known to occur in the area, but no other 

information is available. 






Wetland name: Sangalaki Archipelago 



Location: 50 km off the mouth of the Berau River, Kabupaten Tanjung Redeb, East Kalimantan. 

Area: 65 ha. 




Description of site: A group of small coral islands with extensive sandy beaches and some 

mangrove forest, off the mouth of the Berau River. The principal islands are Pulau Semana, Pulau 

Sangalaki, Pulau Belambangan, Pulau Bilangan, Pulau Mataha and Pulau Sambit. 


Principal vegetation: Mangrove. 



Conservation measures proposed: Pulau Semana and Pulau Sangalaki have been proposed as 

Nature Reserves (Cagar Alam). 

Land use: Harvesting of sea-turtle eggs. Some two million turtle eggs are harvested annually from 

the islands. The right to collect turtle eggs is under the control of the local government, which 

grants concessions to local contractors in return for fees. Records of the harvest are maintained by 

the Fisheries Department, Tanjung Redeb. 

Disturbances and threats: Excessive harvesting of turtle eggs and dynamite fishing on the coral 

reefs. 

Economic and social values: The income from the harvest of sea-turtle eggs was at one time the 

main source of revenue for the Kabupaten Tanjung Redeb, but it is now of only minor significance 

compared to the royalties from logging activities. 

Fauna: The islands are probably the most important nesting area for Green Sea Turtles Chelonia 

mydas in the whole region. Hawksbill Turtles Eretmochelys imbricata also breed on the islands, 

but in much smaller numbers. The peak nesting period is between June and December, when about 

70% of the eggs are laid. No information is available on the other fauna of the islands. 



References: FAO (l977a); MacKinnon & Artha (1981a). 



Wetland name: Wetlands in Kutai National Park 


Coordinates: 0°05'S-0°35'N, 116°55'-117°35'E; 

Location: in the Kutai Basin, 50-120 km NNE of Samarinda, Kabupaten Kutai, East Kalimantan. 

Area: Area of wetlands unknown; National Park 200,000 ha, proposed extension 120,000 ha. 



Wetland type: 07, 11, 14 & 21. 

Description of site: A large National Park containing examples of all the lowland habitats of East 

Kalimantan, including: (a) submerged and raised beaches, (b) mangrove and Nypa swamps, (c) 

freshwater swamps, (d) floodplains, (e) areas with poorly drained to moderately drained soils, (f) 

areas with well drained soils, and (g) excessively drained podsol soil or "kerangas" areas. There 

are some 7,000 ha of mangrove swamps in the coastal zone, backed by Nypa swamp and 

freshwater swamp forest. The latter also extends along the rivers, such as the Sungai Santan and 

Sungai Teluk Pandan. There are a few lakes in the area, notably Danau Maau, Santan, Besar and 

Sirapan, surrounded by freshwater swamp forest. 

Climatic conditions: Humid tropical climate with an annual rainfall of over 2,000 mm. The 

heaviest rainfall occurs during the west monsoon (December to February); the rainfall is relatively 

low during the east monsoon (June to August). There have been nine drought years since 1940 

coinciding with El Nino events. Average temperatures range from 26-27°C. 

Principal vegetation: The lakes are overgrown with Hanguana malayana. Mangrove forest is 

dominated by species of Rhizophora and Bruguiera, with trees up to 25m in height. Nypa fruticans 

forms some pure stands further inland. Other mangrove species include Avicennia spp and 

Sonneratia spp. The freshwater swamp forest is dominated by Eugenia sp, and the floodplain 

forest by species of Octomeles, Pterosperinum and Barringtonia. In the western half of the park,

there are forests of Eusideroxylon zwageri, Shorea spp and kapur, with trees up to 35m in height. 

In poorly drained conditions, E. zwageri is dominant. The other main forest types are mixed 

dipterocarp and kerangas forest. 

Land tenure: State owned (PHPA, Indonesian Government). 

Conservation measures taken: The entire area (200,000 ha) was designated as a Wildlife Reserve 

(Suaka Margasatwa) in July 1971, and upgraded to the status of National Park in October 1982, 

during the Third World Congress on National Parks in Bali. 

Conservation measures proposed: There is a proposal to extend the National Park to a total of 

320,000 ha. 

Land use: Nature conservation, shifting cultivation, logging, fishing (mainly in the swamp areas 

and lakes), and exploration for oil and gas. Large tracts of the adjacent forests are under logging 

concessions or are used for shifting cultivation. 

Possible changes in Land use: There are plans to clear-fell and develop all areas of forest 

surrounding the National Park. 

Disturbances and threats: Most of the area has been damaged to some extent by logging, oil 

exploration, shifting cultivation and forest fires. The park is completely surrounded by 

development activities including organized and spontaneous human settlement, development of the 

oil and natural gas industries, logging and coal-mining. Eventually, the National Park will be the 

only forested area in the region, and as such will become invaluable. 

Economic and social values: The park serves as an important gene pool for forest products. It also 

plays an important role in protecting water catchment areas and stabilizing the flow in the Kedang 

Rantau, Mahakam, Sengata and Santan Rivers. This is crucial to the use of these rivers for 

transportation and as a source of water for local industries. The park has considerable potential for 

recreation, tourism and scientific research. 

Fauna: The lakes are said to be very rich in fishes, but no details are available. 

The area is very rich in mammals, having nearly all the species occurring in East Kalimantan, 

although the Asian Two-horned Rhinoceros Dicerorhinus sumatrensis is now probably extinct. 

Some 300 species of birds have been recorded, including about 80% of the forest birds of Borneo. 

Water birds include a variety of herons, egrets and shorebirds, six species of rails (Rallidae) and 

ten species of kingfishers (Alcedinidae). Both the Estuarine Crocodile Crocodylus porosus and 

False Gharial Tomistoma schlegelii still occur in the area along with a variety of other reptiles such 

as monitor lizards, tree lizards, flying lizards, pythons and cobras. 


Research and facilities: Numerous faunal and floral surveys have been carried out in the National 

Park, but little attention seems to have been given to the wetland habitats and almost no work has 

been conducted on the waterfowl. 

References: IUCN (in prep); Wirawan (1985). 

Criteria for inclusion: lb., 2a, 2b. 


Wetland name: Muara Kaman 


Coordinates: 0°25'N-0°07'S, 1l6°37'-ll6°48'E; 

Location: 80 km northwest of Samarinda, Kabupaten Kutai, East Kalimantan. 

Area: 62,500 ha. 



Wetland type: 21.

Description of site: A large area of lowland peat swamp forest between the Kedang Kepala and 

Menamang Kiwa Rivers. 


Principal vegetation: Peat swamp forest with ramin Gonystylus bancanus. 


Conservation measures taken: The entire area was designated as a Nature Reserve (Cagar Alam) 

in May 1976. 

Conservation measures proposed: It has been suggested that the status of Wildlife Reserve 

(Suaka Margasatwa) would be more appropriate for the area. Human settlements should be 

excluded when the boundaries of the reserve are marked in the field. 

Land use: Hand logging of ramin, and agriculture near settlements. 

Disturbances and threats: Disturbance from human settlements, illegal logging and hunting. 








Wetland name: Perairan Sungai Mahakam 



Location: in the Mahakam Valley, 90 km west of Samarinda, Kabupaten Kutai, East Kalimantan. 

Area: 200,000 ha. 

Altitude: 20-lOOm. 


Wetland type: 10, 11, 13, 14 & 21. 

Description of site: A vast complex of freshwater lakes, swamps and interconnecting channels in 

the Mahakam River valley, with surrounding freshwater swamp forests (30,000 ha) and peat 

swamp forests (10,000 ha). The lakes cover an area of about 15,000 ha. The largest is Semayang 

Melintang; other smaller lakes include Batu Bumbus (450 ha), Lokang (400 ha), Siran (750 ha) 

and Jantur (200 ha). The area is inhabited by large numbers of people and the river is important for 

transport. 


mean temperature is 30°C. 

Principal vegetation: Freshwater swamp forest and peat swamp forest. Eichhornia crassipes is 

common in the lakes. 



Conservation measures proposed: The entire area has been proposed as a Nature Reserve (Cagar 

Alam). However, because of the high level of human settlement, a more modest proposal may be 

required (MacKinnon & Artha, l981a). 

Land use: Fishing; forestry in surrounding areas. 

Disturbances and threats: There is a considerable amount of disturbance from heavy shipping 

(logging boats and rafts) on the river. Other threats include pollution, over-fishing, human 

encroachment and the catching of freshwater dolphins Orcaella brevirostris. 

Economic and social values: The lakes support a major inland fishery.

Fauna: The rich fish fauna includes Mystus nemurus, Helastoma temmincki, Ophiocephalus 

striatus, Pristis sp, Laptabarbus haerani, Clarias batrachus, Anabas sp, Puntius sp, Dasyatis sp 

and Pangasius sp. 

The lakes are said to be of considerable importance for water birds, but few data are available. 

Species known to occur include Ardeola sp, Egretta intermedia, Leptoptilos javanicus, Gallinula 

chioropus and Sterna albifrons. Seven White-shouldered Ibises Pseudibis davidsoni were recorded 

in October 1983. 

The Mahakam River is inhabited by a distinct subspecies of the rare Irrawaddy or Snubfin Dolphin 

Orcaella brevirostris. Other mammals include Macaca fascicularis, Nasalis larvatus, Hylobates 

sp, Neofelis brevirosris, N. nebulosa, Helarctos malayanus, Cervus unicolor and Sus barbatus. 



References: Holmes & Burton (1987); Kanwil Departemen Kehutanan Kalimantan Timur (1984); 

MacKinnon & Artha (1981a). 

Criteria for inclusion: lb. le, 2a, 2b, 2d. 3b. 


Wetland name: Teluk Apar and Teluk Adang 


Coordinates: 1°35'-2°15'S, 116°1O'-116°35'E; 

Location: 50-120 km southwest of Balikpapan, Kabupaten Pasir, East Kalimantan. 

Area: 130,000 ha. 




Description of site: The extensive mangrove forests, swamp forests and intertidal mudflats in the 

deltaic systems of the Apar and Kandilo Rivers. The mangrove swamps are still in an almost 

undisturbed condition; they cover an area of 90,000 ha and are backed by about 40,000 ha of 

freshwater swamp. The deltas are rather stable, with very little land erosion or accretion. During 

the rainy season, input of freshwater from the adjacent uplands creates rapid and significant 

changes in salinity and turbidity. The area is usually subject to tidal inundation twice daily; the 

tidal amplitude varies from 1.0m at neap tides to 1.8m at spring tides. 

Climatic conditions: Humid tropical climate, with an average annual rainfall of about 2,280 mm, 

most of which falls during the rainy season, from December to April. The average monthly 

temperature does not exceed 29°C. 

Principal vegetation: Mangrove forest, very rich in species. Sukardjo (1987) lists 38 species (28 

genera and 1 7 families) in the mangrove forests of the Apar Delta. Five types of mangrove 

community are recognized: 

a) Avicennia forest, with A. officinalis predominating; 

b) Rhizophora forest, predominantly R. apiculata and/or R. mucronata interspersed with a variety 

of mangrove associates such as Paramignya angulata; 

c) Ceriops tagal forest, either as pure stands or mixed with other species; 

d) Bruguiera-Rhizophora forest, with B. parviflora predominating; 

e) Nypa fruticans forest, either as pure stands or mixed with other species. 


Conservation measures taken: A strict prohibition on the felling of mangrove trees is already in 

force in the area of the proposed nature reserve. 

Conservation measures proposed: A proposal that the area be designated as a Nature Reserve 

(Cagar Alam) has been approved. Sukardjo (1987) has proposed that a fish reserve be established

in the tidal areas of the Apar Delta, and that a fish sanctuary be created in the subsidiary creeks and 

small tributaries of the inner delta. 

Land use: Both deltas are major log-loading points. There are some settlements in adjacent areas. 

Disturbances and threats: There is some disturbance from logging activities and nearby human 

settlements. 

Economic and social values: The Orang Laut/Bajau people who live around the estuary of the 

Kandilo River are dependent on the mangrove resources for food, fuel and shelter. The mangrove 

swamps provide breeding and nursery grounds for a very large proportion of the fishes and prawns 

taken by commercial and traditional fishermen in Apar Bay. Over two-thirds of the East 

Kalimantan fisheries production is linked to the healthy mangrove areas. The mangrove swamps 

are also important in the maintenance of the water table for agriculture, in flood control, and in 

protecting the delta region from erosion. 

Fauna: The deltas are rich in estuarine fishes, crabs (notably Scylla serrata), prawns (notably 

Macrobrachiurn rossenbergii and species of Penaeus, Metapenaeus) and molluscs. The juveniles 

of about 220 species of estuarine, marine, riverine and brackish water fishes, crustaceans and 

molluscs have been collected in the Apar delta. 

The area is very important for water birds. Resident species include Phalacrocorax sp, Anhinga 

melanogaster, Nycticorax nycticorax, Egretta intermedia, E. alba, Ardea cinerea, Leptoptilos 

javanicus, Dendrocygna sp, Haliastur indicus, Haliaeetus leucogaster, Ichthyophaga nana and 

Halcyon chloris. Plegadis falcinellus, Anas sp, a variety of shorebirds and Sterna hirundo occur on 

passage and during the northern winter. The Proboscis Monkey Nasalis larvatus is known to occur 

in the area. 

Special floral values: The site contains one of the largest expanses of relatively undisturbed 

mangrove forest in Indonesia. 

Research and facilities: S. Sukardjo conducted an ecological study of the mangrove forest of the 

Apar Delta between 1980 and 1982 (Sukardjo, 1987). 

References: MacKinnon & Artha (198la); Sukardjo (1987). 

Criteria for inclusion: lb. le, 2a, 2b, 2c, 3b. 

Source: Marcel J. Silvius and references. 

Wetland name: Pamukan 



Location: 85 km NNE of Kotabaru, Kabupaten Kotabaru, South Kalimantan. 

Area: 10,000 ha. 




Description of site: A mangrove and estuarine swamp forest. The mangrove is well developed and 

little disturbed. 


temperatures range from 25-27°C. 

Principal vegetation: Extensive mangrove forest with species of Avicennia, Rhizophora, 

Sonneratia and Bruguiera. 




(Cagar Alam) has been approved. 

Land use: No information.

Disturbances and threats: Cutting of mangroves trees. There is a possibility that the area will be 

logged for wood chips. 

Economic and social values: The mangrove forests are of considerable importance as nursery and 

breeding areas for marine fishes and crustaceans, which form the basis of the inshore fishery. 


Special floral values: A large stand of relatively undisturbed mangrove forest. 





Wetland name: Tanjung Kelumpang 



Location: 30 km north of Kotabaru, Kabupaten Kotabaru, South Kalimantan. 

Area: 13,750 ha. 




Description of site: A large concave estuary of mangrove forests and mangrove islands. The 

forests are well formed and show several vegetation zones. 


Principal vegetation: Extensive mangro 




Alam). 

Land use: Coastal protection and fisheries. 

Disturbances and threats: Cutting of mangroves. 

Economic and social values: The mangrove forests are important in sustaining the local fishery 

resource, and provide coastal protection. 


Special floral values: The site contains an excellent example of mangrove forest typical of the 

east coast of Kalimantan. 


References: MacKinnon & Artha (1981 a). 



Wetland name: Hutan Bakau Pantai Timur 


Coordinates: 3°07'-3°36'S, 115°59'-1l6°12'E; 

Location: southwest of Kotabaru, Kabupaten Kotabaru, South Kalimantan. 

Area: 66,650 ha. 



Wetland type: 05, 06, 07 & 11.

Description of site: A large area of coastal mangrove forest and Nypa swamps adjacent to a small 

area of dry-land forest. 

Climatic conditions: Humid tropical climate with an annual rainfall ranging from 1,285 to 3,785 

mm. The average temperature ranges from 24°C to 26°C, and the relative humidity from 40 to 

42%. 

Principal vegetation: Mangrove forest with species of Avicennia, Rhizophora, Bruguiera and 

Sonneratia, and Nypa fruticans; lowland forest with Dipterocarpus sp, Shorea sp, Anthocephalus 

cadamba, Gonystylus sp and Vitex pubescens. 

Land tenure: State owned; managed by the Forest Management Unit of Kota Baru, Forest 

Service, South Kalimantan Province. 



Land use: Fisheries; forestry in surrounding areas. 

Disturbances and threats: Illegal wood-cutting, especially for firewood or charcoal, and hunting. 

Economic and social values: The mangroves protect the coast from erosion, and provide a 

breeding and nursery area for marine fishes and crustaceans important in the local fishery. 

Fauna: Water birds known to occur in the area include species of Phalacrocorax, Egretta and 

Sterna, and the kingfishers Pelargopsis capensis, Halcyon chioris. Mammals include Nasalis 

larvatus, Macaca fascicularis, M. nemestrina, Hylobates sp, Sus barbatus and Muntiacus muntjak. 

Reptiles include the Green Sea Turtle Chelonia mydas, the monitor 

lizard Varanus salvator and Python sp. 



References: Direktorat P.P.A. (1980k). 


Source: Edi Djuharsa and Agustinus W. Taufik. 

Wetland name: Pleihari Tanah Laut 


Coordinates: 4°00'- 4°12'S, 114°35'-l l4°50'E; 

Location: 80 km south of Banjarmasin, Kabupaten Tanah Laut, South Kalimantan. 

Area: 35,000 ha. 




Description of site: A low-lying coastal area with 40% grassland and shrub land and 50% swamp. 

The remaining 10% are hilly with Gunung Tunggal as the highest peak (102m). The swamps 

consist of mangrove forest (4,000 ha) and freshwater swamp (20,000 ha) including swampy 

grasslands and swamp forest. Sandy beaches along the coast provide nesting sites for sea-turtles. 

Climatic conditions: Humid tropical climate with an average annual rainfall of about 2,259 

mm. 

Principal vegetation: Mangrove forest dominated by Sonneratia sp; grasslands and swamp forest 

with Melaleuca sp, Shorea balangeran, Gluta renghas, Dyera sp, Campnosperma macrophylla 

and Oncosperma tiggilarium. In adjacent areas, heath forest with Vitex sp and Callopliyllum sp. 


Conservation measures taken: The area has been protected in a Wildlife Reserve since 1974. 

Conservation measures proposed: There is a proposal to upgrade the reserve to the status of 

Nature Reserve (Cagar Alam). 

Land use: Nature conservation. The wetland serves as a natural reservoir for drinking water.

Disturbances and threats: Cutting of wood, hunting of deer, shifting cultivation, and grazing by 

domestic livestock. 

Economic and social values: The mangrove swamps provide nursery areas for marine fishes and 

crustaceans important in the local fishery. The wetland is also an important water supply for local 

communities. 

Fauna: Waterfowl known to occur at the site include Bubulcus ibis, Egretta spp and a variety of 

migratory shorebirds. The area is rich in mammals including Neofelis nebulosa, Prionodon 

linsang, Nasalis larvatus, Macaca sp, Hylobates sp, Sus vittatus, Cervus unicolor and Muntiacus 

muntjak. 

The Green Sea Turtle Chelonia mydas and Hawksbill Turtle Eretmochelys imbricata nest on the 

sandy beaches. Other reptiles include the Estuarine Crocodile Crocodylus porosus and monitor 

lizard Varanus salvator. 



References: IPB (1976a); IUCN (in prep); Karpowicz (1985); MacKinnon & Artha (1981a); Salm 

& Halim (1984). 



Wetland name: Danau Bankau and other swamps in the Barito Basin 



Location: in the lower Barito Basin, north from Banjarmasin to the region of Butong, South 

Kalimantan. 

Area: 480,000 ha (excluding marginal areas under traditional intensive use). 



Wetland type: 08, 11, 12, 13, 14, 18, 19, 20 & 21. 

Description of site: The vast alluvial plain of the lower Barito Basin and its left bank tributaries, 

notably the Negara River. On first emerging onto the plain, the tributaries form a complex 

depositional network of levees and back-swamps that supports the densest rural population in 

Kalimantan (towns of Amuntai, Kandangan and Rantau). The tributaries then flow through a zone 

of deep water swamps (including Danau Bankau, Danau Panggang and Alabio Polder) which 

serves as a sump or floodwater storage area. The deep water swamps then drain slowly across the 

extensive, level, marine coastal plain into the Barito River and the sea. Peat swamps are located in 

the shallow basins between the rivers, which are permanently wet. Although the largest peat 

swamps in the Pulau Petak area have peat depths up to 190 cm or more and have a typical domed 

structure, most of these peats are young and comparatively shallow. The rivers have rather stable 

courses, but the Sungei Murung has changed its course in geologically recent times, leaving 

remnant channels in the lower Pulau Petak area. Annual flooding occurs during the wet season, 

from December to March. Brackish water incursion reaches about 30 km inland during the dry 

season, while tidal influences are felt up to 100 km inland during the wet season and up to 150 km 

during the dry. There are two open water lakes, Danau Bankau and Danau Panggang, with a depth 

of three meters or more. 

The four major zones are as follows: (a) riverine alluvial plain consisting of levees and 

back-swamps, subject to intensive land use including the cultivation of rice; (b) deep swamps 

(128,000 ha) consisting of open marsh with some permanent lakes; (c) peat swamp forest (186,000 

ha); (d) marine alluvial plain (166,000 ha) consisting of alluvial forest with extensive secondary 

forests of Melaleuca, and potential acid-sulphate soils.

Climatic conditions: Humid tropical climate, with an average annual rainfall of 2,500 mm. The 

wet season is from December to March, and the dry season from July to October. 

Principal vegetation: Deep swamps with lake vegetation, grassy swamps and open forest; peat 

swallip forest; marine alluvial plains with swampy grassland, alluvial forest and Melaleuca scrub. 

There is intensive, rice-based agriculture in the riverine zone, and kerangas forest and sandy 

terraces to the north. The acidic swamps and peat swamps continue west of the Barito Basin. 

Land tenure: The wetland is state owned (Indonesian Government); surrounding areas are under 

customary tenure. 


Conservation measures proposed: Consideration should be given to the establishment of nature 

reserves in the deep water swamps, at Danau Bankau or the lake area west of Alabio, as there are 

reasons to believe that these lakes support some unique elements of aquatic fauna and flora, not 

found elsewhere in Kalimantan (Central Planning Consultancy Jakarta, 1979). Detailed surveys are 

needed to investigate the importance of the area for water birds and determine possible reserve 

boundaries. 

Land use: Fishing, cultivation of floating rice and reed-cutting in the deep water swamps. The 

riverine zones of the Amuntai, Kandangan and Rantau Rivers are densely populated and under 

intensive cultivation. An attempt was made in 1936 to convert 6,000 ha of swamp at Alabio, 

upstream of the Sungai Negara, into polder, but the pumping capacity was too low and the project 

failed. Large areas of the polder have since fallen into disrepair. About 3,000 ha are planted with 

rice between May and August, when water levels are at their lowest. The polder supports an 

important fishery (8,000 metric tonnes per year) and is also an important duck-farming area (24 

million eggs per year). 

Possible changes in Land use: Many reclamation schemes are planned, especially in the riverine 

areas and marine alluvial plains but also in the swamps, despite the fact that peat areas and deep 

water swamps are usually considered to be unsuitable for reclamation. 

Disturbances and threats: Reclamation schemes and drainage projects; some 279,700 ha have 

been listed as suitable for reclamation. Fishing, reed-cutting and bird-trapping may be excessive in 

the deep swamps, especially those lying adjacent to densely populated regions. Extensive forest 

clearance in the water catchment area is likely to affect water quality. 

Economic and social values: The deep water swamps have a high value for flood control and as a 

source of water during dry periods. They are also important for fisheries and other traditionally 

harvested products. The peat swamp forests also play an important role in the hydrological balance 

of the region, as well as providing a good example of this ecosystem. At least 63,300 ha of swamps 

are listed as unsuitable for reclamation. In view of the large-scale reclamation schemes which are 

currently planned, these areas should be considered of high conservation value as they will 

eventually represent the only natural swamp habitats in the region. 

Fauna: A very important area for a wide variety of waterbirds. Species recorded during brief 

surveys in recent years include Anhinga rnelanogaster, Ixobrychus cinnamomeus, I. flavicollis, 

Butorides striatus, Ardea purpurea, Leptoptilos javanicus, Dendrocygna arcuata. Nettapus 

corornandelianus, Jchthyophaga ichthyaetus, Rallus striatus, Porzana cinerea, P. fusca, Gallinula 

chioropus, Rostratula benghalensis, Tringa nebularia, Chlidonias hybrida (a common visitor) and 

Pelargopsis capensis. The endangered White-shouldered This Pseudibis davidsoni has been 

reported and may occur in significant numbers in the more remote areas. Large roosts of Ardeola 

sp (500) and Egretta intermedia (2,000) have been located, and it is likely that there are breeding 

colonies of large water birds in the area. Other waterfowl known only from 19th Century reports, 

but which are still likely to occur, include Phalacrocorax sulcirostris, P. niger, Ixobrychus 

sinensis, Bubulcus ibis, Plegadis falcinellus, Gallinula tenebrosa and Himantopus hirnantopus. 

Special floral values: Probably the most important freshwater swamp in Kalimantan.

Research and facilities: Basic faunal and floral surveys have been carried out, and there have 

been several feasibility studies for reclamation schemes. 

References: Central Planning Consultancy Jakarta (1979); Holmes & Burton (1987). 



Wetland name: Pulau Kembang 


Coordinates: 3°l6'S, 1l4°33'E; 

Location: at Banjarmasin, Kabupaten Barito Kuala, South Kalimantan. 

Area: 60 ha. 

Altitude: 0- 1.6m. 



Description of site: A small mangrove island in the middle of the Barito River in Banjarmasin 

town. There is a Chinese temple on the island. 


temperatures range from 25-27°C. 

Principal vegetation: Mangrove forest with Sonneratia sp and Nypa fruticans; Bambusa spiralis, 

Hibiscus tiliaceus and Pandanus tectorius in adjacent areas. 


Conservation measures taken: The island was designated as a Recreation Park (Taman Wisata) 

in 1976. 


Land use: Tourism, recreation, scientific research and conservation of cultural heritage. The town 

of Banjarmasin lies around the site. 

Disturbances and threats: Cutting of mud for bricks. 

Economic and social values: The site has considerable potential for tourism. The Chinese temple 

is of considerable historical and cultural interest, and the large population of monkeys provides an 

interesting spectacle for tourists. 

Fauna: The island supports a large population of the Proboscis Monkey Nasalis larvatus along 

with Long-tailed Macaque Macaca fascicularis, Silvered Langur Presbytis cristata and a wide 

variety of birds. 



References: Direktorat P.P.A. (l979c); MacKinnon & Artha (1981a). 



Wetland name: Kelompok Hutan Kahayan 



Location: 90 km west of Banjarmasin, Kabupatens Kapuas and Katingan, Central Kalimantan. 

Area: 150,000 ha. 



Wetland type: 07 & 21.

Description of site: A large area of swamp forest, with about 90,000 ha of peat swamp forest, 

10,000 ha of freshwater swamp forest and 50,000 ha of mangrove swamp. The mangrove swamp is 

considered to be an extremely well developed example of Southern Kalimaritan mangrove. 


Principal vegetation: Mangrove forest, freshwater swamp forest and peat swamp forest. 




Alam). 


Disturbances and threats: Human disturbance, the cutting of timber, and forest clearance for 

agriculture. 

Economic and social values: The mangrove forest is presumed to be an important spawning area 

for marine fishes. 







Wetland name: Tanjung Puting National Park 


Coordinates: 2°35'-3°20'S, 1l1°50'-112°15'E; 

Location: southeast of Kumai, Central Kalimantan. 

Area: Area of wetlands unknown; the official area of the National Park is 300,040 ha, but only 

296,800 ha are currently mapped. 




Description of site: A vast low-lying area of coastal mangrove forests, Nypa swamp, peat swamp 

forest, freshwater swamp forest and kerangas forest, with areas of degraded fire-padang. The 

swamp forests are periodically flooded. The major source of water is local precipitation; the area is 

drained by several small, acidic, black-water rivers, which are brackish for a considerable distance 

inland from the coast (as indicated by the extent of the Nypa vegetation). At maximum flooding 

during the rainy season, the depth of water in the freshwater swamp forest varies from 0.5 to 1.5m. 

The tidal range in the Sehonyer River at Natai Lengkaus exceeds one meter. 

Climatic conditions: Humid tropical climate, with two annual peaks in the rainfall (March and 

December). The main dry season is from June to September. 

Principal vegetation: Wetland habitats include mangrove forest, Nypa fruticans swamp, peat 

swamp forest and freshwater swamp forest. Large areas of kerangas forest, some old ladang and 

fire-padang elsewhere in the Park. 

Land tenure: State owned; managed by PHPA. There are some small private land-holdings and a 

few small settlements in surrounding areas. 

Conservation measures taken: The area has been afforded some protection since June 1936; it 

was designated as a Biosphere Reserve in January 1977, and declared a National Park in October 

1982. A management plan was published in 1983. 

Conservation measures proposed: Pending Government approval and confirmation, another 

190,700 ha will be added to the National Park as extensions to the north, west and southeast.

Settlements and development within these proposed extensions may, however, hinder the 

expansion of the Park. The extension to the west (70,000 ha) would include adjacent marine 

habitats to protect sea-turtles and Dugong Dugong dugon. 

Land use: Illegal collection of forest products, poaching of Sambar Deer and fishing within the 

National Park; rice cultivation, coconut plantations, fishing and harvesting of forest products in 


Disturbances and threats: Illegal forest exploitation (for bark and jelutung Dyera costulata), 

illegal hunting and fishing, and the collection of eggs of Egretta spp for human consumption. 

Economic and social values: The area is an important genetic resource of great value for 

scientific research. 

Fauna: The National Park supports a very rich fauna typical of the lowland forests of Borneo. The 

fish Scleropagus formosus occurs in the rivers. There are significant populations of the rare 

Storm's Stork Ciconia (episcopus) stormi and Dendrocygna arcuata, and there is a large mixed 

breeding colony of water birds including Phalacrocorax sp, Anhinga melanogaster, Nycticorax 

nycticorax, Egretta garzetta, E. alba, Ardea purpurea, Leptoptilos javanicus and Plegadis 

falcinellus. The mammalian fauna includes large populations of Orang-utan Pongo pygmaeus and 

Proboscis Monkey Nasalis larvatus. The Irrawaddy Dolphin Orcaella brevirostris occurs in 

Kumai Bay adjacent to the Park. 

Special floral values: The National Park contains the largest tract of kerangas forest in Borneo. 

Research and facilities: The study area of the Orang-utan Research and Conservation Project is 

located in the National Park. PHPA maintains a camp on the Sehonyçr River at Natai Langkuas, 

which can be used by visiting scientists. 

References: Direktorat P.P.A. (1980d); Galdikas et al. (1985); Holmes & Burton (1987); IUCN 

(in prep); Karpowicz (1985); MacKinnon & Artha (1981a); Nash & Nash (1986a); WWF (1983). 


Source: Anne and Stephen Nash. 

Wetland name: Sungai Kumai and Kumai Bay 


Coordinates: 2°30'-3°OO'S, 111°38'-111°52'E; 

Location: Kabupaten West Kota Waringin, West Kalimantan. 

Area: 3,900 ha of wetlands in Kumai Bay; 80 km of river. 



Wetland type: 01, 05, 07 & 11. 

Description of site: The lower reaches of the Kumai River and its estuary in Kumai Bay, a 

shallow sea bay with extensive mangrove forests, Nypa swamps and some sandy beaches. Kumai 

River is one of the smaller rivers in Kalimantan, with an average width of about 750m and average 

depth of 10-15m along its lower reaches. At about 80 km from its mouth, the river ceases to be 

navigable. At this point, two smaller rivers flow together to form the Kumai. The small village of 

Kumai lies on the right bank. By the end of the wet west monsoon, the river is fresh and the 

salinity of the bay is greatly reduced. By the end of the dry season (east monsoon), the river 

becomes brackish up to 80 km inland. 


wettest period is during the west monsoon in April and May; the dry period occurs during the east 

monsoon in September and October. The relative humidity ranges from 55% to 98%; the 

temperature, from 22°C to 33°C. 

Principal vegetation: Mangrove forest, Nypa fruticans swamp and riverine swamp forest. 

Land tenure: State owned; under the responsibility of Kota Waringin Local Government.


Conservation measures proposed: Kumai Bay has been proposed as a Marine Conservation 

Area. 

Land use: Fishing by local people. 

Disturbances and threats: Cutting of mangroves and disturbance from boat traffic. 

Economic and social values: The mangrove swamps support a locally important fishery. 

Fauna: About 80 species of brackish-water fishes are known from Kumai Bay. Water birds 

include Phalacrocorax sp, Anhinga melanogaster, Egretta garzetta, E. alba, Ciconia episcopus, 

Leptoptilos javanicus, Pandion haliaetus and Haliaeetus leucogaster. The Dugong Dugong dugon 

and Irrawaddy Dolphin Orcaella brevirostris occur in the bay, and Sus scrofa and Pteropus sp in 

the surrounding forests. Reptiles include the Estuarine Crocodile Crocodylus porosus, the 

sea-turtles Eretmochelys imbricata, Chelonia mydas, and the monitor lizard Varanus salvator. 



References: Direktorat P.P.A. (1980j & 1984); Hardenberg (1936). 



Wetland name: Tanjung Penghujan 


Coordinates: 2°55'S, 11 1°35'E; 

Location: southwest of Kumai, Kabupaten Kotawaringin Barat, Central Kalimantan. 

Area: 40,000 ha. 




Description of site: A swampy coastal area bordered by a fringe of mangrove forest (at least 

17,500 ha) and backed by freshwater swamp forest. 


Principal vegetation: Mangroves and freshwater swamp forest. 




Alarn) and Recreation Park (Taman Wisata). 


Disturbances and threats: Cutting of mangrove wood. 

Economic and social values: The area has considerable potential for outdoor recreation. 

Fauna: The area is known to support a great diversity of wildlife including Proboscis Monkeys 

Nasalis larvatus and many water birds, but no details are available. 






Wetland name: Muara Kendawangan 


Coordinates: 2°3O'-3°00'S, 11O°1O'-11O°30'E;

Location: 90 km SSE of Ketapang, Kabupaten Ketapang, West Kalimantan. 

Area: c 150,000 ha. 




Description of site: A large area of lowland swamp forests on the southwest coast of Kalimantan, 

with about 65,000 ha of peat swamp forest, 75,000 ha of freshwater swamp forest and 10,000 ha of 

mangrove forest. The site contains a complete seral succession of lowland habitats from coastal 

sand bars, mudflats and mangrove forest through swamp forest to dry lowland forest. The area is 

of low agricultural and forestry value, and is almost uninhabited. 


Principal vegetation: Mangrove forest, freshwater swamp forest and peat swamp forest. 




(Cagar Alam) has been approved. 

Land use: Almost none; the area is almost uninhabited. 

Disturbances and threats: None known. 


Fauna: Very little information is available. The site is known to be rich in wildlife including rare, 

protected species such as Pongo pvginaeus, Nasalis larvatus and Crocodylus porosus. The coastal 

mudflats and mangroves are thought to be important feeding areas for water birds including 

migratory shorebirds. 


Research and facilities: No proper surveys have ever been carried out at the site. 




Wetland name: Gunung Palung and surrounding swamps 


Coordinates: l°02'-1°20'S, 109°53'-110°28'E; 

Location: 150 km southeast of Pontianak, Kabupaten Ketapang, West Kalimantan. 

Area: c.l30,000 ha. 



Wetland type: 04, 05, 06 & 07. 

Description of site: A large area of relatively undisturbed hill and lowland forest around Gunung 

Palung mountain. The area contains a complete range of lowland to montane habitats, including 

7,000 ha of mangrove forest, 20,000 ha of freshwater swamp forest, 30,000 ha of peat swamp 

forest, 5,000 ha of wet lowland forest on alluvium, 62,000 ha of moist lowland dipterocarp forest, 

5,000 ha of wet hill forest and 1,000 ha of montane forest. Because of the superstitions of the local 

Malay villagers who believe that Gunung Palung is haunted, the bill forests are quite undisturbed. 

The lowland habitats have suffered some damage from logging and small-scale settlement, but this 

has had little effect on the fauna. Disturbance has been greatest in the coastal strip, which is now 

largely planted with coconuts. The beaches are partly muddy, partly sandy and partly rocky. 

The double mountain Palung and Panti is isolated from any other mountain area by an extensive 

flat swampy plain. It is possible that the mountain was an island before the alluvial plain linked it

to the mainland. This isolation has resulted in an unusually high degree of endemism in the 

montane flora and fauna. 

Climatic conditions: Humid tropical climate with an average annual rainfall of about 3,000 mm 

(180-190 rainy days per year). The site lies in the wettest climatic zone in Kalimantan. 

Principal vegetation: The mangrove forest is heavily dominated by species of Rhizophora and 

Bruguiera, although its seaward edge is frequently lined with Sonneratia alba and Avicennia spp. 

The peat swamp forests are dominated by Litsea amora, Parastemon sp, Hopea sangal and Shorea 

leprosala. Other widespread species include Calophyllum sp and Ganua motleyana. Species 

diversity in the peat swamp forests is high; over 40 species were recorded in one half hectare plot. 

The freshwater swamp forests are dominated by Litsea amora, Parastemon sp, Calophyllum sp, 

Hopea sangal, Alseodaphne sp, Parastemon urophyllum and Shorea laevifolia. Beach forest 

formations include Casuarina equisetifolia, Calophyllum inophyllum, Terminalia sp, Morinda sp 

and Hibiscus tiliaceus. 

Land tenure: State owned (PHPA, Indonesian Government). 

Conservation measures taken: A Nature Monument of 30,000 ha was established in 193). Upon 

independence, this was upgraded. to Nature Reserve (Cagar Alam). The site was renotified by 

proclamation in 1981. 

Conservation measures proposed: A proposal to upgrade the Nature Reserve to National Park 

status has been approved. There is also a proposal to extend the protected area to a total of 100,000 

ha. 

Land use: Logging by hand in the swamp forests (mainly for Ramin Gonystylus bancanus), some 

small-scale agriculture, fishing in the rivers, and the collection of firewood, building poles, 

mangrove bark, wild honey and resins. There is some commercial forestry in the surrounding 

areas. The nearest town to the reserve is Monggo Jering, about 10 km to the north. The human 

population density is low, ranging from 4.2 per sq km in the Simpang Hilir area to 31.9 per sq km 

in the Matan Hilir area. 

Possible changes in Land use: Large areas to the north of the reserve are scheduled for a 

transmigration project. This will certainly increase boat traffic on the Simpang River. 

Disturbances and threats: The most damaging human activity has been the logging of Rarnin 

especially near the Simpang and Matan Rivers. Only a small part of the existing reserve has been 

logged, but there has been extensive logging in the proposed extension to the reserve. Shifting 

cultivation has also caused some disturbance in the reserve. 

Economic and social values: The site has considerable potential for outdoor recreation, with easy 

access and excellent possibilities for viewing wildlife. The reserve also serves a valuable function 

in watershed protection. 

Fauna: No information is available on the fishes of the reserve, apart from the statement that there 

are fishes in the rivers and swamps, and mention of Schieropagus formosus. 

A preliminary inventory of the avifauna recorded a total of 192 species of birds including 17 

species of water birds. All Bornean bird families are represented. Some of the rarer species include 

Great Argus Pheasant Argusianus argus, the hornbills Buceros rhinoceros, Rhinoplax vigil, Pitta 

baudi and Indicator archipelagicus. Water birds include Anhinga melanogaster, Butorides striatus, 

Egretta sacra, Ardea purpurea, A. sumatrana, Leptoptilos javanicus, Haliastur indus, Haliaeetus 

leucogaster, Amaurornis phoenicurus, Actitis hypoleucos, Sterna bergii, the fish-owl Ketupa 

ketupu and the kingfishers Alcedo meninting, A. puichella, Pelargopsis capensis, Ceyx rufidorsus, 

Halcyon pileata and H. chloris. There is a very large roost of the Long-tailed Parakeet Psittacula 

longicauda on a steep hill near Kuala Melayu. 

A preliminary list of the mammals of the Nature Reserve includes two Insectivora, four 

Chiroptera, seven Primata, seven Rodentata, two Carnivora and five Ungulata. Many more species 

(particularly nocturnal species) are known to occur in the area and presumably occur in the 

reserve. The reserve supports a very high density of Proboscis Monkeys Nasalis larvatus, which

live in large troops of up to 60 individuals and provide one of the main wildlife spectacles. The 

density of Orang-utans Pongo pygmaeus is the highest known for any site, perhaps because of the 

abundance of fruiting trees favoured by this species, e.g. Durio sp, Garcinia spp, Ficus spp, 

Nephelium sp, Artocarpus sp, Dialium sp, Euphoria malayana, Dracontomelum mangiferum and 

Dillenia sp. Other mammals include Pteropus vampirus, Hylobates agilis, Macaca fascicularis, 

Presbytis rubicunda, P. melalophos, Nycticebus coucang, Helarctos malayanus, Viverra 

tangalunga, Tragulus napu, T. javanicus, Muntiacus muntjak, Cervus unicolor and Sus barbatus. 

The rare Asian Two-horned Rhinoceros Dicerorhinus sumatrensis is known to have occurred in 

the past, but is now believed to be extinct in the area. The last definite record was an individual 

shot in 1939. 

Reptiles include the rare False Gharial Tomistoma schlegelii, the monitor lizard Varanus 

borneensis (reported to be numerous) and the python Python reticulatus. 

Special floral values: The forests support a great diversity of orchid species. 

Research and facilities: Various preliminary surveys of the fauna and flora have been carried out, 

and several studies have been conducted on the primates. 

References: FAO (1982c); IUCN (in prep); Karpowicz (1985); MacKinnon & Artha (l98la); 

Mahitala Unpar (1983). 



Wetland name: Paloh 


Coordinates: 2°35'-2°46'S, 109°Ol'-l09°22'E; 

Location: 50 km NNE of Singkawang, Kabupaten Sambas, West Kalimantan. 

Area: 176,548 ha. 




Description of site: A large area of mangrove forest, dry beach forest and sandy beaches 

stretching for about 15 km along the coast from the mouth of the Belacan River; also some Nypa 

swamps along the lower reaches of the Belacan River. Some of the mangrove forest has been 

highly disturbed by logging activities. 

Climatic conditions: Humid tropical maritime climate with an average annual rainfall of about 

3,000 mm. Average temperatures range from 27-30°C; the average relative humidity is 80%. 

Principal vegetation: Mangrove communities with species of Avicennia, Rhizophora, Bruguiera 

and Sonneratia; Nypa fruticans swamp, particularly along the Belacan River; dry beach forest with 

Casuarina sp, Ipomoea pescaprae, Hibiscus tiliaceus, Terminalia catappa and Pandanus tectorius. 

Land tenure: BKPH-Sambas. 


Conservation measures proposed: The area has been proposed as a Wildlife Reserve. 

Land use: Forestry activities and the collecting of sea-turtle eggs. 

Disturbances and threats: Excessive collection of sea-turtle eggs, cutting of mangroves for 

firewood and logging activities. 

Economic and social values: The mangrove forest is a breeding and nursery area for species of 

marine fishes and prawns important in the local fishery. 

Fauna: Fishes include Labroides dimidiatus and species of Katsuwonis, Mugil, Lutjanus, Caranx, 

Epinephelus, Chaetodon, Acanthusus, Pomacentrus and Amphiprion. Water birds known to occur 

in the area include Phalacrocorax sp, Egretta intermedia, Ciconia episcopus, Pandion haliaetus, 

Haliaeetus leucogaster, Esacus magnirostris, Actitis hypoleucos, Sterna albifrons and Halcyon

chloris. Mammals include Macaca sp, Presbytis sp, Sus sp, Muntiacus muntjak, Cervus unicolor 

and Manis javanica. 

The sandy beaches provide important nesting sites for the sea-turtles Chelonia mydas, 

Eretmochelys imbricata and Lepidochelys sp. Other reptiles include Callagur borneensis and 

Varanus salvator. 


Research and facilities: Preliminary faunal and floral surveys have been carried out. 

References: Direktorat P.P.A. (1986e). 

Criteria for inclusion: lb, 2a, 2c, 3b. 

Source: Edi Djuharsa and Marcel J. Silvius. 

Wetland name: Hutan Sambas 



Location: in the extreme northwest corner of Kalimantan on the border with Sarawak, Kabupaten 

Sambas, West Kalimantan. 

Area: 120,000 ha. 




Description of site: A large area of lowland forest including about 43,000 ha of mangrove forest 

and 100 ha of beach forest. The rest of the area consists of peat swamps and moist lowland 

dipterocarp forest. The depth of water in the peat swamps varies from 50 cm in the wet season to 

10-20 cm in the dry season. The main riverine system is the Sungai Sambas and its tributaries. The 

Sambas is about 500-1,000 meters wide and has a maximum depth of nine meters during the rainy 

season. Tidal influence is noticeable up to 30 km inland. 

Climatic conditions: Humid tropical climate with an average annual rainfall of about 2,500 mm. 

Principal vegetation: Mangrove forest, peat swamp forest, freshwater swamp forest and moist 

lowland dipterocarp forest. Dominant tree species include Gonystylus bancanus, Dactyloclados 

stenostachys, Campnosperma auriculata, Vatica oblongifolia and Shorea spp. The undergrowth 

consists of species of Pandanus and Palmae. 




Alam). 

Land use: Forestry exploitation, shifting agriculture, hunting and harvesting of turtle eggs. 

Disturbances and threats: Uncontrolled logging, hunting, harvesting of sea-turtle eggs and 

shifting agriculture. In 1979, the timber stock was considered to be sufficient for profitable 

exploitation, but it is not known whether or not commercial logging has since been carried out. 

Economic and social values: The area could be part of an international reserve, linking up with 

the Samunsam Reserve in Sarawak, Malaysia. 

Fauna: The area is known to be rich in wildlife, and there are several large and important 

sea-turtle nesting beaches. 

Special floral values: The area is known to be of exceptional floral richness. 

Research and facilities: A survey was carried out by the Direktorat Bina Program in 1979. An 

ecological survey was planned in 1986, but the researcher was not permitted to enter the area 

because of its military status (near the border with Sarawak). 

References: Direktorat Bina Program (1979); MacKinnon & Artha (198la). 

Criteria for inclusion: lb, 2a, 2b, 3b.


Wetland name: Danau Sentarum 


Coordinates: 0°45'-l°02'N, 111°57'-l12°20'E; 

Location: north of the Kapuas River, 700 km upstream from Pontianak, West Kalimantan. 

Area: 80,000 ha. 




Description of site: A low-lying plain with some 40,000 ha of lakes and almost 40,000of 

freshwater swamp forest and peat swamp forest, in the upper Kapuas river basin, some 700 km 

upstream from the delta. The plain is surrounded by hills rising to 400-500m, and a few isolated 

hills occur within the plain. This region, with its numerous lakes of various sizes and many 

interconnecting water courses, acts as a buffer for flood waters from the Kapuas River during the 

wet season, and regulates the flow of water further downstream. The lakes are shallow and 

ephemeral, and are best seen as extensive flood plains bearing a close similarity to the Grande Lac 

system in Kampuchea. The maximum depth of water during the wet season is about 7-8m. In most 

dry seasons, the lakes dry out completely leaving only a series of small streams. The pH is 5.0 in 

the lakes, 5.5-6.0 near the Kapuas River and about 4.0 in the peat swamps. The lake waters are 

coloured dark brown by tannic acids. 

Climatic conditions: Humid tropical climate with an average annual rainfall of about 4,500 mm. 

The wettest months are October, November, December, March and often April; the driest months, 

June, July and August. The maximum temperatures are 35.0-35.5°C; the minimum, 21.5-22.0°C. 

Principal vegetation: The aquatic vegetation includes Eichhornia crassipes, Polygonum spp, 

Cyperaceae and Poaceae. Stunted swamp forest is dominated by Barringtonia acutangula, Croton 

slip, Eugenia spp, Garcinia spp and Ixora mentangis. There are two types of freshwater swamp 

forest: forest near the Kapuas River is dominated by species of Calophyllurn, Eugenia, Garcinia, 

Dyospyros and Melanorrhoea; elsewhere the swamp forest is characterized by Fragraea fragrans, 

Mallotus spp and Shorea balangeran. The peat swamp forest is dominated by Calophyllum spp, 

Dryobalanops abnormis, Eugenia spp and Shorea seminis. Plant communities in adjacent areas 

include heath forest, hill dipterocarp forest and secondary forest. 


Conservation measures taken: The area was declared a Wildlife Reserve (Suaka Margasatwa) in 

1982. This conservation status is considered to be adequate, but actual protection is lacking 

(Giesen, 1987). 

Conservation measures proposed: Giesen (1987) has made the following recommendations: 

1. that logging and shifting cultivation be prohibited within the primary forest areas; 

2. that various restrictions be placed on fishing activities, including curbs on mechanization and 

the prohibition of fine-meshed nets; 

3. that village growth be curtailed; 

4. that the boundary of the reserve be realigned to follow natural boundaries such as rivers. 

Land use: Fishing, shifting cultivation, cultivation of rice and hunting. About 2,800-3,500 people 

live in some twenty villages within the reserve. Most are dependent on fisheries for their 

livelihood, while cultivation, logging and trade are of marginal importance. 

Possible changes in Land use: Large tracts of the surrounding forests have been granted in 

concession to logging companies. There are plans to construct six dams for irrigation purposes and 

electricity generation on tributaries of the upper Kapuas River. These will have a profound effect

on the water regime of the Sentarum lakes and floodplain, and may result in a decline in fisheries 

production. 

Disturbances and threats: Illegal logging, heavy hunting pressure and considerable human 

disturbance from the many small villages in the area. The forests are very susceptible to fire, and 

many hundreds of hectares have been lost to forest fires in recent years. Less than 1% of the 

reserve has been affected by shifting cultivation, but 50-70% of the adjacent hill slopes have been 

cleared of their original vegetation. The population of Asian Arowana Scieropages formosus is 

declining rapidly because of excessive trapping for the ornamental fish trade. Although the 

Arowana has been listed on Appendix I of CITES since 1975, international trade in the species 

continues. 

Economic and social values: At least 3,000 to 4,000 fishermen are active in the lakes within the 

reserve. The annual production of fishes in the reserve is estimated at 3,000 metric tonnes. 

Productivity is high compared to other floodplain fisheries: 37.5 kg/ha/year for combined lakes 

and inundated forests, and 75 kg/ha/year for lakes alone. The total value of the fisheries in 1985 

was calculated to be over 15,000 million rupees for edible fish and 775 million rupees for 

ornamental fish (Giesen, 1987). Some 300 tonnes of fish are consumed locally; the remainder is 

dried and salted for sale. 

Of 207 plant species investigated by Giesen (1987), no fewer than 87% have a known use in the 

area, and most of these are useful to man. 

Fauna: Some 113 species of fishes have been recorded. The commonest genera are: 

Puntius (7 species) 

Kryptopterus (6 species) 

Osteochilus (6 species) 

Ophiocephalus (5 species) 

Rasbora (5 species) 

The most abundant species in the fish catches are Helostoma ternmincki, Mystus nernurus, 

Cyclocheilichthys janthochin, Osteochilus melanopleura and Kryptopterus micronema. There is a 

marked seasonal migration of fish to and from the Kapuas River, and an annual cycle in the 

relative abundance of herbaceous and predatory fishes. The popular and very expensive red variety 

of the Asian Arowana Scieropages formosus occurs in the lake. Individuals of this variety, which 

in Indonesia is known only from West Kalimantan, may sell for as much as US dollar 2,700 in 

Jakarta. 

The lakes and swamp forests support a wide variety of water birds including Anhinga 

melanogaster, Ixobrychus cinnamomeus, Ardeola bacchus, Egretta spp, Ardea purpurea. Ciconia 

(episcopus) stormi, Sterna albifrons, the raptors Haliastur indus, Ichthyophaga ichthi'aetus, I. 

nana, the fish-owl Ketupa ketupu and the kingfisher Pelargopsis capensis. 

Mammals known to occur in the swamp forests include Amblonyx cinerea, Nannosciurus 

melanotus, Nasalis larvatus, Macaca fascicularis, Cervus unicolor, Hystrix brachyura, Sus 

barbatus and Tragulus spp. Other species occurring in surrounding hill forests include 

Arctogalidia irivirgata, Helarcios malayanus, Hylobatus muelleri and Pongo pygmacus. 

Frogs are common. Common reptiles include Chitra indica, a tortoise, probably Testudo ernys, 

Varanus borneensis and V. salvator. The Estuarine Crocodile Crocodylus porosus and False 

Gharial Tomistoma schlegelii still occur in the swamps, but are now uncommon. 

Four species of molluscs have been recorded, including two species of freshwater mussels. 

Special floral values: Giesen (1987) recorded 282 species of plants of 70 families, including the 

first Bornean record of Gluta pubescens (Anacardinaceae) and a possible new species of Vatica (a 

dipterocarp). The latter is one of the commoner tree species in the inundated forests. 

Research and facilities: The area has been visited by few scientists. The main expeditions to date 

have been those of Molengraaff, a geologist, in 1900, Polak, a soil scientist, in 1949, Vaas, an 

ichthyologist, in 1952, and Giesen, an ecologist, in 1984.

References: Giesen (1987). 



Wetland name: The Marisa Wetlands 


Coordinates: 0°25'S, l2l°50'E; 

Location: on the coast 130 km west of Gorontalo, in the western part of North Sulawesi. 

Area: Over 2,000 ha of wetlands in a total region of c.94,000 ha. 




Description of site: Two coastal areas of mangrove forest, beach vegetation and freshwater 

swamp forest (1,000 ha) within the Randangan Proposed Wildlife Reserve, Panua Nature Reserve 

and Tanjung Panjang Proposed Wildlife Reserve. The Tanjung Panjang area also includes some 

islands of Nypa swamp with colonies of water birds. 


Principal vegetation: Mangrove forest, Nypa fruticans swamp and beach vegetation. 

Land tenure: The Randangan and Tanjung Panjang areas are state owned (Indonesian 

Government); the Panua Nature Reserve is state owned and under the management of PHPA. 

Conservation measures taken: The Panua area (1,500 ha) has been protected as a Nature Reserve 

(Cagar Alam) since 1938. 

Conservation measures proposed: The Randangan area (90,000 ha) and Tanjung Panjang area 

(2,500 ha) have been proposed as Wildlife Reserves (Suaka Margasatwa). 


Disturbances and threats: Encroachment by settlers in the transmigration programme, the 

stealing of Maleo eggs, invasion by domestic livestock, and gold mining activities. There are plans 

to carry out logging in the area. 

Economic and social values: The region's large population of water birds may be important in 

controlling pests on irrigated agricultural land in the Marisa Project. This project aims to irrigate a 

large area of saline swamp and accept large numbers of transmigrants. 

Fauna: There are known to be several large breeding colonies of water birds on Nypa islands in 

the Randangan delta, but no details are available. Maleo Birds Macrocephalon maleo breed in the 

adjacent lowland forest. 



References: MacKinnon & Artha (1982d). 



Wetland name: Togian Archipelago 


Coordinates: 0°08'-O°34'S, 121°34'-122°24'E; 

Location: in Tomini Bay, Kabupaten Poso, Central Sulawesi. 




Wetland type: 03, 04 & 05.

Description of site: A group of small islands with fringing sandy beaches and extensive, well 

developed and almost undamaged coral reefs, including atoll, barrier, fringing and patch reef types. 





Conservation measures proposed: The islands have been proposed as a Wildlife Reserve (Suaka 

Margasatwa), Nature Reserve (Cagar Alam) and Marine Conservation Area (Kawasan Pelastai ian 

Alam Laut). 


Disturbances and threats: Dynamite fishing on the coral reefs; harvesting of sea-turtles, turtle 

eggs, tridacnid clams and coconut crabs for local consumption; and export of rattans, pearl oysters, 

trochus shells and coconut crabs by non-resident entrepreneurs. 

Economic and social values: The islands are scenically very attractive and have great potential 

for the development of tourism. The surrounding waters support a locally important fishery. 

Fauna: The Dugong Dugong dugon occurs around the islands. The sandy beaches are important 

for nesting Green Sea Turtles Chelonia mydas and Hawksbill Turtles Eretmochelys imbricata, and 

the Estuarine Crocodile Crocodylus porosus occurs. Invertebrates of note include coconut crabs, 

four species of tridacnid clams, pearl oysters and trochus shells. No information is available on the 

avifauna. 



References: MacKinnon & Artha (l982d). 



Wetland name: Perairan Pulau Peleng 


Coordinates: l°10'-2°15'S, l22°45'-123°55'E; 

Location: around Pulau Peleng and the Banggi Islands, Kabupaten Banggai, Central Sulawesi. 





Description of site: The shallow waters around Pulau Peleng and the Banggai Islands, with their 

variety of coral reef and sea-grass habitats, and sandy beaches on several of the islands. 


Principal vegetation: Extensive beds of sea-grasses. 



Conservation measures proposed: The area has been proposed as a Marine Park. 

Land use: Fishing and hunting. 

Disturbances and threats: Excessive hunting of Dugong and sea-turtles, and the harvesting of 

Tridacnid clams and sea-turtle eggs. Turtle eggs are collected in large numbers by the Bajo people 

to sell in Mantangan and Bonepuso. 


Fauna: A very important area for the Dugong Dugong dugon, which is still remarkably common 

despite heavy hunting pressure. Beaches on several of the Banggai Islands are important for 

nesting sea-turtles (e.g. Bokan Islands). No information is available on the avifauna of the islands.



References: MacKinnon & Artha (l982d). 



Wetland name: Bakiriang 


Coordinates: l°37'S, 122°05'E; 

Location: 70 km ENE of Tomari Bay, Kabupaten Banggai, Central Sulawesi. 

Area: 1,000 ha. 




Description of site: A long, white, sandy beach, the adjacent narrow strip of beach forest, and part 

of the forested area behind the beach ridge. 


Principal vegetation: Beach forest and lowland forest. 




Margasatwa). 

Land use: Harvesting of the eggs of Maleo Birds. 

Possible changes in Land use: There is likely to be a considerable increase in population under 

transmigration schemes along the whole length of the coast. 

Disturbances and threats: Clearing of forest in the feeding areas of the Maleo Birds, and lack of 

scientific guidelines in determining harvest quotas for their eggs. 

Economic and social values: The eggs of the Maleo Birds have been harvested in the traditional 

way for many years, apparently on a sustainable yield basis. 

Fauna: The beach is used as a nesting site by a large population of Maleo Birds Macrocephalon 

maleo. 






Wetland name: Morowali 


Coordinates: l°40'-2°10'S, 121°lO'-121°35'E; 

Location: at the head of Tomari Bay, Kabupaten of Poso, Central Sulawesi. 

Area: 200,000 ha, including 45,000 ha of alluvial plains along the coast. 



Wetland type: 01, 02, 03, 06, 07, 11, 12, 14 & 21. 

Description of site: The main watershed of the eastern peninsula of Sulawesi, extending south 

towards Tomari Bay and including the water catchment basins of the Solato, Tiworo, Morowali 

and Ranu Rivers. There are three major mountain ridges running in a northwest to southeast

direction. Most of the area is covered with primary forest. There are some mangrove forests on the 

coast, especially in the estuaries of the Ranu, Morowali, Sumara, Tiworo and Solato Rivers. 

The extensive alluvial plains are covered with mixed swamp forest, some of which is permanently 

inundated and some of which is seasonally inundated. There are two lakes (the Ranu Lakes) with 

large areas of open water, some muddy margins overgrown with sedges and rushes, and some 

small areas of Pandanus and sago palms. There are several small islands in Tomari Bay including 

Pulau Tokobae and Pulau Tomari. These islands are covered in virtually untouched forest and 

contribute largely to the spectacular views of the bay. 

Climatic conditions: Tropical monsoonal climate with an average annual rainfall of 3,500-4,500 

mm. Temperatures range from 21°C to 32°C (average at sea level 27°C). The average relative 

humidity is 75%. 

Principal vegetation: Rhizophora apiculata is the dominant tree species in the mangroves. 

Other species include R. mucronata, Sonneratia alba, Bruguiera gymnorhiza, Lurnnitzera 

racernosa, Ceriops tagal, Xylocarpus granatum and Acrostichum sp. The mixed swamp forests 

include Pandanus sp, Aistonia scholaris, Calophyllum soulattri, Gonystylus macrophyllus and 

Palaquium sp. Slender bamboos and rattans are abundant, and Pandanus is abundant in the 

undergrowth. Some areas of swamp forest are dominated by Agathis sp. Dominant plants in 

adjacent areas include Acrostichum spp, Pandanus tectorius, Ficus spp, Eugenia sp and Casuarina 

sp. 

Land renure: Partly state owned (Indonesian government, PHPA) and partly owned by the Mon 

and Wana tribes. 

Conservation measures taken: The area has been protected as a Strict Nature Reserve (Cagar 

Alam) since 1980. 


Land use: Fishing in coastal areas; shifting cultivation and the collection of rattan and damar 

(resin of the Agalhis tree) in the forests. Local production amounts to 1,000 tons of rattan and 200 

tons of damar per year. Local people hunt with blow-pipes. The Wana Tribe in the mountain 

forests are said to attack strangers with blow-pipes and darts. This is probably the main reason why 

the shores of the Ranu Lakes still remain unsettled. There are about 6,000 people registered in the 

area. Activities in surrounding areas include forestry and mining. 

Disturbances and threats: Virtually the whole lower part of the Morowali Reserve has been 

allocated in timber concessions. There is some logging of Agathis trees, and the collection of resin 

kills the trees. The local people also collect the eggs of the Maleo Bird Macrocephalon maleo. 

Economic and social values: The area has great potential for tourism and scientific research. The 

bulk of the production of ratan and damar is exported to Singapore and Hong Kong. The reserve 

incorporates the traditional hunting grounds and areas of shifting cultivation for several local 

tribes. The protected watersheds are also important for their irrigation capacity. 

Fauna: The reserve is very rich in water birds. A great variety of species has been recorded 

including Podiceps ruficollis, Pelecanus conspicillatus, Phalacrocorax sulcirostris, P. 

melanoleucos, Anhinga melanogaster, Jxobrychus sinensis, I. eurhythmus, I. cinnamomeus, I. 

flavicollis, Gorsachius goisagi, Ardeola speciosa, Bubulcus ibis, Butorides striatus, Egretta sacra, 

E. eulophotes, E. garzetta, E. intermedia, Ardea purpurea, A. sumatrana, Ciconia episcopus, 

Plegadis falcinellus, Dendrocygna arcuata, Nettapus coromandelianus, Anas gibberifrons, A. 

superciliosa, A. querquedula, Aythya australis, Rallus striatus, R. philippensis, Rallina 

eurizonoides, Porzana cinerea, Amaurornis isabellina, A. phoenicurus, Gallicrex cinerea, 

Gallnula tenebrosa, Porphyrio porphyrio and Irediparra gallinacea. 

Tomari Bay supports a variety of sea-birds including Sula leucogaster, S. dactylatra, Fregata 

minor, F. ariel, Sterna sumatrana, S. albifrons, S. bergii and Anous stolidus. The coastal zone is 

also of considerable importance for migratory shorebirds. The following species have been 

recorded in the Area: Pluvialis dominica, P. squatarola, Charadrius dubius, C. alexandrinus, C.

mongolus, C. leschenaultii, C. asiaticus, Limosa limosa, L. lapponica, Numenius minutus, N. 

phaeopus, N. madagascariensis, Tringa totanus, T. stagnatilis, T. nebularia, Xenus cinereus, 

Actitis hypoleucos, Heteroscelus brevipes, Phalaropus lobatus, Gallinago stenura, G. megala, 

Calidris tenuirostris, C. ruficollis, C. subminuta and Limicola falcinellus. 

Resident shorebirds include the White-headed Stilt, Beach Thick-knee, Malay Sand Plover 

(Himantopus leucocephalus, Esacus magnirostris, Charadrius peroni) and the endemic Sulawesi 

Woodcock Scolopax celebensis. Other resident birds include Pandion haliaetus, the megapodes 

Macrocephalon maleo, Megapodius freycinet, and the kingfishers Alcedo meninting, A. atthis, 

Pelargopsis capensis, P. melanorhyncha, Halcyon chloris, H. monachus and H. princeps. 

Mammals known to occur in the Morowali area include Phalanger celebensis, P. ursinus, 

approximately 29 species of bats, Tarsius spectrum, Macaca tonkeana, Macrogalidia 

musschenbroeki, Viverra tangalunga, Babirousa babirussa, Sus verrucosus, Cervus timorensis and 

Bubalus quarlesi. Many of these species are endemic to Sulawesi. 

The Estuarine Crocodile Crocodylus porosus is still fairly common in coastal areas and especially 

at the Ranu Lakes. Other reptiles include Varanus sp, Hydrosaurus amboinensis, Testudo sp, 

Python reticulatus, Natrix sp, Psammodynastes sp, Dryophis sp and Trimersurus wagleri. 

About 230 species of butterflies have been collected in the reserve, mainly in the montane areas. 

The dominant families are Lycaimidae and Hesperiidae. 


Research and facilities: The importance of the area for nature conservation was first recognized 

by A.P.M van der Zon and Yaya Mulyana in 1978. In 1980, a survey was carried out under the 

"Operation Drake" programme. This was based in Morowali from January to April 1980. A 

management plan has been prepared by A. Laurie (1980). 

References: FAO (1978b); IUCN (in prep); Laurie (1980). 

Criteria for inclusion: lb. 2a, 2b, 2c, 3b. 


Wetland name: Danau Poso 


Coordinates: 1°45'-2°05'S, 120°31'- 120°42'E; 

Location: 125 km southeast of Palu, Central Sulawesi. 

Area: c.38,000 ha. 




Description of site: A large, permanent, freshwater lake in the hills of central Sulawesi. The lake 

drains north via the Sungai Poso into Tomini Bay. 







Disturbances and threats: The two endemic species of fishes of the family Adrianichthyidae may 

have been exterminated as a result of the introduction of predatory fish species. 


Fauna: The fish fauna includes four endemic species known only from this lake: Adrianichthys 

kruyti, Xenopoecilus poptae (Adrianichthyidae), Weberogobius arnadi (Gobiidae) and

Homorhamphus celebensis (Hemirhampidae). However, A. kruyci and X. poptae are very rare if 

not extinct. Introduced fish species include Channa striata and Tilapia mossambica. 

The invertebrate fauna includes four endemic snails: Tylamelania carko, T. neritiformis, T. 

porcellanica (Thiaridae), and Miratesta celebensis (Planorbidae). 



References: Whitten et al. (1987). 

Criteria for inclusion: lb, 2b, 2d. 


Wetland name: Napie Basin, Wuasa 



Location: in the headwaters of the Sungai Lariang, 80 km SSE of Palu, Central Sulawesi. 

Area: 10,000 ha, including 8,000 ha of wetlands. 

Altitude: 1,100m. 



Description of site: A tectonic basin in the headwaters of the Lariang River, with extensive 

permanent swamps and seasonally inundated marshes. The alluvium is of lacustrine origin the tiny 

Lake Rano persists as a remnant of a former much larger lake. The extent of flooding probably 

varies seasonally according to rainfall in the catchment area. The wetland drains west via the 

Lariang River into the Makassar Strait, As with Lake Lindu (site 89), the swamps are reported to 

be a source of Schistosomiasis. 

Climatic conditions: The basin is situated in a rain shadow and has a relatively dry tropical 

climate with an average annual rainfall of 1,500 mm. The wettest months are March-May, and the 

driest are August-September. 





Land use: Some rice cultivation. 




Special floral values: A good example of a high altitude swamp. 





Wetland name: Lake Lindu (Lore Lindu) 



Location: 50 km SSE of Palu, Kabupaten Donggala/Poso, Central Sulawesi. 

Area: Lake 4,250 ha; Wildlife Reserve 229,000 ha. 

Altitude: Lake 960m; Wildlife Reserve 200-2,356m. 

Biogeographical province: 4.24.12.


Description of site: An ancient, permanent, freshwater lake situated in a large Wildlife Reserve 

(the proposed Lore Lindu National Park). The only other wetland habitats in the prcposed National 

Park are the Lariang and Palu Rivers. 


temperature varies from 16-29°C, the relatively humidity, from 44-100%. 

Principal vegetation: No information is available on the aquatic vegetation. The reserve contains 

extensive tracts of lowland, sub-montane and montane rain forest. 


Conservation measures taken: The entire area (229,000 ha) was designated as a Wildlife Reseve 

(Suaka Margasatwa) in 1973 and 1981. A Recreation Park (Taman Wisata) of 31,000 ha was 

established around the lake in 1978. 

Conservation measures proposed: The Wildlife Reserve has been proposed as a National Park. 

Land use: Fishing and outdoor recreation; agriculture in surrounding areas. 

Disturbances and threats: The endemic fish Xenopoecilus sarasinorum has become very rare and 

may, in fact, have been extirminated as a result of the introduction of predatory fishes. Populations 

of endemic snails have also been very much reduced by these predatory fishes. Over-fishing has 

become a problem, and there is a considerable amount of logging and hunting in surrounding 

areas. 

Economic and social values: The reserve has great potential for outdoor recreation, and contains 

some of the finest megalith monuments in Indonesia, of considerable ethnic and historical interest. 

The lake is an important source of irrigation water for a large area of agricultural land. It is of 

special interest as one of the few sites in Indonesia with the disease Schistosomiasis. In the 1930s 

and 1940s, the related disease Echinostomiasis was also present. The endemic mussels Corbicula 

lindoensis and C. subplanata were the primary source of human infection. 

Fauna: The lake and surrounding forests of the Wildlife Reserve contain a wealth of endemic 

wildlife. Six species of fishes have been recorded including the endemic Xenopoecilus sarainorum, 

known only from this lake, and Anabas testudineus. Introduced fish species include Channa striata 

and Tilapia mossambica. 

A wide variety of water birds has been recorded including Podiceps ruficollis, Pelecanus 

conspicillatus, Phalacrocorax melanoleucos, Anhinga melanogaster, Ixobrychus cinnamomeus, I. 

flavicollis, Ardeola speciosa, Bubulcus ibis, Butorides striatus, Egretta garzetta, E. intermedia, E. 

alba, Ardea purpurea, Ciconia epsicopus, Plegadis falcinellus, Dendrocygna arcuata, Anas 

gibberifrons, A. superciliosa, Aythya australis, Haliastur indus, Haliaeetus leucogaster, 

Ichthyophaga nana, Amaurornis phoenicurus, A. isabel/ma, Rallus philippensis, R. striatus, R. 

torquatus, Poliolimnas cinereus, Gallicrex cinerea, Gallinula chioropus, G. tenebrosa, Porphyrio 

porphyrio, Irediparra gallinacea, Pluvialis dominica, Charadrius dubius, Tringa glareola, Actitis 

hypoleucos, Gallinago megala, Himantopus leucocephalus, Chlidonias hybrida, the kingfishers 

Alcedo meninting, A. atihis, Ceyx fallax, Pelargopsis melanorhyncha, Halcyon chloris, Cittura 

cyanotis, Actenoides monachus and A. princeps, and the warbler Acrocephalus orientalis. Two 

species of rails endemic to Sulawesi, the Snoring Rail Aramidopsis plateni and Bare-faced Rail 

Gymnocrex rosenbergii, were observed in primary forest in the reserve in 1987. There have been 

no published records of the former species for about 45 years, while the latter was previously 

known from a single specimen and sight record. The endemic Sulawesi Woodcock Scolopax 

celebensis occurs in the forests around the lake. 

Mammals include Cervus tirnorensis, Macaca tonkeana, Phalanger ursinus, P. celebensis, 

Macrogalidia muschenbroeki, Sus celebensis, Babyrousa babyrusa and Anoa quarlesi. 

Amongst the reptiles, the snakes include Python reticulatus, Elaphe erythrura, E. janseni, 

Psammodynastes pulverulentus, Xemopeltis unicolor, Ophiophagus hannah and Cylindrophis 

celebensis (only one specimen known). Eleven species of lizards have been recorded including an

undescribed Leiolopisma, the endemic Spenomorphus nigrolabris, Gekko gecko and Mabouya spp. 

The twelve amphibians known from the area include an undescribed Oreophryne. 

There are three endemic snails in the lake, Brotia scalariopsis, B. teradjarum (Thiaridae), and 

Protancyclus adhaerens (Viviparidae), and two endemic mussels, Corbicula lindoensis and C. 

subplanata (Corbiculidae). 


Research and facilities: Several faunal and floral surveys have been carried out in the Wildlife 

Reserve. 

References: Direktorat P.P.A. (1980c); MacKinnon & Artha (1982d); Whitten et al. (1987); WWF 

(1981). 

Criteria for inclusion: lb, 2a, 2b, 2d, 3b. 


Wetland name: Lariang-Lumu Plains 


Coordinates: 1°l0'-l°45'S, l19°l7'-119°31'E; 

Location: between Pasangkayu and Mamuju on the west coast of South Sulawesi, close to the 

border with Central Sulawesi. 

Area: 145,000 ha, including Lumu 45,000 ha, Karosa 28,000 ha, Lariang 40,000 ha and 

Pasangkayu 32,000 ha. 



Wetland type: 02, 05, 07, 08, 11, 13 & 21. 

Description of site: The west coast plains of northern South Sulawesi are the most extensive areas 

of alluvium on the island of Sulawesi. Habitats range from sandy beaches and river mouths with 

narrow mangrove fringes and tidal areas, to extensive riverine alluvial swamps and peat swamps. 

Much of the area remains under primary forest. 

Climatic conditions: Humid tropical climate with no marked seasonality. The average annual 

rainfall is 2,500 mm. 

Principal vegetation: A wide range of natural forest types including mangroves, riverine forest 

and swamp forest. 



Conservation measures proposed: Surveys are urgently required to identify representative areas 

for conservation. 

Land use: Extensive settlements on Lumu plain, scattered settlements along the coast (mainly 

fishing villages), and some new settlements along the rivers. 

Possible changes in Land use: Spontaneous agricultural development and government 

development schemes. 

Disturbances and threats: Most of the area has been studied under the transmigration planning 

programme and rejected as unsuitable for development. Nevertheless, spontaneous development is 

proceeding rapidly, and it is unlikely that such extensive alluvial areas can remain undisturbed for 

much longer in a densely populated island such as Sulawesi. 


Fauna: The area is known to be rich in wildlife, including Maleo Macrocephalon maleo, but no 

details are available. 

Special floral values: The largest area of lowland alluvial forest on Sulawesi. The Lariang plain 

(40,000 ha) and contiguous Pasangkayu plain (32,000 ha) are the least disturbed areas. 

Research and facilities: None

References: Binnie & Partners & Hunting Technical Services Ltd (1979). 



Wetland name: Lampuko-Mampie 



Location: 30 km east of Majene, Kabupaten Polewali Mamasa, South Sulawesi. 

Area: 2,000 ha. 




Description of site:A low-lying, swampy area with disturbed secondary forests, 300 ha of swamp forest and 

Climatic conditions:Humid tropical climate with an average annual rainfall of 1,500 mm, and an 

average temperature ranging from 27-31°C. 

Principal vegetation: Mangrove forest dominated by Ceriops tagal,Bruguiera spp, with 

Rhizophora spp, Sonneratia sp, and Acanthus ilicifolius. Pandanus sp and Casuarina sp in 



Conservation measures taken:The area was designated as a Wildlife Reserve (Suaka 

Margasatwa) in 1978. 


Land use: Wildlife reserve; fishing, aquaculture and agriculture in surrounding areas. 

Disturbances and threats:Drainage of swamps for agriculture, cutting of mangroves for timber 

and firewood, and hunting. 

Economic and social values:The mangrove swamps play an important role in maintaining the 

local fishery resources. 

Fauna:The area is reported to be rich in water birds such as egrets, storks, ibises and ducks. 

Concentrations of up to 500 Plegadis falcinellus have been recorded. Other species include 

Tachybaptus ruficollis, Anhinga melanogaster, Egreita inlermedia, Ciconia episcopus, 

Dendrocygna arcuata, Haliaeetus leucogaster, Actitis hypoleucos and several species of 

kingfishers (Alcedinidae). Mammals known to occur in the area include Pteropus sp, Myotis sp. 

Macaca sp, Tarsius sp, Crocidura sp, Cervus timorensis, Viverra tangalunga and Sus celebensis. 

Reptiles include the Green Sea Turtle Chelonia mydas, Varanus salvator, Python sp, Lygosoma sp, 

Mabouya multifasciata and Emoia cyanura. 



References: Direktorat P.P.A. (1976c); MacKinnon & Artha (1982d). 



Wetland name: Bulurokeng 



Location: 5 km northeast of Ujung Pandang, South Sulawesi. 

Area: 3 ha. 




Description of site: A small area of under-utilized fish/shrimp ponds on the coast near Ujung 

Panjung, with adjacent tidal channels, mudflats and swampy pastureland. The tidal range in the 

channels is about one meter. 


Principal vegetation: Marsh grasses, riverine scrub and palms. Mangroves are absent. 

Land tenure: Privately owned. 



Land use: Aquaculture on a relatively small scale; livestock grazing on adjacent pastures. 

Possible changes in Land use: Intensification of aquaculture. 

Disturbances and threats: The construction of a new airport highway along the east side of the 

site may have some adverse effects. Any intensification of aquaculture would reduce the suitability 

of the area for water birds. 


Fauna: A very important feeding and roosting area for a wide variety of waterfowl, notably 

herons, egrets and shorebirds. The Milky Stork Mycteria cinerea has been recorded on several 

occasions, and the Chinese Egret Egretta eulophotes has occurred. Garganey Anas querquedula 

occur in good numbers during the northern winter. Twenty-four species of shorebirds have been 

recorded, including Limosa limosa (up to 60), Numenius madagascariensis, Caiidris acuminata 

and Philomachus pugnax. Other species known to occur include Ixobrychus sinensis, I. 

cinnamomeus, Ardeola speciosa, Bubulcus ibis, Egretta garzetta, E. intermedia, E. alba, Ardea 

purpurea, Ciconia episcopus, Dendrocygna arcuata, Anas gibberifrons, Chlidonias hybrida, C. 

leucoptera, Gelochelidon nilotica and Sterna albifrons. 

Monitor lizards Varanus sp are present in the area. 




Criteria for inclusion: 2a, 2b, 3b. 

Source: C.J. Escott. 

Wetland name: Muara Sungai Salowatu 



Location: 20 km north of Watampone, Bone, South Sulawesi. 

Area: 200 ha. 




Description of site: A coastal area with about 140 ha of Nypa plantations, about 40 ha of other 

brackish swamps and marshes, and 20 ha of fishponds and prawn ponds. The wetlands are tidal, 

with brackish to saline waters. 


Principal vegetation: Nypa fruticans swamp. 




Land use: The harvesting of Nypa for thatching purposes, aquaculture (fishponds and prawn 

ponds), and a little hunting. The area is inhabited by less than a hundred people.

Disturbances and threats: Hunting and the encroachment of agriculture. 


Fauna: The wetlands are important for a variety of water birds, and support a large mixed 

breeding colony of herons and egrets, located in very dense Nypa swamp. A survey in 1986 

recorded the following: 

100 Bubulcus ibis 

100 Egretta picata 

100 E. garzetta 

40 E. alba 

5 Ardea purpurea 

33 Mycteria cinerea 

2 Haliaeetus leucogaster 

40 Anas gibberifrons 

1,200 A. querquedula 

and 80 Nycticorax nycticorax and N. caledonicus 


Research and facilities: Interwader carried out a preliminary survey of the area in 1986, and has 

recommended that an aerial survey be conducted to assess the importance of the site for water 

birds. 

References: Uttley (1986). 



Wetland name: Danau Tempe and Danau Buaya 



Location: 35 km ESE of Parepare, Kabupaten Wajo, Sinkang Region, South Sulawesi. 

Area: 9,445 ha. 




Description of site: Two shallow, permanent, freshwater lakes in the same lacustrine system as 

Danau Sidenreng (site 95). Danau Tempe (6,000 ha) is much the larger of the two, and is an 

outstanding example of a shallow eutrophic lake ecosystem. There are several villages around the 

lake, and almost all of the surrounding forest has been cleared, except for the swampy forest 

between Tempe and Sidenreng. Both Tempe and Buaya are shallow (maximum depth about 5m) 

and support abundant floating vegetation. 

Climatic conditions: Humid tropical climate with an average annual rainfall of 1,355 mm and 

high relative humidity. 

Principal vegetation: The aquatic vege 



Conservation measures proposed: Danau Tempe has been proposed as a Wildlife Reserve 

(Suaka Margasatwa). 

Land use: Fishing; agriculture and human settlements in surrounding areas. 

Disturbances and threats: Forest clearance, agricultural encroachment, over-fishing and illegal 

hunting. 

Economic and social values: The lakes support a locally important fishery, and may have some 

potential for tourism.

Fauna: The lakes support a wide variety of fishes including two species known only from Danau 

Tempe and the nearby Danau Sidenreng (site 95): Oryzias celebensis (Adrianichthyidae) and T. 

ladigesi (Atherinidae). Other fishes include Cyprinus carpio, Puntius javanicus, Anabas 

testudineus, Helastoma temmincki, Trichogaster pectoralis, Clarias batrachus, Chana hirata, 

Anguilla sp and Therapon microcanthus. 

Danau Tempe has a greater diversity of water birds than any other lake in Sulawesi. A survey in 

April 1986 recorded large numbers of Ixobrychus flavicollis, Ardeola speciosa and Ardea 

purpurea, along with: 

35 Nycticorax caledonicus 

50 Egretta garzetta 

170 Plegadis falcinellus 

315 Dendrocygna arcuata 

40 Anas gibberifrons 

10 A. superciliosa 

50 Chlidonias leucoptera 

Other species present included Tachybaptus ruficollis, Phalacrocorax melanoleucos, Anhinga 

melanogaster, Ixobrychus sinensis, I. eurhythmus, I. cinnamomeus, Nycticorax nycticorax, 

Bubulcus ibis, Egretta alba, Ciconia episcopus, Amaurornis phoenicurus, Gallinula chloropus, G. 

tenebrosa, Porphyrio porphyrio, Irediparra gallinacea, Tringa glareola, Actitis hypoleucos, 

Calidris subminuta and Chlidonias hybrida. Mammals include Macaca maura, Paradoxus sp and 

Sus sp; reptiles include Hydrosaurus amboinensis, Crocodylus sp and Mabouya multifasciata. 


Research and facilities: Interwader carried out waterbird surveys at both lakes in April 1986 

(Uttley, 1986). 

References: Direktorat P.P.A. (19801); MacKinnon & Artha (1982d); Uttley (1986). 

Criteria for inclusion: 1b, 2a, 2b, 2d, 3b. 


Wetland name: Danau Sidenreng 



Location: 25 km east of Parepare, Central Sulawesi. 

Area: c.3,700 ha. 




Description of site: A permanent freshwater lake in the lowlands of the southern peninsula of 

Sulawesi. 








Economic and social values: No information. The lake may have some potential for outdoor 


Fauna: Little information is available. The lake is known to support a population of the endemic 

fish Oryzias celebensis (Adrianichthyidae), and may still support a population of T. ladigesi

(Atherinidae). Both these species are known only from this lake and Lake Tempe, six km to the 

southeast (site 94). 



References: Whitten et al. (1987). 

Criteria for inclusion: lb. 2a, 2d. 


Wetland name: Lamikomiko 



Location: near Palopo, at the northwest corner of Teluk Bone, Kabupaten Luwu, South Sulawesi. 

Area: 5,000 ha. 




Description of site: Approximately 1,500 ha of coastal mangrove forest backed by lowland forest 

on alluvial soils. The forests are of high botanical interest and support a diverse avifauna. 


Principal vegetation: Mangrove forest; lowland rain forest in adjacent areas. 




Alam). 

Land use: Cutting of mangroves for local use. 

Disturbances and threats: Excessive exploitation of the mangrove forest. 


Fauna: The area is known to be rich in water birds, but no details are available. 

Special floral values: A particularly diverse mangrove forest, of great botanical interest. 



Criteria for inclusion: 1b, 2b. 


Wetland name: North Coast of Teluk Bone 


Coordinates: 2°58'S, l20°l2'E to 2°35'S, l21°03'E; 

Location: the north coast of Bone Bay between Palopo and Malili, South Sulawesi. 

Area: c.5,000 ha. 



Wetland type: 01, 02, 06 & 07. 

Description of site: About 100 km of coastline in a sheltered gulf, with many small river mouths 

fringed with mangrove forest. At low tide, about 200 ha of mudflats and about 5,000 ha of sandy 

flats are exposed. 



Land tenure: State owned (Indonesian Government, PHPA).

Conservation measures taken: Part of the area is totally protected. 


Land use: Some aquaculture (prawn ponds and fishponds). 

Possible changes in Land use: Part of the area has been designated for agricultural use. 

Disturbances and threats: Encroachment of aquaculture ponds and agricultural development. 


Fauna: An important area for a wide variety of water birds. Birds recorded during a brief survey 

in April 1986 include Ardeola speciosa, Butorides striatus, Egretta sp (500), Ardea cinerea, A. 

sumatrana, Mycteria cinerea and fifteen species of migratory shorebirds, mainly Charadrius spp, 

Limosa lapponica, Numenius phaeopus, Tringa totanus, Xenus cinereus and Heteroscelus 

brevipes. 






Wetland name: Malili Lake System 


Coordinates: 2°25'-2°56'S, l2l°13'-l21°41'E; 

Location: in the hills east of Malili, Central Sulawesi, north of the border with South Sulawesi. 

Area: Danau Towuti c.59,000 ha; Danau Matano c.16,500 ha; other lakes c.2,500 ha. 

Altitude: 7l0-760m. 



Description of site: Four permanent, freshwater lakes: Towuti, Matano, Mahalona and Wawontoa, 

remarkable for their high number of endemic fish species. Danau Towuti (59,000 ha), the largest 

lake in Sulawesi, is surrounded by forested hills. There are extensive nickel mines and 

hydro-electric power installations on the southern shore of Danau Matano. 



Land tenure: Danau Towuti is state owned (PHPA); no information is available for the other 

lakes. 

Conservation measures taken: A Recreation Park (Taman Wisata) has been established on the 

shore of Danau Towuti. The park includes 6,000 ha of lowland forest on ultra-basic rock. 


Land use: Fishing at all four lakes; mining and generation of electricity at Danau Matano. There 

are several small villages around Danau Towuti. 

Disturbances and threats: The human population is expanding rapidly in the area. Nickel mines 

cause a considerable amount of pollution in Danau Matano, and there is some disturbance from the 

hydro-electric power station. Many exotic fish species have been introduced in the lakes, and these 

introductions continue (four new species in recent years). The main threats to the endemic fishes 

are pollution of the lakes with organic effluents from the rapidly expanding human population, and 

the introduction of exotic fish species. There are plans to carry out logging in the forests around 

Danau Towuti. 

Economic and social values: The lakes are set in an area of great scenic beauty, and have 

considerable potential for outdoor recreation and tourism. 

Fauna: The lakes are remarkable for their high number of endemic fish species. No less than 

sixteen species are known only from these lakes, and ten of these are confined to a single lake.

Danau Towuti has the largest number of endemics (ten), followed by Matano (six), Mahalona 

(five) and Wawontoa (four). Introduced species include Cyprinus carpio, Channa striata and 

Trichogaster tricopterus. 



References: Direktorat P.P.A. (1977b); MacKinnon & Artha (1982d); Whitten et al. (1987). 

Criteria for inclusion: 1b, 2b, 2d. 


Wetland name: Watumohae 


Coordinates: 4°22'-4°34'S, 121°44'-122°1O'E; 

Location: 80 km southwest of Kendari, Kabupatens Kendari and Buton, Southeast Sulawesi. 

Area: Hunting Park of 50,000 ha including 3,200 ha of mangrove forest. 



Wetland type: 05, 07, 11 & 18. 

Description of site: An area of coastal plains and hills with many rivers, 3,200 ha of mangrove 

forest, 25,300 ha of grassland and savanna, and about 21,000 ha of tropical rain forest. The 

savanna is a secondary formation, formed as a result of shifting cultivation. Parts of the grassland 

and savanna are seasonally flooded. 


months of August, September, October, November and December are relatively dry; the rest of the 

year is wet. 

Principal vegetation: Mangrove forest with Bruguiera gyninorhiza, Sonneratia alba, S. acido, 

Ceriops tagal, Rhizophora stylosa, R. apiculata and Avicennia marina. Dominant plants elsewhere 

include Imperata cylindrica, Andropogon sp, Saccharum spontaneum, Cyperus sp, Arenga 

pinnata, Nauclea orientalis, Metrosidoros petiolata, Garcinia celebica, Hibiscus tiliaceus, Intsia 

bijuga, Asporosa sp and Vitex sp. 


Conservation measures taken: The Hunting Park (Taman Buru) of 50,000 ha was established in 

1976. 

Conservation measures proposed: It has been proposed that hunting should be prohibited and the 

status of the park upgraded to that of a Wildlife Reserve (Suaka Margasatwa). The protected area 

could eventually be linked with the nearby Rawa Opa Reserve. 

Land use: Hunting; agriculture, hunting and tourism in surrounding areas. 

Disturbances and threats: Illegal hunting. 


Fauna: Water birds known to occur in the park include Phalacrocorax sp, Egretta sp, Mycteria 

cinerea, Plegadis falcinellus, Dendrocygna guttata, Anas sp, Pandion haliaetus, Haliastur indus, 

Sterna albifrons and Halcyon cyanoventris. The Maleo Bird Macrocephalon maleo is present. 

Mammals include Cervus timorensis, Sus scrofa, Macaca nigra, Anoa depresicornis, Manis 

javanica, Pteropus sp and Bos bubulus. Reptiles include the Estuarine Crocodile Crocodylus 

porosus and Varanus salvator. 



References: Direktorat P.P.A. (1976d & 1978b); Djatmikas (1975); MacKinnon & Artha (1982d). 

Criteria for inclusion: l b, 2a, 3b. 

Source: Marcel J. Silvius, Edi Djuharsa and Agustinus W. Taufik.

Wetland name: Tanjung Peropa 



Location: Kabupaten Kendari, Southeast Sulawesi. 

Area: Area of wetlands unknown; Wildlife Reserve 38,000 ha. 




Description of site: A small area of coastal mangrove forest backed by dry shrub and brush forest. 

Further inland, the land becomes hilly and is covered with rain forest. Parts of the forest near the 

coast have been cleared for agricultural use (ladang). Several small rivers flow through the area; 

these are fringed with mangroves along their lower, tidal reaches. 


average temperature is 26.3°C, and the relative humidity, 80%. 

Principal vegetation: Mangrove forest with Sonneratia alba, Rhizophora mucronata, Ceriops 

tagal and Bruguiera sp. Dominant plants in adjacent areas include Imperata cylindrica, Jntsia 

bijuga, Tetrameles mediflora, Castaneopsis sp, Arenga pinnata, Bambusa sp, Ficus sp, 

Barringtonia sp and Hibiscus tiliaceus. 


Conservation measures taken: The area was designated as a Wildlife Reserve in 1980. 


Land use: Nature conservation. 

Disturbances and threats: Illegal wood-cutting, shifting cultivation and increased human 

settlement. 


Fauna: An important area for water birds; species known to occur include Phalacrocorax 

sulcirostris, Anhinga melanogaster, Nycticorax caledonicus, Egretta alba, Ardea sumatrana, 

Ciconia episcopus, Pandion haliaetus, Himantopus leucocephalus, Chlidonias hybrida, Sterna 

albifrons and the kingfishers Alcedo atthis and Halcyon cyanoventris. 

Mammals include Anoa depressicornis, Macaca nigra, Phalanger celebensis, Sus scrofa, Cervus 

timorensis and Callosciurus sp. Reptiles and amphibians include the Estuarine Crocodile 

Crocodylus porosus, Varanus salvator, Rana sp and Bufo sp. 



References: Direktorat P.P.A. (1978c & 1983b). 



Wetland name: Pulau Kawi-Kabia 



Location: in the Flores Sea, 140 km SSW of Pulau Buton, Kabupaten Buton, Southeast Sulawesi. 





Description of site: A small and very remote coral island, used by sea-turtles and sea-birds.





Conservation measures proposed: The island has been proposed as a Nature Reserve (Cagar 

Alam). 


Disturbances and threats: Over-fishing, the destruction of coral reefs, and stealing of sea-turtle 

eggs. 


Fauna: Sea-turtles are known to breed on the island, and there may be breeding colonies of 

sea-birds, but no details are available. 






Wetland name: Tukang Besi Archipelago 



Location: at the southeastern extremity of the Sulawesi islands, 30-180 km southeast of Pulau 

Buton, Kabupaten Buton, Southeast Sulawesi. 





Description of site: A number of small, offshore islands with an excellent range of coral reefs 

showing the progression from fringing reefs to barrier reefs and atolls. The remotest of the islands, 

Pulau Moromaho, supports a large breeding colony of sea-birds. 





Conservation measures proposed: The islands and adjacent seas have been proposed as a Marine 

Wildlife Reserve (Suaka Margasatwa Laut). It has also been proposed that Pulau Moromaho be 

designated as a Strict Nature Reserve (Cagar Alam). 


Disturbances and threats: Over-fishing and the destruction of coral reefs. 


Fauna: The islands are known to be important for breeding sea-birds, Dugongs Dugong dugon, 

sea-turtles and other marine life, but no details are available. 






Wetland name: Gunung Gamkonora Crater Lake 


Coordinates: l°15'N, l27°29'E; 

Location: 55 km NNE of Ternate, Kabupaten Maluku Utara, Halmahera, Moluccas. 


Altitude: Unknown. 



Description of site: An interesting crater lake on a steep volcano; the highest peak on Halmahera 

(l, 640m). The rich volcanic soils on the slopes of the volcano support lush forests, which are an 

important water catchment area for the fertile Akelamo valley and coastal agricultural land. 

Climatic conditions: Humid tropical climate with heavy rainfall. 




Conservation measures proposed: Mackinnon and Artha (1981b) have proposed that the entire 

area (32,000 ha) be designated as a Wildlife Reserve (Suaka Margasatwa). 


Disturbances and threats: There are plans to carry out logging in the lowlands. 

Economic and social values: The crater lake is of considerable scientific interest, and the 

surrounding forests are of vital importance in protecting the water catchment area which, with its 

loose soils, steep slopes and heavy rainfall, is very vulnerable to erosion. The area has considerable 

potential for tourism. 


Special floral values: The forests around the crater lake are a good example of very wet forest on 

volcanic soils. 

Research and facilities: There is an airstrip at Kuripasi and a trail leading up to the crater lake. 

References: Mackinnon & Artha (1981b). 


Source: Alison Skene. 

Wetland name: Wasile Bay 


Coordinates: 0°15'-035'N, 127°53'-1281O'E; 

Location: Kabupaten Maluku Utara, Halmahera, Moluccas. 




Wetland type: 01, 05, 07 & 11. 

Description of site: A shallow sea bay and estuarine system with mangrove swamps and sandy 

beaches, in the central part of Halmahera. The bay is surrounded by a coastal plain varying 

between three and ten km in width. 

Climatic conditions: Humid tropical climate. The rainfall is reported to be heavy and certainly 

exceeds 2,000 mm per year. The average temperature is 25°C. 

Principal vegetation: Mangrove forest with Bruguiera spp, Sonneratia alba and Heritiera sp, and 

beach forest with Corallia brachiata, Callophyllum inophyllum, Barringlonia sp and Calamus sp. 

Lowland tropical rain forest in adjacent areas. 


Conservation measures taken: None.

Conservation measures proposed: The entire area has been proposed as a Nature Reserve. 

Land use: About 5,000 people live in the lowlands around Wasile Bay, near the proposed reserve. 

Disturbances and threats: Illegal cultivation, development in transmigration schemes, 

particularly in coastal areas, and timber concessions. 


Fauna: Little information is available, although the area is known to be rich in endemic species. A 

variety of water birds have been recorded including Fregata minor, Nycticorax caledonicus, 

Bubulcus ibis, Dendrocygna guttata, Tadorna radjah, Pandion haliaetus, Esacus magnirostris, 

Numenius minutus, Tringa nebularia and Sterna anaethetus. Mammals include Petaurus 

breviceps, Macaca sp, Sus scrofa, Pteropus sp, Paradoxurus hermaphroditus and Musaderma 

spasma. The Estuarine Crocodile Crocodylus porosus is known to occur. 



References: FAO (1981d). 

Criteria for inclusion: lb, 2a, 2d, 3b. 


Wetland name: Wae Apo 



Location: seven km southwest of Namlea, northeast Pulau Buru, Kabupaten Maluku Tengah, 

Moluccas. 

Area: c.3,000 ha. 




Description of site: An excellent stand of stabilized and well-formed mangrove forest at the 

mouth of the Apo River. The area is virtually undisturbed. 


Principal vegetation: Mangrove forest dominated by Rhizophora sp along the seaward edge, and 

species of Avicennia and Bruguiera further inland. 

Land tenure: Partly state owned and partly owned by the local people. 


Conservation measures proposed: MacKinnon and Artha (1981b) have proposed that an area of 

3,000 ha be designated as a Nature Reserve (Cagar Alam). This would include only half of the 

mangrove forest; the remaining half is considered quite adequate to provide mangrove products to 

meet the genuine needs of the local people. 

Land use: Some exploitation of mangrove products for local use. 

Disturbances and threats:The cutting of Rhizophora timber for boat-building, and cutting of 

mangroves for firewood. The area has potential for logging. 

Economic and social values:The mangrove forest is clearly of great importance in maintaining 

the local fishery, and protects the sawah areas of Wae Apo from tidal flooding. 


Special floral values:An excellent stand of mature mangrove forest; a rare habitat type in the 

Moluccas. 


References: MacKinnon & Artha (1981b). 


Source: Alison Skene.

Wetland name: Pulau Kasa 



Location: in Teluk Piru at the west end of Seram Island, Kabupaten Maluku Tengah, Seram, 

Moluccas. 

Area: 2,000 ha (800-900 ha of land, 1,100-1,200 ha of sea). 




Description of site: A small sandy island with scrubby forest, sandy beaches and surrounding 

coral reefs; about eight km offshore in Piru Bay. 

Climatic conditions: Tropical maritime climate. 

Principal vegetation: Scrubby forest. 


Conservation measures taken: The land area was designated as a Wildlife Reserve (Suaka 

margasatwa) and the sea area as a Marine Park (Taman Laut) in 1978. The megapode Megapodius 

reinwardi that inhabits the scrubby forest has been protected by law since 1970. 

Conservation measures proposed: It is essential that the wardening of the island be improved to 

stop the present gross abuses. 



Disturbances and threats: The illegal gathering of megapode eggs, gathering of molluscs and 

corals, over-fishing and fishing with dynamite. 


Fauna: Little information is available. The megapode Megapodius reinwardt occurs in the 

scrubby forest, and sea-turtles nest on the sandy beaches. 



References: Kvalvagnaes & Halim (l979b); MacKinnon & Artha (l98lb); Salm et al. (1982). 


Source: Alison Skene. 

Wetland name: Wetlands in Manusela Proposed National Park (Wae Mual and Wae Nua 

Reserves) 



Location: the central part of Seram Island from the north coast to Teluk Teluti, Kabupaten 

Maluku Tengah, Central Seram, Moluccas. 

Area: Area of wetlands unknown; proposed National Park 180,000 ha. 



Wetland type: 04, 05, 07, 11 & 21. 

Description of site: The proposed Manusela National Park extends across the central section of 

Seram from the north coast to the south coast (over 55 km). It includes sections of two major 

east-west mountain ridges, deep-sided river valleys, and the headwaters of several major rivers. 

North of the mountain chain, there are low hills and alluvial plains with low ridges of coral 

limestone and coral sands. The northern plains are drained by a number of shallow and often very

wide rivers. The southern region is drained by one major river, the Wae Kawa, and numerous 

fast-flowing streams in narrow valleys. Severe flooding occurs annually in the lowlands. Beach 

and mangrove communities occur along the north coast, and there are estuarine habitats at the river 

mouths. At the northwestern extremity of the reserve, there are steep limestone cliffs up to lOOm 

in height. In some areas, small pockets of lowland swamp forest occur between the coastal 

mangroves and the montane forests of the interior. Large areas of forest are swampy, especially in 

the wet season from December to April. Wae Nua Reserve alone covers the maximum altitudinal 

range possible on the island, and the whole park encompasses the complete spectrum of Seram's 

forest ecosystems. 

Climatic conditions: Humid tropical maritime climate, with a long rainy season and temperatures 

ranging from 25-35°C. The average annual rainfall is approximately 2,000 mm; most rain falls 

during the wet season (December to April), but there is some rainfall throughout the year. The 

rainfall is not, however, uniformly distributed throughout the park, the pattern being influenced by 

the mountains. On the north coast and plains, the wet season lasts from November to April, and 

there are strong winds from January to March (west monsoon); the period from May to October is 

drier, with the monthly rainfall usually less than 100 mm. In southern areas, the wet season lasts 

from May to October; rainfall is heaviest in July, and there are strong winds in July and August 

(southeast monsoon). Manusela Valley has a climate similar to the north coast. 

Principal vegetation: The mangrove communities, which are best developed on Tanjung Mual, 

include species of Sonneratia, Rhizophora, Bruguiera and Avicennia along with Nypa fruticans. 

Beach formations include Casuarina equisetifolia and species of Ipomoea, Spinifex, Terminalia 

and Pandanus. Lowland swamp forest occurs in small pockets behind the mangrove belt on the 

north coast. There are also areas of swampy forest to the north of Raho. Tree species in the swamp 

forest include Nauclea sp, Barringtonia racemosa, Ficus nodosa and Melaleuca leucodendron. 

Riverine vegetation is well developed along the major rivers. Characteristic species include 

Octomeles sumatrana, Eucalyptus deglupta, Pometia pinnata, Casuarina equisetifolia, Ficus spp, 

Litsea spp and Eugenia spp. Riverine forest is characterized by species of Eucalyptus, Casuarina 

and Pandanus. The dominant plant communities elsewhere in the park are lowland rain forest and 

montane rain forest. 

Land tenure: State owned (Indonesian Government, PHPA). 

Conservation measures taken: Two Nature Reserves (Cagar Alam) were established in 1982; the 

Wae Nua Nature Reserve (20,000 ha) and the Wae Mual Nature Reserve (17,500 ha). The Wae 

Mual Nature Reserve has since been extended to 35,000 ha. 

Conservation measures proposed: MacKinnon and Artha (1981b) have proposed that an area of 

180,000 ha, including both Nature Reserves, be designated as a National Park (Taman Nasional). 

Recommendations for management include: (a) limiting tourist development until demand exceeds 

the facilities already available; (b) better delimitation of the reserve boundaries; (c) increasing the 

number of management personnel; (d) enforcing strong protection measures for crocodiles and 

sea-turtles; (e) imposing a strict ban on the collecting of the famous endemic butterflies. 

Land use: About 90% of the proposed Manusela National Park is untouched. The other 10% has a 

long history of human habitation, especially along the southeast coast where there has been a 

recent increase in settlement. Thus, it is in these coastal areas, up to 400m in altitude, that most 

forest clearance has taken place. Cleared land is cultivated with perennial crops such as cloves and 

coconuts. There is some agricultural land along the north coast, as well as large areas of 

alang-alang (Imperata cylindrica). Logging activities have disturbed large patches of forest in the 

coastal regions of the Mual plains just behind the mangrove belt, but this logging has now been 

stopped. Forest in the Manusela Valley is heavily disturbed as a result of more than a century of 

cultivation. This area contains numerous gardens, clearings and patches of secondary forest in all 

stages of development. Other activities in the forest include collection of damar (resin from

Agathis trees), rattans, firewood and timber, the trapping of birds for trade, and the hunting of pigs, 

deer and phalangers. 

Possible changes in Land use: The island of Seram has been considered as a target area for 

transmigration schemes (DHV Consulting Engineers et al., 1982a & 1982b). 

Disturbances and threats: Logging and clearance of forest for agricultural purposes are the main 

threats. Logging is currently being carried out in the southern part of Central Seram, but is also 

planned for many other areas. Part of the northern lowlands were logged prior to the establishment 

of a Nature Reserve. In 1981, there were three companies active in the region. Forest cover is 

essential for the prevention of erosion of the shallow soil both on slopes and in flat lowland areas 

where severe flooding occurs every year. There is an increase in human settlement and shifting 

agriculture in coastal zones, especially in the Wae Nua area. Large numbers of birds, such as 

parrots, cockatoos and lories, are trapped for the cage-bird trade, and there is a considerable 

amount of trade in butterflies. Large numbers of eggs of the Geen Sea Turtle Chelonia mydas are 

collected for human consumption. Damar and other forest products are over-exploited, especially 

in the coastal plains of Wae Mual, and there is a lack of control or management of these resources. 

Road construction and mineral exploitation may have adverse effects in the proposed National 

Park. The Wae Mual Nature Reserve has been threatened by an irrigation scheme (Wind & Amir, 

1978). 

Economic and social values: The forests are of vital importance in protecting the water catchment 

areas of some of Seram's largest rivers. Under appropriate management, a wide variety of forest 

products could be exploited on a sustainable basis. The area has high scenic values and great 

potential for scientific research, education and tourism. The proposed National Park includes a 

variety of unique biota and habitats, containing all of Seram's endemic species. 

Fauna: The fauna is a transitional mixture of Australian and Asian elements. A total of 117 

species of birds has been recorded, including 14 species endemic to the island of Seram, but little 

information is available on the water birds. There is reported to be a good nesting beach for the 

Maleo Bird Macrocephalon rnaleo one km west of Wahai. Twelve species of mammals have been 

recorded including Cervus timorensis, Rhynchomeles sp and Phalanger spp. Six of these are 

endemic to Seram. 

Six amphibians and 41 reptiles have been recorded from Seram, and most are believed to occur in 

the proposed National Park. Amphibians include the very big frog Hyla amboniensis. Reptiles 

include the endemic snake Calamaria ceramensis and the sea-turtles Chelonia mydas, 

Eretmochelys imbricata and Caretta caretta; C. mydas occasionally occurs on sandy beaches 

along the north coast. The Estuarine Crocodile Crocodylus porosus may occur; suitable habitat is 

present at the mouths of several rivers, and local people talk of hunting them. 

Over 90 species of butterflies have been reported, including several famous endemic species. 

There are also seven endemic species of land snails. 

Special floral values: The proposed National Park contains a very rich and unique flora with 

many endemic species. The principal reason for the establishment of the two nature reserves was 

to protect endemic species of Shorea. 

Research and facilities: Few botanical expeditions have ever visited the Moluccas, and no 

detailed studies of the flora have been made. There is obviously a need for more collecting 

expeditions, especially in the rugged mountains which are interesting from the point of view of 

plant geography. Most of the information on fauna dates from the first half of the 20th century, and 

further research is urgently required. 

References: DHV Consulting Engineers et al. (l982a & 1982b); IUCN (in prep); MacKinnon & 

Artha (1981b); Smiet & Siallagan (l98la); Walker & Reynolds (1983); Wind & Amir (1978). 

Criteria for inclusion: 1b, 2a, 2b, 2d. 

Source: Alison Skene.

Wetland name: Pulau Manuk 



Location: in the Banda Sea, 200 km south of eastern Seram and 115 km SSE of Pulau Banda, 

Kabupaten Maluku Tengah, Moluccas. 

Area: 200 ha. 




Description of site: A small, very remote, volcanic island in the Banda Sea, with fumerole activity 

at the summit and a large, deep crater at the southern end. 


Principal vegetation: The slopes of the island, up to about 200m elevation, are partly covered 

with Pisonia and Ficus trees. The trees reach their greatest heights and densities on the northern 

and western sides of the island, where they are sheltered from the southeast monsoon. 


Conservation measures taken: The island was declared a Wildlife Reserve (Suaka Margasatwa) 

in 1981. 

Conservation measures proposed: Gardens on the northeastern side of the island should be 

removed, and steps should be taken to eradicate introduced rats and cats (de Korte, 1984). 

Land use: Nature protection. 

Disturbances and threats: There is some habitat disturbance on the northeastern side of the island 

(gardens), and introduced predators, notably Rattus norvegicus and domestic cats, have probably 

contributed to the drastic decline in numbers of breeding seabirds since the early 1970s. There is 

also some egg-collecting by visiting fishermen. 

Economic and social values: The sea-birds play an important role in the local fishing industry by 

guiding fishermen to shoals of fish. 

Fauna: The island is one of the most important nesting sites for seabirds in the South Pacific. In 

the early 1970s, approximately 90,000 seabirds were present. In 1981, however, de Korte (1984) 

estimated that there were no more than 20,000 birds on the island. These included 300-900 pairs of 

Phaethon aethereus, 3,000-6,000 pairs of Sula sula (with 2,500-5,000 non-breeders), 2,500-5,000 

pairs of S. leucogaster, 1,200-2,400 pairs of Fregata minor, some pairs of Sterna anaethetus and 

five pairs of Anous stolidus. Three species which were present in the early 1970s, namely 

Phaethon lepturus, Sula dactylatra and Fregata ariel, were not found in 1981. 


Research and facilities: Seabird surveys were carried out in the early 1970s and 1981. 

References: de Korte (1984); MacKinnon & Artha (1981b). 

Criteria for inclusion: 1b, 2c, 3a. 

Source: Marcel J. Silvius and Alison Skene. 

Wetland name: Lucipara and Penyu Archipelagos 


Coordinates: 5°20'-5°36'S, 127°28'-l27°49'E; 

Location: in the Banda Sea, 200 km south of the western tip of Seram and 250 km northeast of 

Wetar, Moluccas. 

Area: c.6,500 ha of islands and reefs. 




Description of site: Two groups of tiny islands with extensive fringing coral reefs in the middle of 

the Banda Sea, almost 200 km from the nearest large island. The Lucipara Archipelago in the west 

consists of four small vegetated coral islands connected by a reef, and to the south, a fifth low 

island without vegetation, surrounded by another reef. The Penyu Archipelago, some 25 km to the 

east, consists of three small islands each surrounded by its own reef. Pulau Mai in the Penyu group 

is the largest island, with an area of about 100 ha and a maximum elevation of 33m. 





Conservation measures proposed: It is recommended that the whole of the Lucipara Archipelago 

be declared a Wildlife Reserve (Suaka Margasatwa). As a first step, the small and seldom visited 

southern island should be declared a Nature Reserve (Cagar Alam) to protect the nesting 

sea-turtles. 

Land use: Hunting of turtles and harvesting of seabird eggs; some cultivation on the larger 

islands. 

Disturbances and threats: In recent years, semi-permanent cultivation has appeared on some of 

the larger islands. Hundreds of sea-turtles are killed each year for food, and the eggs of Great 

Crested Terns Sterna bergii and possibly other terns are harvested on a very large scale. In June 

1981, about 30,000 tern eggs were collected from the breeding colonies and sold in Ambon (de 

Korte, 1984). 


Fauna: The islands support large breeding colonies of Sterna bergii (tens of thousands of pairs) 

and possibly other tern species, and are important roosting sites for Fregata minor and F. ariel 

(100-200 individuals). There are important nesting beaches for Green Sea Turtles Chelonia mydas 

on the southern island in the Lucipara group. 



References: de Korte (1984). 



Wetland name: Gunung Api 



Location: in the South Banda Sea, 100 km north of the north coast of Wetar, Kabupaten Maluku 

Tenggara, Moluccas. 

Area: 80 ha. 




Description of site: A small island comprising the summit of an active volcano rising directly 

from the ocean bed some 4,000m below sea level. This andesitic volcano is uninhabited, although 

it is sometimes visited by fishermen. There is crater about 80m deep in the centre of the island, 

about 200m above sea level. Except for some very steep slopes and barren areas around the crater, 

the island is entirely covered by vegetation, which is, however, poor in species. In 1938, there was 

strong fumerole activity along the lower western side of the crater, and dense vegetation survived

only on the other side of the island. In 1981, the fumerole activity had almost ceased, and the 

fast-growing Pisonia trees had covered half of the bare surface. 


Principal vegetation: Trees include Pisonia sylvestris, Ficus sp, Terminalia catappa and 

Pandanus tectorius; shrubs include Trema virgata, T. orientale and Caesalpina crista; herbs 

include Cenchrus inflexus, Cyperus sp, Paspalum scrobiculatum and Ipomoea pescaprae. 


Conservation measures taken: The island has been protected as a Nature Reserve (Cagar Alam) 

since 1937. 


Land use: Nature conservation; fishing in surrounding waters. 

Disturbances and threats: The collecting of birds' eggs for human consumption. There are no rats 

or cats on the island at present, but the island is occasionally visited by fishing boats and there is 

constant danger that predators will be introduced accidentally. 


Fauna: The island supports a very large breeding colony of sea-birds. In August 1981, de Korte 

estimated the breeding populations at 600-1,800 pairs of Phaethon rubricauda, 40 pairs of Sula 

dactylatra, 100-200 pairs of S. sula (with 200-400 non-breeders present), 1,000-2,000 pairs of S. 

leucogaster, 400-800 pairs of Fregata minor, 200-600 pairs of Sterna anaethetus and 200-600 

pairs of Anous stolidus. These figures suggest that the numbers of P. rubricauda, S. leucogaster, F. 

minor and A. stolidus have increased since Hoogerwerf's visit in 1938. Most of the seabirds breed 

on the western side of the island, which is partly sheltered from the strong winds of the southeast 

monsoon. Other birds known to occur on the island include Egretta sacra, Falco peregrinus, 

Megapodius sp, Halcyon sancta and a variety of shorebirds. 

No mammals are present on the island, except for one species of bat. Invertebrates include an 

egg-eating species of crab. 


Research and facilities: The island was explored by the Willebrord Snellius Expedition in 

1929-30, by Hoogerwerf in July and August 1938, and by de Korte in August 1981. 

References: Bemmel & Hoogerwerf (1940); Hoogerwerf (1939); de Korte (1984); MacKinnon & 

Artha (l98lb). 

Criteria for inclusion: lb. 2c, 3a. 


Wetland name: Pulau Wetar and Telaga Thu 



Location: in the extreme western part of the southeastern Moluccas, Kabupaten Maluku 

Tenggara. 

Area: Area of wetlands unknown; Wetar Island 360,000 ha. 




Description of site: Pulau Wetar is a small island with sandy beaches, sea cliffs and a small 

freshwater lake known as Telaga Tilu. The monsoon forests of the lowlands have been almost 

entirely converted to savanna and agricultural land. 

Climatic conditions: Tropical maritime climate, with an average annual rainfall of 1,080 mm (the 

lowest rainfall in the Moluccas). The dry season extends from July to November.

Principal vegetation: The beach vegetation is dominated by Callophyllum inophyllum, Pandanus 

and Barringtonia sp. Dominant species elsewhere on the island include Eucalyptus spp, Corypha 

sp, Borassus sp, Acacia sp, Pterocarpus indicus, Tectonia grandis and Casuarina sp. 



Conservation measures proposed: The entire island has been proposed as a conservation area. 

Land use: Some small-scale fishing at the lake; forestry and agriculture elsewhere on the island. 

Disturbances and threats: Shifting cultivation, increased human settlement, ladang encroachment 

and logging. 


Fauna: The island is very rich in wildlife. A wide variety of water birds have been recorded 

including Pelecanus conspicillatus, Phalacrocorax melanoleucos, Anhinga novaehollandiae, 

Fregata arid, F. minor, Butorides striatus, Egretta garzetta, E. alba, Ardea sumatrana, Anas 

gibberifrons, Esacus magnirostris, Charadrius mongolus, Limosa limosa, L. lapponica, Numenius 

madagascariensis, Tringa glareola, Calidris ferruginea and the kingfishers Alcedo azurea, 

Halcyon sancta and H. chloris. Mammals include Phalanger orientalis, Suncus murinus, Pteropus 

sp, Rhinolophus emyotis, Sus scrofa and Cervus timorensis. Reptiles include the Green Sea Turtle 

Chelonia mydas, Varanus indicus and species of Cylindrophis, Draco and Mabouya. 



References: MacKinnon & Artha (1981b); Smiet et al. (1981). 

Criteria for inclusion: lb. 2a, 2b, 3b. 


Wetland name: Yamdena and the Tanimbar Archipelago 


Coordinates: 6°38'-8°25'S, 130°40'-l32°OO'E; 

Location: in the southeastern Moluccas, Kabupaten Maluku Tenggara, Moluccas. 

Area: Area of wetlands unknown; Tanimbar Archipelago 505,800 ha, Yamdena Island 60,000 ha. 



Wetland type: 02, 05, 06, 07, 11 & 21. 

Description of site: The Tanimbar Islands form the second largest archipelago in the southeastern 

Moluccas. The largest island, Yamdena, is surrounded by dozens of smaller islands and islets. The 

delta of the Wai Ranarmoje on the west coast of Yamdena supports extensive mangrove swamps, 

which extend up to ten km inland. Elsewhere on the west coast, there are beaches fringed with 

intertidal mudflats and backed by seasonal swamps. Further inland, the land remains relatively flat 

for about 20 km and then rises gently for another 20 km to form a row of hills. The central part of 

the island is covered with deciduous forest still in an almost pristine condition. 

Climatic conditions: Tropical maritime climate with an annual rainfall of 1,951 to 2,070 mm. 

Principal vegetation: Mangrove swamps with Aegiceras corniculatum and species of Bruguiera, 

Ceriops, Avicennia and Rhizophora; freshwater swamp forest with Oncosperma sp. Nypa fruticans 

and Oncosperma characterize the transition zone to freshwater conditions. Lowland deciduous 

forest in the interior of Yamdena Island. 


Conservation measures taken: Three small conservation areas have been established: 

Angwarmase Island Nature Reserve (800 ha), off the south tip of Yamdena; Pulau Nuswotar 

Nature Reserve (7,500 ha), off the northwest coast of Yamdena; and Nustaran Nature Reserve 

(3,200 ha), incorporating a narrow strip on the west coast of Yamdena.


Land use: There is some agriculture and forestry on Yamdena. 

Disturbances and threats: Illegal hunting, cattle grazing and shifting cultivation. 


Fauna: The islands are very rich in wildlife. A wide variety of waterfowl and sea-birds has been 

recorded including Pelecanus conspicillatus, Phalacrocorax melanoleucos, P. sulcirostris, Sula 

leucogaster, Fregata arid, Nycticorax caledonicus, Butorides striatus, Egretta sacra, E. garzetta, 

Ardea sumatrana, Threskiornis molucca, Dendrocygna guttata, Tadorna radjah, Anas 

gibberifrons, Himantopus leucocephalus, Esacus magnirostris, Vanellus miles, Charadrius 

leschenaultii, Numenius madagascariensis and Tringa spp. Birds of prey include Pandion 

haliaetus, Haliastur indus and Haliaeetus leucogaster. 

The Dugong Dugong dugon occurs in shallow waters around the islands; terrestrial mammals 

include Phalanger orientalis, Paradoxurus hermaphroditus, Suncus murinus and Sus scrofa. 

Reptiles include the Estuarine Crocodile Crocodylus porosus; the sea-turtles Chelonia mydas, 

Eretmochelys imbricata; Varanus sp, Hydrophis mertoni and Lygosoma sp. 

Special floral values: The forest in the central part of Yamdena is virtually untouched and is of 

great conservation value as one of the few remaining areas of lowland deciduous forest in 

Indonesia. There is an endemic orchid Dendrobium phalaenopsis on the island. 


References: MacKinnon & Artha (198lb); Smiet et al. (1981). 

Criteria for inclusion: lb, 2a, 2b, 3b. 


Wetland name: Kai Archipelago 



Location: in the eastern Moluccas, Kabupaten Maluku Tenggara, Moluccas. 

Area: 16,000 ha. 

Altitude: Sea level to 801m (highest elevation at Kai Besar). 



Description of site: An archipelago consisting of two main islands (Kai Besar and Kai Kecil) and 

dozens of smaller ones. Kai Kecil is densily populated, and only its northern and southern ends are 

still forested. Kai Besar is long, thin and hilly. All coastal areas are under cultivation, and forests 

on the lower slopes of the hills have also been cleared. Wetland habitats include mangrove swamps 

and sandy beaches. 

Climatic conditions: Tropical maritime climate with an average annual rainfall of about 2,000 

mm. 

Principal vegetation: Mangrove forest with species of Rhizophora, Bruguiera, Sonneratia and 

Xylocarpus. 



Conservation measures proposed: The archipelago has been proposed as a nature conservation 

area. 

Land use: Agriculture. 

Disturbances and threats: Illegal cultivation, poaching, logging and forest clearance. 


Fauna: The archipelago has a rich avifauna, with five endemic species. Waterfowl and 

sea-birds include Pelecanus conspicillatus, Sula dactylatra, S. sula, Phalacrocorax melanoleucos,

P. sulcirostris, Fregata ariel, Ixobrychus sinensis, Butorides striatus, Egretta sacra, E. garzetta, E. 

alba, Threskiornis molucca, Plegadis falcinellus, Dendrocygna guttata, Anas gibberifrons, 

Himantopus leucocephalus, Charadrius mongolus, Nurnenius minutus, N. phaeopus, Actitis 

hypoleucos, Calidris ruficollis, Sterna bergii and the kingfishers Alcedo atthis, Halcyon sancta and 

H. chloris. Other birds include the raptors Pandion haliaetus, Haliaslur indus, Haliaeetus 

leucogaster; the Orange-footed Scrubfowl Megapodius reinwardt and the pigeon Ducula bicolor. 

The surrounding coastal waters support a viable population of Dugongs Dugong dugon. Other 

mammals include Myotis stalkeri (endemic), M. adversus, Echymipera rufescens, Hipposideros 

ater, Phalanger orientalis, Petaurus sp, Thylogale bruijnii, Suncus murinus, Dobsmia viridis and 

Rhizolophus keiensis. 

The sandy beaches are important nesting sites for the sea-turtles Chelonia mydas and Dermochelys 

coriaceae. Other reptiles include the Estuarine Crocodile Crocodylus porosus, Draco ochropterus 

and Lygosoma beccari. 



References: Augustinus et al. (1984); Compost (1980); Smiet et al. (1981). 

Criteria for inclusion: 1b, 2a, 2b, 2c, 2d, 3b. 


Wetland name: Pulau Kobroor 



Location: in the Aru Archipelago, about 120 km off the south coast of Irian Jaya, Kabupaten 

Maluku Tenggara, Moluccas. 

Area: 99,000 ha, including 9,000 ha of mangrove forest and 1,000 ha of peat swamp forest. 



Wetland type: 05, 06, 07, 08, 11 & 21. 

Description of site: Kobroor is the central island of the Aru Archipelago. It is the least populated 

and least disturbed large island in the group, and has a wide range of habitats including mangroves, 

peat swamp forest and lowland deciduous tropical forest. The western part of the island is a karst 

area. The eastern part is generally flat with a few undulating hills. The few permanent rivers are 

subject to tidal influence far inland. There are many deep wells in which the water level rises and 

falls with the tides. These provide abundant fresh water throughout the year. The island is almost 

entirely fringed with mangrove swamps, and there are a few patches of seasonal swamp in the 

coastal zone. 

Climatic conditions: Tropical maritime climate with an average annual rainfall of 2,177 mm. 

Principal vegetation: Mangrove swamps with species of Sonneratia, Bruguiera and Avicennia, 

and the Nipah Palm Nypa fruticans. 

Land tenure: State owned (BKPH P.P. Aru). 


Conservation measures proposed: The island has been proposed as a Game Reserve. 

Land use: Fishing and hunting. 

Disturbances and threats: Shifting cultivation, illegal felling of mangroves, and illegal hunting of 

endangered species, particularly cockatoos, birds of paradise, crocodiles and dugongs. There is a 

considerable amount of trade in wildlife, and lack of any effective management. 


Fauna: The island is very rich in wildlife. Water birds include Phalacrocorax melanoleucos, 

Nycticorax caledonicus, Butorides striatus, Egretta intermedia, Ardea sumatrana, Tadorna radjah,

Haliastur indus, Esacus magnirostris and Halcyon chioris. Land birds of note include the 

Two-wattled Cassowary, Nicobar Pigeon, Sulphur-crested Cockatoo and Palm Cockatoo 

(Casuarius casuarius, Caloenas nicobarica, Cacatua galerita and Probosciger aterrimus). 

The Dugong Dugong dugon occurs around the island; other mammals include Phalanger 

orientalis, Thyogale bruijnii, Paradoxurus hermaphroditus, Sus scrofa, Cervus timorensis, 

Petaurus breviceps and Macroglossus lagochilus. Both the Estuarine Crocodile Cro 


Research and facilities: Preliminary faunal surveys have been carried out. 

References: FAO (1981e & 1981f); Smiet et al. (1981). 



Wetland name: Aru Tenggara Proposed Marine Reserve 



Location: the southeastern part of the Aru Islands, Kabupaten Maluku Tenggara, Moluccas. 

Area: 250,000 ha. 




Description of site: The proposed reserve encompasses all coastal and marine ecosystems in the 

southeast part of the Aru Islands, one of the remotest areas of Indonesia located at the easternmost 

extremity of the archipelago, south of New Guinea. The islands are situated on the Sahul 

continental shelf, and are comprised of raised coral reefs of quaternary origin, fringed by living 

reefs. The entire area is relatively flat, rising to only a few meters above sea level. The marine area 

between islands is shallow (0.5-18m). The proposed reserve includes about 10,000 ha of mangrove 

forest, 40,000 ha of sea-grass beds and extensive sandy beaches. The area is contiguous with the 

Pulau Baun Bird of Paradise Reserve (13,000 ha). 

Climatic conditions: Tropical maritime climate, with a dry season from May to August. 

Principal vegetation: Mangrove forest with species of Sonneratia, Bruguiera and Rhizophora, 

and sea-grass beds; also beach formations with species of Barringtonia, Casuarina, Pandanus and 

Hibiscus. 

Land tenure: State owned; under the management of BKPH P.P. Aru. 


Conservation measures proposed: The entire area (250,000 ha) has been proposed as a Marine 

Reserve. 

Land use: Traditional fishing. 

Disturbances and threats: Hunting of dugongs, sea-turtles and crocodiles, collection of sea-turtle 

eggs, and cutting of mangroves. 

Economic and social values: The mangrove swamps are important breeding and nursery grounds 

for many commercially important fishes and crustaceans. 

Fauna: The reefs are rich in species of ornamental fishes; during a brief survey in 1973, 128 

species of fishes were recorded. The area is known to be important for a wide variety of water 

birds and sea-birds, but little information is available. Species known to occur include Pelecanus 

conspicillatus, Phalacrocorax sp, Egretta spp, Threskiornis molucca, Haliaeetus leucogaster and 

many shorebirds. Marine mammals include the Dugong Dugong dugon and various small 

cetaceans. Reptiles include four species of sea-turtle (Chelonia mydas, Eretmochelys imbricata, 

Lepidochelys olivacea, Caretta caretta), the Estuarine Crocodile Crocodylus porosus and the New 

Guinea Crocodile C. novaeguineae. Special floral values: No information.

Research and facilities: Preliminary faunal surveys have been carried out. 

References: Direktorat P.P.A. (1986f); IUCN (in prep); Smiet & Siallagan (l981a). 

Criteria for inclusion: lb, 2a, 2b, 2c, 3b. 


Wetland name: Jamursba-Mandi Proposed Strict Nature Reserve 



Location: 180 km WNW of Manokwari, North Kepala Burung, Irian Jaya. Area: 28 km of beach. 




Description of site: A 28 km stretch of sandy beach on the coast of the Tamrau Mountains, 

confirmed to be the most important nesting site for Leatherback Turtles in Southeast Asia. 


Principal vegetation: Beach vegetation. 



Conservation measures proposed: The site has been proposed as a Strict Nature Reserve, which 

would be distinct from the nearby North Tamrau Reserve. 


Disturbances and threats: Recent immigrants collect turtle eggs for food. (The indigenous people 

have never exploited the sea-turtles). 


Fauna: The beach is the most important nesting site for Leatherback Turtles Dermochelys 

coriacea in Southeast Asia, and is also a major nesting area for Green Sea Turtles Chelonia inydas. 

An estimated 8,000 to 15,000 turtles use the beach each year. The northeast side of Kepala Burung 

is believed to support the largest population of Dugongs Dugong dugon in the world. No 

information is available on the avifauna. 



References: MacKinnon & Artha (1981b); Petocz (1983a). 



Wetland name: Ajamaru Lakes 


Coordinates: 1°16'S, 132°l5'E; 

Location: 120 km ESE of Sorong, Kepala Burung, Irian Jaya. 

Area: c.1,500 ha. 




Description of site: Three small freshwater lakes and associated marshes in a valley in the 

mountains of the Vogelkop Peninsula. The largest lake, Danau Amaru (900 ha), drains east via the 

other two lakes into an upper tributary of the Sungai Kais. 


Principal vegetation: No information.







Fauna: Three species of fishes are known only from these lakes: Melanotaenia ajamaruensis, M. 

boesemani and Glossogobius hoesei. However, very little research has been carried out, and it is 

possible that many more endemic fishes occur in the lakes. 


Research and facilities: Allen and Boeseman have investigated the fish fauna. 

References: Allen & Boeseman (1982). 

Criteria for inclusion: 1b, 2d. 


Wetland name: Sungai Kais 



Location: on the southwest coast of Kepala Burung, northwest of Inanwatan, Kabupaten Sorong, 

Irian Jaya. 

Area: 122,000 ha. 




Description of site: A proposed nature reserve which would include the richest and most 

extensive area of mangrove forest on Kepala Burung (Vogelkop Peninsula). The proposed reserve 

would stretch inland from the coast, and would include 9,760 ha of mangroves, 75,640 ha of peat 

swamp forest and 36,600 ha of wet lowland forest on alluvium. 


Principal vegetation: Mangrove forest, peat swamp forest and wet lowland forest. 



Conservation measures proposed: It has been proposed that the site be excised from the existing 

timber concession and designated as a Strict Nature Reserve (Cagar Alam). 

Land use: The site is currently within an agreed timber concession. 

Disturbances and threats: Logging of the forest. 

Economic and social values: Important for fisheries and prawns. 


Special floral values: The site contains excellent examples of mangrove and lowland swamp 

habitats. 


References: MacKinnon & Artha (l98lb). 



Wetland name: Anggi Lakes (Gigi and Gita East) 


Coordinates: Gigi 122'S, 133°55'E; …………………

Location: Gita East 123'S, 133°59'E; in the hills at the eastern end of the Vogelkop Peninsula, 60 

km SSW of Manokwari, Kepala Burung, Irian Jaya. 

Area: Gigi 2,000 ha; Gita East 2,200 ha. 

Altitude: Approximately 2,000m. 



Description of site: Two large, permanent, freshwater lakes and associated seasonally flooded 

grassland and peat bogs, fed by streams from the surrounding mountains. There is a marshy area at 

the north end of Gigi Lake. The lakes are separated by a ridge of high ground about three km wide. 

Principal vegetation: No information is available on the aquatic vegetation. Most of the 

surrounding forest has been cleared, but the hillsides remain rich in ferns. 




Conservation measures proposed: The UNDP has proposed that an agro-forestry project be 

developed in the area. 

Land use: Cultivation and cattle grazing around the lakes. There is a village on the shores of one 

of the lakes. 

Disturbances and threats: Disturbance from human settlements in the area. A wide path has been 

made through the marshy area north of Anggi Gigi. 




Research and facilities: No research seems to have been carried out at the lakes. 



Source: Ian Craven. 

Wetland name: Bintuni Bay 


Coordinates: 2°02'-2°4l'S, l33°3l'-l34°02'E; 

Location: at the head of Bintuni Bay, 150 km ENE of Fakfak, western Irian Jaya. 

Area: 450,000 ha. 




Description of site: A very extensive area of mangrove forest and small patch of freshwater 

swamp forest on the shores of Bintuni Bay. 


Principal vegetation: Mangrove forest and freshwater swamp. 



Conservation measures proposed: The site has been proposed as a Nature Reserve (Cagar 

Alam). 

Land use: Forest exploitation. 

Disturbances and threats: Logging of mangrove forests. 


Fauna: An important area for the Estuarine Crocodile Crocodylus porosus. No other information 

is available on the fauna.

Special floral values: The site contains the largest stands of mangrove forest in western Irian Jaya. 


References: Petocz (l983a); Whitaker et al. 1985. 



Wetland name: Wandammen Peninsula 



Location: on the west side of Cenderawasih Bay, Kabupaten Pantai, Irian Jaya. 

Area: Area of wetlands unknown; peninsula 79,500 ha. 



Wetland type: 01, 05, 06, 07 & 14. 

Description of site: A very mountainous peninsula with peaks rising to 2,075m and many streams 

draining into Wandammen Bay and Umar Bay. On both sides of the peninsula, broad intertidal 

mudflats are exposed at low tide. Most of the peninsula is covered with moist lower montane forest 

(77,910 ha), but there are 1,590 ha of beach vegetation along the coasts and some sago swamps 

near the head of Wandammen Bay. The east coast is uninhabited, but there are several small 

settlements on the west coast. 


Principal vegetation: Beach vegetation and sago swamps; moist lower montane forest elsewhere 

on the peninsula. 




Alam). 

Land use: A little cultivation, logging and hunting. 

Disturbances and threats: Ladang encroachment on the western boundary, cutting of timber and 

hunting. 


Fauna: The intertidal mudflats are of considerable importance as staging and wintering areas for 

migratory shorebirds. Sixteen species have been recorded including Numenius minutus, N. 

madagascariensis, Heteroscelus brevipes and H. incanus. Other water birds known to occur 

include Fregata ariel, Nycticorax caledonicus, Egretta sacra, E. garzetta, E. intermedia, E. alba 

and Rallicula leucospila. No other information is available on the fauna. 


Research and facilities: Diamond et al. (1983) have conducted some avifaunal surveys in the 

area. 

References: Diamond et al. (1983); MacKinnon & Artha (1981b). 

Criteria for inclusion: 1b, 3b. 


Wetland name: Teluk Cenderawasih 



Location: the southwest quadrant of Cenderawasih Bay, including all islands of the Kepulauan 

Auri and 510 km of mainland coast, Irian Jaya.

Area: c.80,000 ha of coral reefs and beaches; 2,500 ha of islands. 



Wetland type: 01, 02, 03, 04, 05, 06, 07 & 11. 

Description of site:A large proposed marine reserve including many small islands (the Auri Islands), extensiv 


Principal vegetation: Extensive beds of sea-grasses, some mangrove swamp and 1,898 ha of 

beach vegetation. 

Land tenure: Partly state owned and partly owned by the local people. 

Conservation measures taken:Anggremos Island is protected in a Game Reserve (Suaka 

Margasatwa) of 2,500 ha, established in 1981. 

Conservation measures proposed: The entire area has been proposed as a Game Reserve. 

Land use: Fishing and exploitation of corals. 

Disturbances and threats:Collection of shells and black corals, dynamite fishing, development of p 

Economic and social values:The bay is a nursery ground for many commercially important 

fishes, and supports a fishery of considerable importance to the local people. 

Fauna:The bay is noted for its rich coral reef fauna with a wide variety of fishes including the Clown Fish A 

on the beaches, and the Estuarine Crocodile Crocodylus porosus is present. Invertebrates include 

giant clams, Trochus niloticus, Tridacna gigus and Charonia tritonis. 


Research and facilities: Faunal surveys have been carried out. 

References: Diamond (1981); Gilkes & Adipati (1986); IUCN (in prep); Karpowicz (1985); 

MacKinnon & Artha (l981b); Petocz (1984). 

Criteria for inclusion: lb. 2a, 2b, 2c. 


Wetland name: Pulau Supiori 


Coordinates: 0°37'-0°54'S, l35°22'-l3545'E; 

Location: northwest of Pulau Biak, Kubupaten Cenderawasih, Irian Jaya. 

Area: Area of wetlands unknown; island 44,500 ha. 


Biogeographical Province: 5.1.13. 


Description of site: A rugged, forested island with a wide spectrum of habitats from mangrove 

swamps and rocky coasts to montane forests. 


Principal vegetation: Mangrove forest; almost unspoiled virgin forest in the mountains. 




Alam). 


Disturbances and threats: There are plans to carry out logging on the island, and there has been 

some ladang clearance by local villagers. 


Fauna: The island is known to be rich in birds, but no details are available. 

Special floral values: The montane forests remain in very good condition. 

Research and facilities: None




Wetland name: Wetlands of the Kumawa Mountains Proposed Nature Reserve 


Coordinates: 3°40'-4°05'S, l32°45'-l33°25'E; 

Location: on the Bomberai Peninsula southwest of Kaimana, on the south coast of western Irian 

Jaya, Kubupaten Fakfak, Irian Jaya. 

Area: Area of wetlands unknown; whole region 118,000 ha. 



Wetland type: 02, 11, 12, 14, 15&2l. 

Description of site: The Kumawa Mountains lie at the southwestern extremity of the Bomoerai 

Peninsula, and consist of three sets of peaks exceeding 1,400m in elevation. The eastermost part of 

the region consists of flat alluvial lowlands, while the southern slopes of the mountains are 

especially steep. Most of the area is covered in moist lowland forest (56,640 ha) and montane 

forest (49,560 ha). Wetland habitats include 9,440 ha of coastal mangroves, 2,360 ha of beach 

vegetation, a marsh at 600m elevation three km east of northernmost peak (29 km SSE of Teluk 

Sebakar), and two freshwater lakes at an elevation of 1,200m three km south of the northernmost 

peak. There are several meandering rivers and several large waterfalls, including one of 70m on a 

river near Karawai Island. A small group of islets, the Paliki Islets, lies offshore. 


Principal vegetation: Mangrove forest and beach vegetation; no information is available on the 

vegetation of the lakes and marshes. Moist lowland forest and montane forest elsewhere on the 

peninsula. One hundred and forty-four tree species have been identified in the area. 




Alam). 

Land use: Gathering of masoi (at 1,000m elevation) and some logging; fishing around the coast. 

The region is uninhabited except for Nusawalan Village on the south coast, and a transient 

fishermen's camp on Teluk Sebakor. There may be some exploration for oil in the future. 

Disturbances and threats: Logging, human settlement and hunting. 

Economic and social values: The waters around the peninsula are fishing grounds for the 

Buginese people. The area has high scenic values and may have some potential for tourism. 

Fauna: The area supports a very diverse avifauna. Over 220 species of birds have been recorded, 

including many water birds such as Pelecanus conspicillatus, Phalacrocorax melanoleucos, P. 

sulcirostris, Butorides striatus, Egretta sacra, E. intermedia, E. alba, Tadorna radjah, Pandion 

haliaetus, Haliaeetus leucogaster and Esacus magnirostris. 

Thousands of flying foxes, probably Pteropus conspicillatus, roost on the Fatar Islands. Other 

mammals include Thyogale bruijni, tree kangaroos Dendrogalus sp and Phalanger macullatus. 

Special floral values: The mangrove forests are of considerable botanical interest. 


References: Diamond et al. (1983); MacKinnon & Artha (1981b). 

Criteria for inclusion: la, 1b, 3b. 


Wetland name: Danau Jamur 



Location: 125 km east of Kaimana, Kabupaten Fakfak, Irian Jaya. 

Area: c.3,500 ha. 




Description of site: A large freshwater lake and associated marshes in the upper drainage of the 

Omba River. There are some sago swamps to the north of the lake. 







Disturbances and threats: None 


Fauna: The fish fauna includes four of New Guinea's endemic fishes: Anus sp. A, 

Cnatenocephalus randi, Ambassis reticulata and Terapon jamoenensis. The new species of Arias 

and T. jamoenensis are known only from this site. Other fishes include Nematalosa enebi, Toxotes 

oligolepis and the freshwater shark Canchanhinus leucas. 

No information is available on the other fauna. 


Research and facilities: Allen and Boeseman have investigated the fish fauna. 

References: Allen & Boeseman (1982); Boeseman (1964). 

Criteria for inclusion: lb. 2d. 


Wetland name: Danau Paniai and the Wissel Lakes 


Coordinates: 3°48'-4°05'S, 136°l3'-136°25'E; 

Location: near Enarotali, Kabupaten Pantai, Fakfak, Irian Jaya. 

Area: Danau Paniai 15,000 ha; Danau Tigi 3,000 ha; Danau Tage 1,600 ha. 

Altitude: 1,750m. 



Description of site: A large freshwater lake (Danau Paniai) surrounded by agricultural settlements 

and steep hills supporting lower montane and montane forests, and two smaller freshwater lakes 

(the Wissel Lakes: Danau Tage and Danau Tigi) further to the south. 

Principal vegetation: No information is available on the aquatic vegetation. Agricultural land, 

lower montane forest and montane forest in surrounding areas. 



Conservation measures taken: Lake Paniai is included within the Enarotali Nature Reserve 

(Cagar Alam), a reserve of 300,000 ha established in 1980 and spanning an altitudinal range of 

l,750-4,000m. The Wissel Lakes are unprotected. 


Land use: Fishing; agriculture in surrounding areas.

Possible changes in Land use: There is a proposal to denotify the Enarotali Nature Reserve as it 

comprises one of the most densely populated areas in Irian Jaya. The forested portions should, 

however, be retained as protection forest. 

Disturbances and threats: There are some 12,000 people living illegally in the Nature Reserve, 

making this one of the most densely populated regions in the whole of Irian Jaya. All flat areas 

have already been converted to agricultural land, and the lower hillsides have been denuded by 

wood-cutting and burning. 


Fauna: The lakes are important for Oxyeleotris wisselensis, an endemic species of fish known 

only from Paniai Lake, the Wissel Lakes and their tributary streams. No information is available 

on the other fauna. 




Criteria for inclusion: 2d. 


Wetland name: Sungai Rouffaer 


Coordinates: 2°45'-3°15'S, 137°20'-138°30'E: 

Location: in the lowlands of north-central Irian Jaya, Kabupaten Jayawijaya, Irian Jaya. 

Area: 310,000 ha. 



Wetland type: 11, 13, 15 & 21. 

Description of site: A vast swampy plain crossed by a large meandering river, the Rouffaer, a 

tributary of the Mamberamo and Idenburg system (site 128). The site includes 201,500 ha of peat 

swamps, 31,000 ha of freshwater swamp forest and 77,000 ha of wet lowland forest. 


Principal vegetation: Peat swamp, freshwater swamp forest, sago swamp forest and wet lowland 

forest. 


Conservation measures taken: The entire area has been designated as a Game Reserve (Suaka 

Margasatwa). 


Land use: There are several human settlements dependent upon traditional sago harvesting, 

fishing and crocodile hunting. 

Disturbances and threats: Excessive hunting of crocodiles. 


Fauna: The site is important both for the Estuarine Crocodile Crocodylus porosus and for the New 

Guinea Crocodile C. novaeguineae. No other information is available on the fauna. 



References: MacKinnon & Artha (l98lb); Whitaker et al. (1985). 



Wetland name: Wetlands in Mamberamo-Foja Proposed National Park



Location: along the Mamberamo and Idenburg Rivers in northeastern Irian Jaya. 

Area: Over 728,000 ha of wetlands in an area of 1,442,500 ha. 



Wetland type: 02, 05, 06, 07, 08, 11, 12, 13, 14 & 21. 

Description of site: The site incorporates an excellent spectrum of habitats from mangrove forests 

and peat swamps on the north coast up to the montane forests of the Foja Mountains and down 

again through lowland forest to the swampy plain of the Idenburg River. The area is virtually 

pristine and contains a great wealth of wildlife. It includes one of the largest lakes in Irian Jaya, 

Danau Rombebai, a permanent freshwater lake of about 14,000 ha in the Mamberamo Delta. The 

site also includes the largest river in Irian Jaya, with its hundreds of oxbow lakes, and vast areas of 

peat swamp and freshwater swamp. Estimates of the total area of each major habitat are as follows: 

mangrove forest 36,062 ha; freshwater lakes 14,425 ha; peat swamp 432,750 ha; freshwater 

swamp on non-alluvial soils 216,375 ha; freshwater swamp on alluvial soils 28,850 ha; wet 

lowland forest on alluvium 43,375 ha; wet lowland forest on rocks 504,875 ha; wet lowland forest 

on ultra-basic rocks 43,475 ha. 


Principal vegetation: Mangrove forest, freshwater swamp forest and peat swamp forest; no 

detailed information is available. 



Conservation measures proposed: The entire area has been proposed as a National Park and 

World Heritage Site. 

Land use: Exploration for petroleum. There are only a few small settlements in the area of the 

proposed national park. 

Disturbances and threats: Exploration for petroleum has been going on in the northern 

Mamberamo area for several years, and proposals have been made to carry out exploratory 

drilling. 


Fauna: At least 28 species of freshwater fishes have been recorded. Six of these are known 

only from the Mamberambo River: Hemipimelodus bernhardi, Netuma microstoma, 

Zenarchopterus alleni, Melanotaenia praecox, Melanotaenia vanheurni and Parambassis 

altipinnis. A further eighteen species are endemic to New Guinea: Anus sp, Neosilurus equinus, N. 

idenburgi, Anguilla interioris, Zenarchopterus kampeni, Chilatherina crassispinosa, C. lorentzi, 

Glossolepis multisquamatus, Parambassis confinis, Hephaestus obtusifrons, Glossamia beauforti, 

G. gjellerupi, G. heurni, Ctenogobius tigrellus, Mogurnda sp, Odonteleotris nesolepis, Oxyeleotris 

fimbriata and 0. novaeguineae. The other four species, Neosilurus ater, Mogurnda mogurnda, 

Oxyeleotris herwerdeni and 0. lineolatus, are of more widespread occurrence. 

Some 330 species of birds, including many water birds, and 100 species of mammals have been 

recorded. The area supports the largest known populations of the Estuarine Crocodile Crocodylus 

porosus and New Guinea Crocodile C. novaeguineae in the world. 


Research and facilities: Basic faunal and floral surveys have been carried out in the area. 

References: Allen & Boeseman (1982); Karpowicz (1985); MacKinnon & Artha (198lb); Petocz 

(1984); Whitaker et al. (1985). 

Criteria for inclusion: lb. 2a, 2b, 2d, 3b. 


Wetland name: Danau Sentani 


Coordinates: 2°33'-2°41'S, 14023'-140°38'E; 

Location: 12 km southwest of Jayapura, northeastern Irian Jaya. 

Area: c.l4,000 ha. 

Altitude: Less than 100m. 



Description of site: A large freshwater lake on the plains west of Jayapura. 



Land tenure: None 




Disturbances and threats: There were plans to construct a hydro-electric power station at the site, 

but this project has been cancelled, at least for the time being. 


Fauna: The fish fauna includes at least five of New Guinea's endemic fishes: Anus sp, Neosilurus 

novaeguineae, Chilathenina sentaniensis, Glossolepis incisus and Glossogobius koragensis. Two 

of these, N. novaeguineae and G. incisus, are known only from this site. The Saw Shark Pristis 

microdon also occurs in the lake. Very little research has been carried out, and it is possible that 

other endemic species may occur. 

No information is available on the other fauna of the lake. 


Research and facilities: Allen and Boeseman (1982) have investigated the lake's fish fauna. 


Criteria for inclusion: lb. 2d. 


Wetland name: Wetlands in Lorenz Proposed National Park 


Coordinates: 3°52'N-5°l7'S, 136°40'-l38°20'E; 

Location: from the highest peaks of the central highlands east of Enarotali south to the sea, 

Kabupaten Paniai, Jayawijaya, Fakfak and Merauke (Southern Division), Irian Jaya. 

Area: Area of wetlands unknown; Nature Reserve 2,150,000 ha, proposed National Park 

1,560,250 ha. 



Wetland type: 01, 02, 05, 06, 07, 11, 12 & 21. 

Description of site: The Gunung Lorenz Nature Reserve is one of the few places in the world 

where glaciers still exist at tropical latitudes. The reserve includes a wide spectrum of habitats 

from the alpine and upper montane zones down through the lower montane and foothill zones to 

lowland alluvial plains and fans, fresh, saline and brackish water swamps, beach ridges and coastal 

mudflats. The wetlands form part of one of the largest swamp areas in the world. They consist of 

seasonally flooded alluvium forests, peat swamp forests, grassy swamps, sago woodlands, Nypa 

swamps, coastal mangrove swamps and littoral forests. The reserve contains the entire water 

catchment areas of several major rivers, from their headwaters in the perpetual snow fields of the

highest peaks to the coast, and thus incorporates the full range of riverine habitats. It is estimated 

that there are 301,500 ha of mangrove swamp and 351,750 ha of peat swamp in the reserve, along 

with 335,000 ha of wet lowland forest on rocky ground. 

Climatic conditions: Humid tropical to alpine climate, depending on altitude. 

Principal vegetation: Mangrove forest, Nypa swamp, peat swamp forest and grassy swamp. 

Land tenure: Partly state owned (Indonesian Government) and partly owned by the local people. 

Conservation measures taken: A Nature Reserve of 2,150,000 ha was established in January 

1978. 

Conservation measures proposed: Part of the Nature Reserve has been proposed as a National 

Park (1,560,250 ha) and World Heritage Site. 

Land use: The area is inhabited by indigenous tribes of hunter-gatherers employing some shifting 

cultivation. 

Possible changes in Land use: The current proposal to establish a National Park of 1,560,250 ha in 

place of the existing Nature Reserve (2,150,000 ha) would reduce the area under protection by 

589,750 ha. 

Disturbances and threats: Mining operations cause a considerable amount of disturbance in the 

reserve, and have caused some pollution of rivers and swamps. More than half of the reserve is 

under lease for petroleum exploration. Highland trails are a major threat to wildlife. 

Economic and social values: The reserve is of considerable value, not only in terms of the 

commercial value of its forests, but also for its medicinal plants, genetic resources and tribal 

cultures. Its biological values, together with the spectacular scenery and unique culture of the 

inhabitants, rank the reserve as one of the most important conservation areas in the entire Pacific 

Basin. 

Fauna: There are thought to be over 100 species of freshwater and brackish water fishes in the 

reserve, including 50 or more species which are known only from this area or its immediate 

vicinity. 

Some 411 species of birds have been recorded, at least 20 of which are endemic to this region. 

Water birds include Tachybaptus novaehollandiae, Phalacrocorax melanoleucos, P. carbo, P. 

sulcirostris, Anhinga novaehollandiae, Ixobrychus flavicollis, Zonerodius heliosylus, Butorides 

striatus, Egretta picata, E. sacra, E. garzetta, E. intermedia, E. alba, Ardea novaehollandiae, A. 

sumatrana, Threskiornis molucca, Anseranas semipalmata, Dendrocygna arcuata, D. guttata, 

Tadorna radjah, Nettapus pulchellus, Anas waigiuensis (a montane species), Anas superciliosa, A. 

gibberifrons, Aythya australis, Haliastur indus, Haliaeetus leucogaster, Circus (aeruginosus) 

spilonotus, Rallina tricolor, Gymnocrex plumbeiventris, Megacrex inepta, Porzana tabuensis, 

Porphyrio porphyrio, several montane species of Rallidae, Irediparra gallinacea, Esacus 

magnirostris, Stiltia isabella, Pluvialis dominica, Charadrius dubius, Limosa lapponica, Numenius 

madagascariensis, Actitis hypoleucos, Arenaria interpres, Gallinago hardwickii, G. megala, 

Scolopax saturata (above 1,000m elevation), and thirteen species of kingfishers (Alcedinidae). 

One hundred and twenty-three species of mammals (80% of the total mammalian fauna of Irian 

Jaya) have been recorded. These include at least four species of phalangers, four bandicoots, four 

possums, four ringtails, three wallabies, one tree kangaroo, five marsupial mice, three marsupial 

cats and numerous bats and rodents. 

Reptiles include both the Estuarine Crocodile Crocodylus porosus and the New Guinea Crocodile 

C. novaeguineae. 

Special floral values: The reserve includes examples of all swamp habitat types occurring in this 

biogeographical region. 

Research and facilities: Various faunal and floral surveys have been carried out in the reserve, 

but no serious ecological studies have been undertaken and much of the region remains poorly 

known.

References: Allen & Boeseman (1982); IUCN (in prep); Karpowicz (1985); Lever (1980); 

MacKinnon & Artha (l98lb); Petocz (l983a, l983b & 1984); Whitaker et al. (1985). 



Wetland name: Sungai Lorenz 



Location: east of the Gunung Lorenz Nature Reserve, in the southern lowlands of Irian Jaya. 

Area: c.140 km of river. 




Description of site: One of the large slow-flowing rivers of the southern lowlands of Irian Jaya, 

draining into the Arafura Sea near Agats. The river passes through several major wetland habitats 

including freshwater swamp forest, peat swamp forest and mangrove forest. 








Economic and social values: The river supports an important freshwater fishery. 

Fauna: Thirty-three species of freshwater fishes have been recorded, including six species known 

only from this site: Doiichthys novaeguineae, Tetranesodon conorhynchus, Oloplotosus mariae, 

Plotosus papuensis, Melanotaenia ogibyi and Craterocephalus lacustris. A further fifteen species 

are endemic to New Guinea: Clupeiodes venulosus, Anus carinatus, A. latirostris, Cochiefelis 

danielsi, Hemipimelodus macrorhynchus, Nedystoma dayi, Neosilurus equinus, Anguilla interioris, 

Zenarchopterus novaeguineae, Melanotaenia goldiei, Hephaestus roemeri, Glossamia trifasciata, 

Mogurnda sp. nov., Oxyeleotris fimbriata and 0. novaeguineae. Other species include Anus 

leptaspis, A. stirlingi, Neosilurus ater, N. brevidorsalis, Porochilus obbesi, Parambassis gulliveri, 

Pingalla lorentzi, Mogurnda mogurnda, Oxyeleotris herwerdeni, 0. lineolatus, Aseraggodes 

klunzingeri and Cynoglossus heterolepis. 

No information is available on the other fauna. 


Research and facilities: Allen & Boeseman (1982) have investigated the fish fauna. 


Criteria for inclusion: lb, 2a, 2b, 2d. 


Wetland name: Sungai Digul 



Location: Merauke District, southeastern Irian Jaya. 

Area: c.500 km of river. 

Altitude: Mostly below 300m; source at over 3,000m. 


Wetland type: 11, 12, 13 & 21. 

Description of site: One of the largest rivers of Irian Jaya, with all the major riverine habitats 

characteristic of the region. The river rises in the eastern end of the Maoke Range near the Papua 

New Guinea border, and drains southwest across a vast swampy alluvial plain into the Arafura Sea. 









Fauna: Over thirty species of freshwater and brackish water fishes are known to occur, including 

15 species endemic to New Guinea: Clupeoides papuensis, Anus sp. nov., A. acrocephalus, A. 

carinatus, Cochiefelis danielsi, Hemipimelodus macrorhynchus, Nedystoma dayi, Neosilurus 

equinus, Melanotaenia splendida, Hephaestus roemeri, Bostrychus strigogenys, Oxyeleotris 

fimbriata, Oxyeleotris novaeguineae, 0. nullipora and 0. paucipora. The new species of Anus is 

known only from this river. Other fishes include Nematalosa erebi, Thryssa scratchleyi, 

Scleropages jardinii, Cinetodus fregatti, Neosilurus ater, N. brevidorsalis, Anguilla interioris, 

Strongylura kreftti, Melanotaenia goldiei, Pseudomugil gertrudae, Ambassis macleayi, Pingalla 

lorentzi, Mogurnda mogurnda, Oxyeleotris herwerdeni, 0. lineolatus, Aseraggodes klunzingeri, 

Cynoglossus heterolepis and Pristis microdon. 

No information is available on the other fauna, but it is likely that the Estuarine Crocodile 

Crocodylus porosus occurs. 


Research and facilities: Allen & Boeseman (1982) have investigated the fish fauna. 


Criteria for inclusion: lb, 2a, 2b, 2d. 


Wetland name: Wetlands in Danau Bian Game Reserve 



Location: around Muting, 50 km from the Papua New Guinea border, Kabupaten Merauke, Irian 

Jaya. 

Area: c.50,000 ha of wetlands; Game Reserve 90,875 ha. 



Wetland type: 11, 13, 14&21. 

Description of site: Seasonal lakes and swamps, and some permanent lakes in the upper reaches 

of the Bian River and its tributaries on the Oriomo Plateau. The substrate is sedimentary in origin. 

Poor drainage has led to the formation of extensive seasonal swamps (15,000 ha) and freshwater 

lakes (20,000 ha); the site also includes 15,000 ha of wet lowland forest on alluvium. 


Principal vegetation: No information is available on the aquatic vegetation. The wetlands lie in a 

region of tall monsoon forest with trees up to 30-35m in height. 


Conservation measures taken: The entire area (90,875 ha) has been designated as a Game 

Reserve (Suaka Margasatwa).

Conservation measures proposed: Bishop (1984) has outlined management requirements for the 

reserve, including the prohibition of hunting of all native species, provision of adequately equipped 

guards and patrols, and the implementation of a conservation education programme. 

Land use: There are a few villages and indigenous settlements within the reserve. 

Disturbances and threats: Some hunting. Feral dogs are a menace to wildlife. 


Fauna: A total of 143 species of birds has been recorded in the reserve. Water birds include 

Pelecanus conspicillatus, Phalacrocorax melanoleucos, P. sulcirostris, Anhinga novaehollandiae, 

Ixobrychus flavicollis, Butorides striatus, Nycticorax caledonicus, Egretta picata, E. intermedia, E. 

alba, Ardea sumatrana, Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus, Threskiornis molucca, Platalea regia, 

Anseranas semipalmata, Dendrocygna guttata, D. arcuata, Nettapus puichellus, Haliastur 

sphenurus, H. indus, Haliaeetus leucogaster, Grus rubicunda, Amaurornis olivacea, Irediparra 

gallinacea and Vanellus miles. 

Mammals include the Timor Deer, Wild Boar, Beaver Rat, Spotted Phalanger, Common Forest 

Wallaby and Agile Wallaby (Cervus timorensis, Sus scrofa, Hydromus chrysogaster, Phalanger 

macullatus, Dorcopsos veterum and Macropus agilis). 

The wetlands are particularly important for the New Guinea Crocodile Crocodylus novaeguineae 

(a freshwater species), and young Estuarine Crocodiles C. porosus have also been reported. 


Research and facilities: Preliminary faunal and floral surveys have been carried out in the Game 

Reserve. 

References: Bishop (1984); IUCN (in prep); Karpowicz (1985); Whitaker et al. (1985). 



Wetland name: Pulau Klmaam 



Location: 170 km west of Merauke, Southern Division, Kabupaten Merauke, Irian Jaya. 

Area: Game Reserve 600,000 ha. 



Wetland type: 02, 03, 06, 07, 14, 18 & 21. 

Description of site: Pulau Kimaam (also known as Pulau Dolok, Pulau Kolepom and Frederik 

Hendrik Island), is a swampy island of about one million ha, separated from the mainland by a 

narrow channel. Most of the southern two-thirds of the island is wetland, and contains 99,000 ha of 

mangrove forest, 42,000 ha of freshwater swamps and 42,000 ha of peat swamp. The swamps 

include both forested swamps and open grassy swamps. 


Principal vegetation: Eight principal types of vegetation have been defined (Bishop, 1984): (a) 

mangrove forest with species of Avicennia, Sonneratia, Rhizophora; (b) Melaleuca swamp forest 

dominated by M. leucodendron and M. cajuputi; (c) mixed swamp forest with species of Ficus, 

Syzygium, Terminalia, Melaleuca, Acacia, Erythronia, Calophyllum, Barringtonia, Inocarpus, 

Campnosperma, Dracontomelon, Mangifera and Planchonia; (d) clumps of bamboo; (e) seasonal 

swampy grasslands with Phragmites karka; (f) Melaleuca savanna; (g) mixed monsoon savannah; 

(h) aquatic vegetation such as Nymphaea sp in swamps with permanent open water. 

Land tenure: Partly state owned and partly owned by the local people. The ownership of land is 

complicated because villages, which have moved to new locations, have retained their old land. In 

some cases, the old land is now a considerable distance from the new settlements.

Conservation measures taken: The southern part of the island (600,000 ha) was designated as a 

Game Reserve (Suaka Margasatwa) in 1978. 


Alam), but this would mean that the villages in the reserve would have to be resettled. The 

proposal has met with considerable local opposition. It has been suggested that if the villages are 

allowed to remain, the inhabitants could act as wardens and might be more effective than reserve 

wardens brought in from outside. 

Land use: There are still a few villages in the southern part of the reserve. The local people have 

adapted to their swamp environment by constructing their houses and gardens on artificial islands 

(Serpenti, 1977). 

Disturbances and threats: Excessive hunting of crocodiles, hunting of deer and birds, burning of 

grass in the dry season, and cutting of mangrove trees. There is some disturbance from the 

settlements in or close to the reserve. 

Economic and social values: The local people are dependent on the swamps for their livelihood, 

and their peculiar culture is of considerable anthropological interest. 

Fauna: An extremely rich area for wildlife. It is the best site in Irian Jaya for the conservation of 

crocodiles, and one of the richest for water birds, with important breeding, roosting and feeding 

areas. Over 200 species of birds have been recorded, including about 90 species of water birds, 

many of which are rare elsewhere in Indonesia. Herons, egrets, storks and ibises are particularly 

abundant. A recent count included: 

over 1,000 Egretta picata 


1,000 E. intermedia 

200 E. alba 

15,000 Threskiornis molucca 

2,500 Plegadis falcinellus 

300 Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus 

along with smaller numbers of Ixobrychus minutus, I. sinensis, Zonerodius heliosylus, Nycticorax 

caledonicus, Butorides striatus, Egretta sacra, Ardea novaehollandiae, A. sumatrana, Carphibis 

spinicollis and Platalea regia. Other resident waterfowl include Tachybaptus novaehollandiae, 


Anseranas semipalmata (up to 10,000), Dendrocygna guttata, D. arcuata, Tadorna radjah, 

Nettapus pulchellus, Anas superciliosa, A. gibberifrons, Grus rubicunda, Rallus philippensis, 

Rallina tricolor, Irediparra gallinacea, Himantopus leucocephalus, Esacus magnirostris and 

Vanellus miles. The island is very important as a staging area and wintering area for migratory 

shorebirds. Twenty-one species of migrant shorebirds from the Palearctic Region have been 

recorded, along with two species from Australia (Haematopus longirostris and Stiltia isabella). A 

recent count included: 

86 Pluvialis squatarola 

3,700 Charadrius mongolus 

60 Limosa limosa 

70 L. lapponica 

1,175 Numenius phaeopus 

130 N. madagascariensis 

90 Xenus cinereus 

90 Calidris tenuirostris 

1,400 C. ruficollis 

Terns include Chlidonias hybrida, Gelochelidon nilotica, Sterna dougallii, S. sumatrana, S. 

albifrons, S. bergii, S. bengalensis, Anous stolidus and A. minutus. Other wetland birds include the 

raptors Pandion haliaetus, Haliastur sphenurus, H. indus and Haliaeetus leucogaster, and the

kingfishers Alcedo azurea, A. pusilla, Ceyx lepidus, Dacelo gaudichaud, D. leachii, Melidora 

macrorrhina, Halcyon nigrocyanea, H. mackleyi, H. torotoro, H. sancta and H. chloris. Mammals 

include the Timor Deer, Wild Boar, Beaver Rat, Spotted Phalanger, Common Forest Wallaby, 

Agile Wallaby and Echidna (Cervus timorensis, Sus scrofa, Hydromus chrysogaster, Phalanger 

macullatus, Dorcopsis veterum, Macropus agilis and Tachyglossus aculeatus). The wetlands 

support a large, healthy population of the Estuarine Crocodile Crocodylus porosus, and the New 

Guinea Crocodile C. novaeguineae also occurs. 


Research and facilities: Several faunal and floral surveys have been carried out. Bishop (1984) 

conducted a survey in September-December 1984 with emphasis on determining appropriate 

boundaries for the reserve, and S. and A. Nash have made a survey of the Estuarine Crocodile 

population on the island. 

References: Bishop (1984); IUCN (in prep); Karpowicz (1985); MacKinnon & Artha (l981b); 

Petocz (1984); Schultze-Westrum (1978); Serpenti (1977); Whitaker et al. (1985). 


Source: Marcel J. Silvius and K. David Bishop. 

Wetland name: Pulau Pombo 



Location: between Pulau Kimaam (Dolok) and the mainland, Kabupaten Merauke, Irian Jaya. 

Area: 100 ha. 




Description of site: A small island covered in mangrove swamps, in the narrow channel between 

Pulau Kimaam (site 134) and the mainland. 






Alam). 

Land use: Hunting and logging. 

Disturbances and threats: Hunting of birds and cutting of mangrove trees. 


Fauna: An important roosting site for large water birds. Many of the birds feeding on the nearby 

Pulau Kimaam use this island for roosting. 



References: MacKinnon & Artha (198lb). 

Criteria for inclusion: lb. 3b. 


Wetland name: Wasur and Rawa Biru 


Coordinates: 8°03'-9°06'S, l4O°3O'-l4l°OO'E;

Location: in southeastern Irian Jaya on the border with Papua New Guinea east of Merauke, 

Kabupaten Merauke, Irian Jaya. 

Area: 431,000 ha, including the Wasur Game Reserve (308,000 ha) and Rawa Biru Strict Nature 

Reserve (4,000 ha within the Game Reserve). 



Wetland type: 02, 06, 07, 11, 14, 15, 16, 18 & 21. 

Description of site: An extensive complex of permanent and seasonal freshwater lakes, marshes, 

flooded savanna woodland and riverine floodplains, dissected by numerous rivers, including the 

Maro, Dalrii and Bensbach, which rise in the Star Mountains to the north. Almost the entire area 

floods during the wet season (December to March or April), and generally becomes inaccessible 

except by shallow-draft boats and canoes. The only areas above water are along ancient raised 

beach ridges with their attendant monsoon forest. During the dry season, the region becomes 

extremely dry, and water is confined to a few permanent water bodies and the deeper river 

channels. Some permanent lakes, such as Rawa Biru, are very deep and probably acidic. In the 

south, vast areas of tidal mudflats and sandy flats extend westwards along the coast almost without 

break from the Papua New Guinea border to Pulau Kimaam (site 134). The tidal flats are backed 

by large and mainly undisturbed tracts of mangrove forest, seasonally flooded paperbark swamp 

forest and some areas of sand dunes. The tides are extremely variable, with no clear diurnal 

pattern. Ebb tides frequently expose as much as 500m of mudflats, while high spring tides flood 

large areas inland. 

Climatic conditions: Humid tropical climate with a pronounced rainy season from December to 

March or April. The dry season is very hot, but with cooling onshore breezes along the coast. 

Principal vegetation: Ten main vegetation types have been described including lowland forest, 

Melaleuca-Eucalyptus woodland, savanna, parkland, swamp vegetation, mangrove forest and 

beach vegetation. The Wasur Game Reserve includes 6,180 ha of mangrove forest and 161,180 ha 

of savanna; the Rawa Biru Nature Reserve includes 4,000 ha of seasonal freshwater swamps. The 

area also includes over 250,000 ha of seasonal peat swamp. Mangrove forest occurs in a belt up to 

three km wide along the coast, and also far inland in the Wasur Game Reserve along ancient creek 

beds. The coastal mangroves are dominated by species of Avicennia, Sonneratia and Rhizophora. 

Bruguiera sp occurs in association with species of Acacia, Acanthus and Acrostichum at inland 

sites. The freshwater swamp forest is dominated by Melaleuca leucodendron. The lush vegetation 

associated with permanent open water includes Azolla imbricata and species of Nymphaea, Lotus, 

Utricularia and Lemna. Creeping grasses, such as Ischaeum sp and Pseudoraphis sp, and tall 

herbs, such as Hanguana sp and Cyclosorus sp, grow around the margins of the lakes. Tall stands 

of Phragmites karka are rather scarce. The sand dune vegetation consists of a "pescaprae" 

formation with Ipomoea pescaprae, Canavalia maritima, creeping herbs, grasses and sedges. 

Further inland, there is a shrub zone with Hibiscus tiliaceus, Barringtonia asiatica and Cocos 

nucifera. There are some tidal sand flats covered with Sesuvium portulacastrum in the southeastern 

corner of Wasul Game Reserve. 

Land tenure: Mainly state owned, with certain areas being leased to trans-migrant settlers and a 

few sites leased to ranchers. Originally, all or most of the land would have comprised native 

hunting ranges, and had traditional boundaries. These boundaries may still exist so far as the native 

people are concerned, but they have little credence with the authorities. All forested land is under 

the jurisdiction of the Forestry Department. 

Conservation measures taken: Some 210,000 ha were designated as a Game Reserve (Suaka 

Margasatwa) in 1978, and this was extended by a further 94,000 ha in 1982. The permanent 

open-water swamps at Rawa Biru are protected in a Strict Nature Reserve (Cagar Alam) of 4,000 

ha, established in 1978.

Conservation measures proposed: There is a proposal to extend the existing protected area by a 

further 127,000 ha. 

Land use: Fishing, hunting, harvesting of birds' eggs, subsistence agriculture, livestock grazing 

and illegal logging. Most of the wetland areas are hunted by native people for meat (e.g. wallabies, 

deer, cassowaries and monitor lizards) and eggs of nesting birds such as Magpie Geese Anseranas 

semipalmata, herons, egrets, ibises and Brolga Crane Grus rubicunda. The native people also 

cultivate small garden plots, usually in the monsoon woodlands and typically for only one season 

before moving on to a new site. The principal crops are maize, taro, sweet potatoes and tapioc. 

Disturbances and threats: The area is under great pressure from many sources, and it is estimated 

that within the next three years, a considerable portion of the reserve will have been destroyed. 

There are two major road systems in the reserve; a south coastal road from Merauke to the Papua 

New Guinea border, and the Trans-Irian highway which bisects the reserve into two almost equal 

parts. In addition, there are many smaller dirt roads and trails. This accessibility has resulted in a 

considerable amount of illegal hunting, logging, cutting and burning. At the height of the dry 

season, large areas are intentionally burned, presumably as a means of driving game for the hunt 

and killing snakes. Much of the marsh vegetation has been badly damaged by the large numbers of 

introduced Rusa Deer Cervus timorensis and Wild Boar Sus scrofa, and also by hunters in motor 

vehicles. Some coastal savanna woodland and grasslands, particularly within the Wasur Game 

Reserve, are illegally used by recent settlers for grazing cattle. 

Economic and social values: The wetlands support a considerable amount of subsistence hunting 

and fishing. The proximity of Wasur to the large township of Merauke, its relatively easy access 

and its numerous natural attractions make it a valuable recreation resource with great potential for 

tourism. 

Fauna: Over 390 species of birds have been recorded in the area. The site is particularly important 

for water birds, many species occurring in very large numbers. The wetlands are especially rich in 

herons, egrets, storks and ibises. A recent survey recorded: 

2,500 Egretta picata 


5,000 E. intermedia 

250 E. alba 

over 30,000 Threskiornis molucca 

over 350 Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus 

350 Carphibis spinicollis 

and over 4,000 Plegadis falcinellus (both P. f. falcinellus and P. f. peregrinus). Other resident 

waterfowl and dry season visitors from northern Australia include Tachybaptus novaehollandiae, 


Ixobrychus minutus, I. sinensis, I. flavicollis, Zonerodius heliosylus, Nycticorax caledonicus, 

Butorides striatus, Egretta sacra, Ardea novaehollandiae, A. sumatrana, Platalea regia, 

Anseranas semipalmata (10,000 in December 1983), Dendrocygna guttata, D. arcuata, Tadorna 

radjah, Nettapus puichellus, Anas superciliosa, A. gibberifrons, Aythya australis, Grus rubicunda, 

Rallus philippensis, Rallina tricolor, Poliolimnas cinereus, Gymnocrex plumbeiventris, Porphyrio 

porphyrio, Irediparra gallinacea, Himantopus leucocephalus, Esacus magnirostris and Vanellus 

miles. The rare New Guinea Flightless Rail Megacrex inepta may still occur in the area. 

The coastal wetlands are an extremely important staging and wintering area for migratory 

shorebirds. Twenty-five species of Palearctic shorebirds and three Australian species (Haematopus 

longirostris, Stiltia isabella, Charadrius cinctus) have been recorded. The most numerous species 

(with recent counts in brackets) are as follows: 

Pluvialis dominica (112) 

Charadrius mongolus (3,130) 

Limosa limosa (432)

Numenius minutus (4,000) 

N. phaeopus (96) 

N. madagascariensis (45) 

Tringa nebularia (35) 

T. glareola (large numbers) 

Xenus cinereus (278) 

Calidris tenuirostis (180) 

C. ruficollis (520) 

C. acuminata (655) 

Gulls and terns include Larus novaehollandiae (a scarce winter visitor from 

Australia), Chlidonias hybrida, Gelochelidon nilotica, Hydroprogne caspia, Sterna hirundo and S. 

albifrons. 

Other wetland birds include the raptors Pandion haliaetus, Haliastur sphenurus, H. indus and 

Haliaeetus leucogaster, and thirteen species of kingfishers: Alcedo azurea, A. pusilla, Ceyx 

lepidus, Dacelo gaudichaud, D. tyro, D. leachii, Clytoceyx rex, Melidora macrorrhina, Halcyon 

nigrocyanea, H. macleayii, H. chioris, H. sancta and H. torotoro. 

Some 81 species of mammals have been recorded, including the introduced Rusa Deer Cervus 

timorensis (abundant), Sus scrofa, Hydromys chrysogaster, Syconycteris australis, Tachyglossus 

aculeatus, Phalanger macullatus, Petaurus brevipes, Dorcopsis veterum and Macropus agilis. 

Many of the mammals are endemic to New Guinea. The Dugong Dugong dugon still occurs along 

the coast. 

Reptiles include the endemic monitor lizard Varanus salvadorii as well as V. timoriensis, 

Chlamydosaurus kingi and the endangered endemic Carettochelys insuipta. The Estuarine 

Crocodile Crocodylus porosus probably still occurs in very small numbers. Fishes include 

Scieropages sp. 

Special floral values: The wetland ecosystems are unique in Indonesia, and quite different from 

any other wetland areas protected within reserves. 

Research and facilities: In September-December 1983, Bishop (1984) conducted a survey of the 

area to determine appropriate boundaries for the reserve, to examine the impact of egg-collecting 

on the water bird populations, and to investigate the hunting of Rusa Deer as it related to 

conserving the reserve. Nash and Nash have carried out a survey of the Estuarine Crocodile 

population. There are no research facilities in the reserve, but the land-use agency Euroconsult 

maintains an office in Merauke with excellent mapping facilities. 

References: Bishop (1984); IUCN (in prep); Karpowicz (1985); MacKinnon & Artha (198lb); 

Petocz (1984). 


Source: Marcel J. Silvius and K. David Bishop. 

Wetland name: Danau Wanam 


Coordinates:……………. 

Location: Irian Jaya (precise location unknown). 


Altitude: Unknown. 



Description of site: A freshwater lake. 


Principal vegetation: No information.







Fauna: A species of fish, Glossolepis wanamensis, is known only from this lake. No other 

information is available on the fauna. 




Criteria for inclusion: 2d. 


Other Important Wetlands 

In addition to the 137 internationally important sites described above, the Indonesian Wetland 

Inventory includes the following sites which would appear, on the basis of existing information, to 

be of national rather than international importance (Silvius et al., 1987). It is likely, however, that 

many of these will be shown to be of international importance as further information becomes 

available. 

Area Location 

SUMATRA 

Kuala Jambu Air 10,000 ha Aceh Timur 

Rawa Cicim 3,000 ha Aceh Timur 

Kuala Langsa 7,000 ha Aceh Timur 

Kluet 20,000 ha Aceh Selatan 

Pulau Bangkaru 8,000 ha Aceh Selatan 

Dolok Sembelin 33,910 ha Sumatra Utara 

Lau Tapus 12,000 ha Tapanuli Tengah 

Sei Prapat 2,900 ha Labuhan Batu 

Siondop 17,950 ha Sumatra Utara 

Pulau Berkeh 

Tanjung Sinebu-Pulau 

500 ha Riau 

Alang Besar 15,000 ha Bengkalis 

Danau Tanjung Padang 2,500 ha Bengkalis Kerumutan Lama 

Meninjau North/South 22,106 ha Sumatra Barat Gunung Su 

Bukit Gedang Seblat 48,750 ha Rejang Lebong Terusan Da 

Sumatra Selatan 356,800 ha Lampung 

Tulang Rawang Backswamps ? Lampung Danau Jepara 

JAVA 

Pulau Pan 7 ha West Java 

Jakarta Bay 190 ha West Java 

Muara Angke 15 ha West Java 

Pulau Minyawak 120 ha West Java 

Telaga Patengan 150 ha West Java 

Rawa Pening ? Central Java

Babat ? East Java 

Baluran 1,750 ha East Java 

South Banyuwangi 62,000 ha East Java 

Meru Betiri 1,000 ha East Java 

Pamelokan 500 ha Bali 

NUSA TENGGARA 

Batugendang Forest 10,000 ha Lombok Barat 

Selalu Legini Lake 1,100 ha Sumbawa 

Pulau Panjang 10,000 ha Sumbawa 

Tainbora Selatan 30,000 ha Dompu 

Pulau Rusa 1,406 ha Alor 

Danau Rana Mesa 500 ha Manggarai 

Bena Plain 11,000 ha West Timor 

KALIMANTAN 

Kelompok Gunung 

Asuansang 28,000 ha West Kalimantan 

Mandor 2,000 ha West Kalimantan 

Central Kalimantan 

mangroves 84,400 ha Central Kalimantan 

Tanjung Puting (extension) 70,000 ha Central Kalimantan 

Danau Sembuluh 7,500 ha Central Kalimantan 

Teluk Sampit/Tanjung Bandaran ? Central Kalimantan 

Pulau Kaget 85 ha South Kalimantan 

South Kalimantan mangroves 90,000 ha South Kalimantan 

Pleihari Martapura 36,400 ha South Kalimantan 

Pulau Suwangi 500 ha South Kalimantan 

Pulau Sebuku 14,400 ha South Kalimantan 

Tanjung Dewa Barat 16,250 ha South Kalimantan 

Apar Besar 90,000 ha East Kalimantan 

Pantai Samarinda 95,000 ha East Kalimantan 

Sungai Berambai 15,000 ha East Kalimantan 

Muara Along ? East Kalimantan 

Pulau Birah-Birahan ? East Kalimantan 

Talisyan ? East Kalimantan 

Perairan Pulau Maratua and ? East Kalimantan 

Karang Muaras 

Muara Kayan 80,000 ha East Kalimantan 

SULAWESI 

Lantung Mangrove Forest 1,000 ha Minahasa 

Gunung Ambang Lakes 8,638 ha Bolaang Mongondow 

Pulau Dolongan 462 ha Buol Toli-Toli 

Air Terjun Wera 1,200 ha Donggala 

Laa Valley (upper section) 14,000 ha Kolonodale 

Laa Tambalako River mouths 19,000 ha Kolonodale 

Danau Towuti 59,000 ha Luwu 

Danau Matano and 

Danau Mahalano 30,000 ha Luwu

Sungai Baliase 200 ha South Sulawesi 

Bulukumba 1 ha South Sulawesi 

Barombong 1 ha South Sulawesi 

Polewali-Mapili 10 ha South Sulawesi 

Lasolo Plain 10,000 ha South East Sulawesi 

Selat Muna ? South East Sulawesi 

Lambale/Laangkumbe Plain 3,000 ha South East Sulawesi 

Polewai 15,000 ha Kendari 

Tanjung Batikolo 5,500 ha Kendari 

Sampara Plain 13,000 ha Kendari 

Tondano Waterfall ? Minahasa 

Saluki 699 ha Donggala 

Solo Maradja 50,000 ha Central Sulawesi 

MOLUCCAS 

Pulau Morotai ? Maluku Utara 

Bacan ? Maluku Utara 

Gunung Kelapat Muda ? Maluku Tengah 

Wae Upa 22,000 ha Maluku Tengah 

Wae Nua 20,000 ha Seram 

Wae Mual 17,500 ha Seram 

Wae Bula 60,000 ha Seram 

Pulau Baun 13,000 ha Maluku Tenggara 

Pulau Suanggi 20 ha Seram 

Pulau Pulau Banda 2,500 ha Maluku Tengah 

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